EVS Exam 3

Mountain-top Removal

" Scrape off Mountain Top" to get to coal underneath the mountain, Geologist then analyzed ground for goal, huge holes are being drilled and then filled with explosives to loosen earth and rock Every ton of coal produced has to remove 16 tonnes of dirt and rocks -Safer for workers BUT already 500 mountains have already disappeared and habits for different species "Giant Sandbox"

US Military on Climate Change

"climate change poses a critical national security threat" For more than a decade, military leaders have said that extreme weather patterns and rising sea levels are: Aggravating social tensions Destabilizing regions Feeding the rise of extremist groups Scientists estimate that rising sea levels threaten at least 128 US military bases, some of which are already flooding

Hydraulic fracturing:

'tight oil': oil and gas extracted from hydraulic fracturing A well of this type will not flow without advanced well completion and reservoir stimulation techniques (aka fracking) Fracking has lead to a new 'gold rush' for oil and natural gas in locations with shale formations (N & S Dakota, PA, TX) Fracking was used for many decades, but horizontal fracking was developed in 2002 outside Fort Worth, TX Two small independent producers (Mitchell Energy and Devon Energy) decided to drill horizontally and fracture the Barnett Shale rock (a gas-rich but nonproductive deposit) Issue: chemical-laced water and sand are blasted underground to break apart rock and release gas The compounds are protected by trade infringement laws and are unregulated Fracturing received a specific exemption from the Safe Drinking Water Act by then President George W. Bush in 2005 energy bill

Coal Facts

- ~27% of global primary energy needs, second to oil - 11% of US primary energy (tied for 3rd with combined renewables) - In 2020, it generated 19% of the US's electricity (fourth after natural gas, nuclear & combined renewables) - is used in the production of 70% of the world's steel (also used in cement and iron production) - the single largest source of global CO2 emissions (iea.org)

Symptoms of Climate Change

-CO2 Concentrations -Global temperature - Arctic Sea Ice Minimum - Ice Sheets - Sea Level Increasing wildfires and longer wildfire seasons: Early 1970s: 5 month fire season Today: 7+ months Earlier flowering of plants: 2/3 of plant species are now flowering earlier than they did several decades ago Earlier spring activity: 1/3 of English birds are now laying eggs earlier than 30 years ago Oak trees are now leafing out earlier than they did 40 years ago Shifts in species range: 2/3 of European butterfly species studied are now found further north by 350-250km than recorded several decades ago Population declines: Adelie penguin populations have declined by 1/3 over the past 25 years as their Antarctic sea ice habitats melt away

Main factors of poverty cycle

-Environmental degredation -Both natural and human caused -Civil war and unrest Cause some of the world's worst environmental damage - natural disaster widespread destruction, major collateral damage, or loss of life -economic and welfare systems Cash crops: Grown for export, not domestic consumption Typically nonessential like coffee, tobacco, cotton High priced luxury items compel farmers to grow cash crops instead of food

Why are there seasonal fluctuations in CO2

-Northern Hemisphere fall and winter, when trees and plants begin to lose their leaves and decay, carbon dioxide is released in the atmosphere, mixing with emissions from human sources - fewer trees and plants removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, allows concentrations to climb all winter, reaching a peak by early spring spring and summer months, plants absorb a substantial amount of carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, thus removing it from the atmosphere and change the color to blue (low carbon dioxide concentrations). This three-dimensional view also shows the impact of fires in South America and Africa, which occur with a regular seasonal cycle. Carbon dioxide from fires can be transported over large distances, but the path is strongly influenced by large mountain ranges like the Andes. Near the top of the atmosphere, the blue color indicates air that last touched the Earth more than a year before. In this part of the atmosphere, called the stratosphere, carbon dioxide concentrations are lower because they haven't been influenced by recent increases in emissions.

