Everything's An Argument Glossary Terms

Confirmatio

(4th part of classic oration) in which a speaker or writer offers evidence for the claim

Grounds

(Toulimin) the evidence provided to support a claim and reason

Argument

1) a spoken/written/visual text that expresses a point of view 2) the use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct from persuasion

Faulty Causality

A fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because on e event follows another, the first event causes the second

Cultural Assumption

a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture

Assumption

a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based

Necessary Reason

a cause that must be present for an effect to occur

Operational Definition

a definition that identifies an object by what is does or by the conditions that create it

Formal Definition

a definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class

Definition By Example

a definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what's being defined

False Authority

a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials

Begging the Question

a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or in dispute

Dogmatism

a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it's the only conclusion acceptable within a given community

Faulty Analogy

a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts it inaccurate or inconsequential

Either Or Choice

a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other

Bandwagon Appeal

a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it

Equivocation

a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language

Red Herring

a fallacy of argument in which a writer abruptly changes the topic in order to distract readers from potentially objectionable claims

Ad Hominem Argument

a fallacy of argument in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character

Hasty Generalization

a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data

Non Sequitur

a fallacy or argument in which claims reasons,or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another

Anaphora

a figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses

Metaphor

a figure of speech that makes a comparison

Fallacy of Argument

a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect (also known as flashpoint)

Ethnographic Observation

a form of field research involving close and extended observation of a group, event, or phenomenon

Classical Oration

a highly structured form of an argument to defend or refute a thesis, evolved into six parts; exordium, narratio, partitio, condirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio

Patchwriting

a misuse of sources in which a writer's phrase, clause, or sentence stays too close to the original language or syntax of the source

Deductive Reasoning

a process of thought in which general principles are applied to particular cases

Inductive Reasoning

a process of thought in which particular cases lead to general principles

Paraphrase

a restatement of the meaning of a piece of writing using different words from the original

Premise

a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based

Claim

a statement that asserts a belief or truth

Enthymeme

a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason (in rhetoric it is also syllogism with one term understood but not stated)

Appeal Based on Character

a strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or credible self-image to convince and audience to accept a claim

Emotional Appeal

a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim (also known as appeal to pathos)

Logical Appeal

a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to make audience members accept a claim

Line of Argument

a strategy or approach used in an argument (include appeals to heart, to character, and to facts)

Invitational Argument

a term used to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems

Precedents

actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions

Rebuttal

an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge

Propaganda

an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth

Proposal Argument

an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action

Argument of Fact

an argument in which the claim can e proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony

Argument of Evaluation

an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet established criteria

Argument of Definiton

an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition

Quantitative Argument

an argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively

Qualitative argument

an argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerial criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic

Deliberative Argument

an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy

Forensic Argument

an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past

Ceremonial Argument

an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame (also known as epideictic argument)

Casual Argument

an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause

Accidental Condition

an element that helps to explain what's being defined but isn't essential to it Ex: defining a bird might be "able to fly" because most, but not all, birds can fly

Essential Condition

an element that must be part of the definition but isn't enough to define the term

Hypothesis

an expectation for the findings of one's argument

Analogy

an extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar

Credibility

an impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument

Firsthand Evidence

data (including surveys, observations, personal interviews, etc) collected and personally examined by the writer

Circumstantial Evidence

evidence from which conclusions cannot be drawn directly but have to be inferred

Experimental Evidence

evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be quantified, crucial to scientific arguments

Conditions of Rebuttals

in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument

Backing

in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant (the because)

Genus

in a definition, the general class to which an object or concept belongs

Reason

in writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it

Evidence

material offered to support an argument

Inverted Word Order

moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order for special effect

Artistic Appeal

support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence

Inartistic Appeal

support for an argument using evidence the writer finds rather than creates

Hard Evidence

support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the writer finds

Persuasion

the act of seeking to change someone else's point of view

Plagiarism

the act of using the words, phrases, and expressions of others without proper citation or acknowledgement

Intended Readers

the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a piece of writing

Conviction

the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable

Immediate Reason

the cause that leads directly to an effect

Context

the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including writer's purpose(s) for writing

Refutatio

the fifth part of classical oration,in which a speaker or writer acknowledges and refutes opposing claims or evidence

Exordium

the first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject

Purpose

the goal of an argument

Background

the information a writer provides to create the context for an argument

Kairos

the opportune moment, in arguments, the timeliness of an argument and the most opportune way to make it

Audience

the person or persons whom an argument is directed

Delivery

the presentation of a spoken argument

Invention

the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim

Authority

the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge

Invoked Readers

the readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may include some that the writer didn't consciously intend to reach

Narrito

the second part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer presents the facts or a case

Ethos

the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers (also ethical appeal)

Peroratio

the sixth and final part of classical oration, in which a speaker or writer summarizes the case and moves the audience to action

Criterion

the standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value

Connotation

the suggestions or associations that surround most words and extend beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects

Partito

the third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the subjects and explains what the claim will be

Antithesis

the use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites Ex: That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind

Irony

use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the words

Hyperbole

use of overstatement for special effect

Parallelism

use of similar grammatical structures or forms for pleasing effect

Antonomasia

use of title, epithet, or description in place of name

Qualifiers

words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim

Academic Argument

writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about the topic, that aims to convey a clear and compelling point