Stratospheric Ozone (o3) Formation

-Ozone (o3) in Stratosphere is 10-100x higher concentration than at Earth's surface ( troposphere) - O3 is formed and degraded by photolytic reactions in constant flux and naturally in equilibrium -Degradation:

Greenhouse Gases (GHG's)

-Water vapor - Carbon Dioxide -Carbon Monoxide -Methane (CH4) - Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) - Halocarbons gases- CFCs -Ozone

350

-international movement of ordinary people working to end the age of fossil fuels and build a world of community -led renewable energy for all. - founded in 2008 by a group of university friends in the United States - goal: to build a global climate movement. 350 was named after 350 parts per million (current 412 parts per million) — the safe concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere - quickly became a planet-wide collaboration of organizers, community groups and regular people fighting for a fossil free future 1. A fast & just transition to 100% renewable energy for all 2.No new fossil fuel projects anywhere 3.Not a penny more for dirty energy

Relative poverty in US in 2021

1 person living alone: $37.78/day or $13,790/year 1 person in a family of 4 (2 adults and 2 children under 18) = $18.82/day (or $75.28/day and $27,479/year for family) 11.4% of US was under poverty level in 2021

Coal Extraction

1. Underground mining --> shaft or deep mining - elevators and small trains - about 35% of deposit is recovered 2. Surface mining coal is < 200 feet underground - 65% of coal in US now comes from this method - about 90% of deposit is recovered - Includes: • Strip-mining - Removal of soil and rock overlying the coal deposit. • Mountain-top Removal - Widespread practice across Appalachians in Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia.

3 major causes of climate change

1.Natural internal processes (Albedo and Greenhouse Effect) 2.Natural external forcings (solar radiation) 3. Persistent anthropogenic changes to Earths atmosphere

How is stratospheric ozone formed and why is it in constant flux?

10-100x higher concentration than in troposphere Degradation: O3 photolyze (reacts with suns UV energy) to release O2 and O Formation: multiple and simultaneous reactions can occur to produce 03 O2+ UV= O+O O+ O2+ O3 Constant flux! (continuously changing but in natural equilibrium) , naturally balanced out between degradation and formation but with chlorine (CFC's) attaches to O so natural equilibrium is being stopped

Electricity Sources US

20% renewable 20% nuclear 19% coal 40% natural gas in 2020 first time coal was not on third place

UV-C

200-280nm Aka short-wave radiation Completely absorbed by ozone layer Very dangerous to human health, even lethal

Poverty in Demographics

2020 US poverty data: Men: 10.2% women: 12.6% children: 16.1%... 11.6 million kids, almost 1 in every 6 children disabled: 25.0%... ~ 4 million people with a disability also in poverty married couples: 4.7% single-parent families with no wife present: 12.1% single-parent families with no husband present: 25.6% population in deep poverty: 5.3%... 17.3 million people

UV-B

280-320nm nanometers (billionth of a meter) Aka short-wave radiation Can penetrate ozone layer and reaches earth's surface Ozone blocks up to 300nm Intensity varies by season, location, time of day Most significant from 10am-4pm from April-Oct in northern hemisphere Does not significantly penetrate glass Damages surface of skin (epidermis): Causes sunburn Major contributor to skin cancers, cataracts, suppressed immune system Benefits: -Stimulates vit D production: healthy bones, heart, disease prevention, fights cancer, helps autoimmune disorders Improves mood, helps with seasonal affective disorder Increases energy Cons: -Causes eye problems (cataracts and snow blindness) even through sunglasses -Suppresses immune response to herpes virus and damages the spleen -Reduces photosynthesis in plants, reducing crop size and yield Plankton suffer damaged DNA, reduces population and health, impacts C and O cycles

UV-A

320-400 nanometers (billionth of a meter) Aka long-wave radiation Completely penetrates ozone layer and reaches earth's surface 95% of all UV rays hitting the earth's surface Present at equal intensity during daylight hours throughout the year Can penetrate clouds and glass Penetrates deep into skin and ages skin

Most of method to extract coal

65% of coal in US comes from this method

Where does the US get its oil?

94% own production 3% net imports 3% other Still import some crude oil and petroleum products to help supply domestic and international market comes from Canada, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Russia

Climate Change

A change in the state of the climate identified by changes in average climate and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer Includes major changes in temp, precipitation, and wind patterns over several decades or more Caused by natural internal processes (albedo and greenhouse effect), natural external forcings (solar radiation), persistent anthropogenic changes to the atmosphere and land use (albedo and greenhouse effect)

Oil Import Export

A net annual petroleum exporter: in 2020 exported ~8.51 MMb/d and imported ~7.86 MMb/d of petroleum, making us a net annual petroleum exporter for the first time since at least 1949. US produced ~18.4 MMb/d & consumed ~18.12 MMb/d. This was the first year since at least 1949 that total annual petroleum imports were less than exports (exports were greater than imports) and net petroleum imports' percentage share of annual petroleum consumption was negative.

Methane Sources

Agriculture (rice paddies, cows) Energy (natural gas) Waste disposals Naturally released in wetland (swamps)

Absolute poverty

Aka extreme poverty, poverty that kills Reduced to below 3% of world population No income for food, shelter or clothing Chronic hunger and no access to safe drinking water or sanitation Living on less than $1.90/day 10% of world's population

Work

Application of force over distance Measured in joules- scientific unit of measure for energy EJ: exajoule

Relative poverty

Below min standard of living in a particular place and time Relative to people around them A person lacks items and comforts that the middle class can afford In lower middle-income countries, limit is $3.20/day 25% of world's population Upper middle income countries, limit is $5.50/day 46% of world's population

BTU

British Thermal Unit, a unit of measurement that shows just how much energy your air conditioner uses to remove heat from your home within an hour. It may seem overly technical, but BTU is an important metric that can help you determine the kind of air conditioner you need for a home your size.

Nitrous oxide sources

Burning fossil fuels- vehicles Agriculture- fertilizer use Natural- soils and oceans

four principle greenhouse gases

CO2 Methane Nitrogen oxides Halocarbons gases (CFC)

CO2 Levels and Sources

CO2 level 417 ppm concentration (was just 370ppm in 2008) Main sources Burning fossil fuels Deforestation Cement Production

Oil Extraction

CONVENTIONAL sources: both onshore and offshore wells UNCONVENTIONAL sources: oil shales, tar sands, oil sands

Carbon Dependence

Carbon sinks: Portions of the C cycle that remove C from the atmosphere Living plants, ocean Carbons sources: Portions that release C into the cycle Felled/logged trees, sea spray The natural cycle is fairly stable over time Excess C is the main driver of climate change and ocean acidification Ocean acidification: The ocean is a C sink, but excessive input of C is lowering Ocean pH and changing ocean chemistry Excess C is binging with calcium carbonate ions needed for shell and coral development, thus decalcifying them (equivalent to osteoporosis) Corals and shellfish are near the base of the marine food web

The three most significant factors that exacerbate poverty

Cash crops such as sugarcane plantation in the philippines - profit lures landowerns to convrt as much into cash crops - child labour (no education) - underfed and malnourished

Economics and welfare systems

Cash crops: Grown for export, not domestic consumption Typically nonessential like coffee, tobacco, cotton High priced luxury items compel farmers to grow cash crops instead of food Inequitable land distribution: Happens anywhere but frequently in LDCs Best quality lands are controlled by a small number of wealthy land owners Poor often work the land for the owner, rent land at high prices, or attempt to make a living from marginal crop lands or non-arable lands Faulty government policies: Failure to develop and support infrastructure especially for food access High transportation costs, lack of storage facilities, unreliable water supplies reduce agricultural yields and access to food resulting in uneven distribution of food resources

Civil war and unrest

Cause some of the world's worst environmental damage Conflict forces millions to flee their homes, spurring food crises Warring factions use natural resources as weapons, seizing and destroying oil fields, crops, and livestock and disrupting or destroying local economies Laying mine fields, setting fires, and contaminating water supplies, ensures residents cannot return to the land after fighting stops

What is Chlorine's role in Ozone depletion?

Chlorine degrades into several chemical species (bonding characteristics make it more reactive than stable) - most active are CI and CIO (chlorine monoxide) - maximun O3 depletion by chlorine catalysis under high CIO concentration Chloroflurocarbons (CFS) reach the stratosphere and react with UV light and O3 --> O3 spilts into O2+O

Causes of Ozone Depletion:

Chlorine from Chlorofluorocarbons and Carbon Tetrachloride (CCI4) CFCs are inert in troposphere so they make it to stratosphere where they photolyze and release chlorine atoms Chlorine atoms cause catalytic ozone loss by cycling with chlorine monoxide (C+O) (O+O loses one O) Carbon tetrachloride will do the same, but is active in troposphere as well Chlorine chemistry and activity: Chlorine degrades into several chemical species (bonding characteristics make it more reactive than stable) Most active 'species' are chlorine (CI) and chlorine monoxide (CIO) Max ozone depletion by chlorine catalysis happens under high CIO concentration conditions Chemical reaction: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) reach the stratosphere and react with UV light and ozone Ozone splits into O2 + O CFC-Ozone reactions occur more frequently than ozone formation This means that O3 loss is permanent and replacement is not a solution Other chemicals that deplete O3: Halons: Contain bromine and chlorine used in fire retardants Methyl bromide: pesticide Methyl chloroform and carbon tetrachloride: Industrial solvents used in production of pesticides Chlorine chemicals: CFC-11 (CFCI3) CFC-12 (CF2CI2)

Global trends in electric power

Coal consumption is decreasing Natural gas increasing Nuclear power stable Petroleum decreasing to almost )

Renewable Energy

Comes directly or indirectly from sun, has little to no GHG emissions, is a divestment from fossil fuels Political benefits: improves national security by reducing dependency on OPEC nations Economic benefits: Decentralizes our energy economy and reduces our financial debt to oil-exporting countries Creates new jobs and a new economy around renewable energy and its science, innovation, sales, technology, and marketing strategies Reliable and increasingly more affordable

The "prince of hydrocarbons"

Compared to coal,natural gas produces somewhere in the region of 40% fewer carbon emissions for each unit of energy produced and about 25% less than oil. • Gas produces no solid waste, unlike the massive amounts of ash from a coal plant, and very little sulfur dioxide and particulate emissions. Waste water is a waste product. • It is easy to transport, easy to use, and seems to be a vast improvement over coal and oil.The "prince of hydrocarbons" • Comparedtocoal,naturalgasproduces somewhere in the region of 40% fewer carbon emissions for each unit of energy produced and about 25% less than oil. • Gasproducesnosolidwaste,unlikethe massive amounts of ash from a coal plant, and very little sulfur dioxide and particulate emissions. Waste water is a waste product. • Itiseasytotransport,easytouse,andseemsto be a vast improvement over coal and oil.

CO2, Methane, Nitrogen Oxide, Methane, CFC's

Concentration Co2, high, Methan medium, CFC's low Radiative Forcing Co2 lower (1 standardized below lower above higher) , Methan medium, CFCs high Atmospheric Lifetime Co2 long, Methane short, CFC's long Unit: COs per million, nitrogen oxide and methane per million, CFC per trillion

How to reduce Carbon

Conserve energy (education and behavior) Increase energy efficiency (technology) Transition from fossil fuels to alternate energies (sustainable resource use) Carbon capture and storage (waste management and regulations) Cap and trade (economics and regulations) Carbon tax (economics)

Influence Albedo

Dark surfaces absorb the rays from the sun (low albedo). Ice- and snow-covered areas have high albedo, and an ice-covered Arctic reflects solar radiation which otherwise would be absorbed by the oceans and cause the Earth's surface to heat up. Long-distance of transportation of pollution- darkens whitens surfaces ( absorbs rays from sun),planet keeps heating up

Climate Data

Direct measurements: Equipment sensors at meteorological stations, island and Antarctic research stations, satellite observations 1850: earliest global temp date 1659: earliest temp data in England Proxy measurements: Ice cores Sediment cores Tree rings (dendrochronology) Global Land-Ocean Temperature Anomaly: Annual global temperature anomalies for land and ocean combined expressed as departures from the 1901-2020 average Data is from the direct instrumental temperature record: Data collected from several thousand meteorological and Antarctic research stations and satellite observations of sea-surface temp

Human displacement is most commonly caused by what?

Disasters

What is the most common cause of food shortages worldwide?

Drought is the single most common cause of food shortage worldwide

7 sectors impacted by and 6 symptoms of climate change

EPA and Climate Change Sectors impacted by climate change: agriculture, forests, water resources, coastal settlements, energy, transportation, human health, society, ecosystems Symptoms/indicators of climate change: GHGs, weather and climate, oceans, snow and ice, health and society, ecosystems Solutions Adaptation: Developing ways to protect people and places by reducing their vulnerability to climate impacts Ex. Building seawalls or relocating buildings to higher ground Limits and barriers: environmental, economic, informational, social, attitudinal Mitigation: Attempts to slow the process of global climate change by lowering the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere Ex. Green building tech, Kyoto protocol, carbon tax

Energy Budget

Earth's energy budget is the balance between the amount of energy that gets to Earth from the Sun and the amount of energy that flows from Earth back out to space.

CFC's

Emissions of CFC-11 showed an uptick around 2013, mainly traced to a source in eastern China Found that a lot of current emissions of CFC-11 and 12 are from large CFC banks Old equipment like building insulation foam, refrigerators and cooling systems, foam insulation that was manufactured before global phaseout of CFCs and is still leaking gases into the atmosphere If left unchecked, would delay recovery of ozone hole by 6 years and add equivalent of 9 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide into atmosphere Identified CFC-113, cleaning solvent banned except for in use as a feedstock for manufacturing of other chemical substances CFC-113 is being emitted into the atmosphere at a rate of 7 billion grams per year, nearly as large as spike in CFC-11 (10 billion grams per year)

Energy Consumption

Energy Consumption There are five major primary energy consuming sectors. Total primary energy consumption sectors in the US in 2020 according to EIA were: • Electricpower-35.6quads • Industrial—25.3quads • Transportation—24.3quads • Residential—11.5quads • Commercial—8.66quads

Difference Equity and Equality

Equity: Concerned with each person getting the same quality wall everyone steps as high as needed Equality: Each person receives the exact same thing wall everyone same step Not the same as equity Justice: cause of inequity was adresses wall replaced by see through wall

Natural Gas

Formation: Organic plant and animal material from aquatic ecosystems 100+ million years ago died and settled to bottom of seas, buried in sediment High pressure temps, and anaerobic decomp formed natural gas World's third largest commercial fuel (2020)

Gas

From animals and decomp of organics (trash or manure) converted to a mixture of ~50% methane and 50% CO2 2021: 548 landfills recover methane (LFG) produced by decomp of organic waste US farms convert waste from cattle, hogs, and chickens to biogas to produce electricity Cattle feedlots and chicken farms are huge potential fuel source- waste has more energy than all the nation's farmers use Haubenschild dairy farm in MN: manure from 850 cows to generate all their electricity, sells excess back to grid In Jan 2001, farm saved 35 tons of coal, 1200 gals of propane, and made $4,380 selling electricity back to power company

Geothermal energy

Geothermal heat pumps: Uses difference in temp between surface and subsurface Great for heating buildings Expensive installation Currently only 0.8% of renewable energy electricity globally Iceland uses geothermal for ~65% of all energy (heating homes and generating electricity US produces more geothermal electricity than any nation Pros: High efficiency, low cost, low impact Cons: Few sites, depleted easily, not 'renewable' Associated air pollution with typically high sulfur content of geothermal vents

What are the main lines of evidence for human-exacerbated climate change?

Global temperature rise Warming ocean Shrinking ice sheets Retreating glaciers Decreased snow cover Sea level rise Declining arctic sea ice Extreme weather events

Energy Use by Sector

Globally 2018 Industrial 58% Transportation 26.7% Residential 13% Commercial 7% USA 2020 Industrial 33% Transportation 26.1% Residential 22.3% Commercial 18%

Why are we emitting GHG's?

Human population growth: more people, more demand of resources Affluence: life of leisure brings carbon demanding items and practices Technology: reduces human labor, but increases demand on resources Policies: protections and incentives bolster all of these actions Attitudes/behaviors: lack of education, science illiteracy, social norms, etc.

Renewable Energy

Hydropower, wind, solar, biofuel, wind, wood, geothermal, biomass waste

evidence of climate change

Ice Age: Implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres 19th century scientists wanted to know the how, what, and why of ice ages We are currently in an interglacial period- the Holocene- of the current ice age Interglacial period: warm period in between ice ages Current ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch, and the Greenland, Arctic, and Antarctic ice sheets still exist Past glacial periods characterized by a global avg. temp decrease of at least 5-10C or 9-18F Little Ice Age: A 'neoglaciation' period 1450-1890

Environmental degredation Haiti Example

In Haiti, little topsoil remains for cultivation as a result of clear cutting for charcoal, their only source of fuel for cooking and heating Dominican Republic and Haiti share the island of Hispaniola Haiti has a forest cover of less than 2% and it's the poorest country in Western Hemisphere DR: roughly 25% forest cover, one of the strongest economies in the region, model for natural resource protection

Why are some places impacted differently by global warming than others?

In general, the middle of continents are expected to warm more than coastal areas. Regional topography such as mountain ranges will influence this too. At high latitudes, especially in and near the Arctic, temperatures are warming faster than places closer to the equator.

Poverty

Inability to meet one's basic economic needs

What are some possible solutions to fossil fuel dependence

Increased energy efficiency o U.S. energy consumption per dollar of GDP declined nearly every year since 1949! This means we have increased efficiency every year, despite a growing demand for energy. o EX: CFL - compact fluorescent lightbulb • 8 - 15x longer lifespan • Uses 20-33% of the power to light • Decreasedrelianceonfossilfuels • Renewableenergies • Carbontax • Subsidies

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, panel of scientists and researchers has been one of the main bodies in environmental control and standards in the international community

Social equity

Involves cultivating a society that respects human rights, promotes justice and fairness, and maintains human well-being

Where does energy come from?

Kinetic: Energy in motion Potential: Stored energy A pulled back rubber-band is stored energy; when you release the band and it flies off your finger, it is kinetic Forms: Heat, light, chemical, electrical Work: Application of force over distance Measured in joules- scientific unit of measure for energy EJ: exajoule Power: Rate at which work is done Measured in watts/kilowatts, Btu, therm, or quad

What are some major environmental impacts from mining coal ?

Land disturbance (often large-scale and irreversible)à500 mountains in Appalachia destroyed, 2000 miles of streams buried, 300,000 acres of hardwood forests Coal dust causes chronic and life-threatening diseases including: Black lung disease, COPD, silicosis, and other lung diseases that cause premature death • increasedcancerratesforcommunitiesnearMTR • 43% higher rates of birth defects • High Water demand for processing coal • Acid Mine Drainage kills freshwater aquatic ecosystems

The environmental paradox

Lifting people out of poverty comes at an environmental cost

Millennium Development Goals

MDGs were 8 goals at the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000 A blueprint to end absolute poverty around the world Primary goal was to cut global poverty levels (from 1990 levels) in half by 2015 All 191 UN member states, plus 22 international organizations, committed to helping achieve the goals by 2015 Goal was met 5 years ahead of target in 2010: 1.1 billion people moved out of extreme poverty since 1990 The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) replaced MDG in 2015 New target date of 2030 to eradicate poverty worldwide

Climate Sensitivity

Measure of the climate's response to radiative forcing from increased GHGs along with other anthropogenic and natural causes Change in average surface temp due to a doubling of the CO2 concentration - climate sensitivity is that it's not zero -Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide definitely makes it warmer and increases the risk of extreme weather like drought, downpours, and heat waves - foolish to rely on nature to save us from climate change — we don't think it's likely that sensitivity is low. But conversely, it's unlikely that climate sensitivity is so high as to make action pointless."

Joseph Farman- Ozean Hole Discovery

Meteorology tech Started collecting ground-level ozone readings at Halley Bay Station, Antarctica in 1957 Replaced equipment and sensors due to mechanical failure in 1982 Published in Nature in 1985 that stratospheric ozone levels over South Pole were dropping rapidly every Sept and Oct Between 1975-1984 they dropped by 40% Occuring since at least 1960 He had baseline data to establish 'normal' levels of 250-350 DU Following Farman's publication, NASA data were reanalyzed and found to support his findings NASA satellite data from 1970s found measurements so low they were discarded by computer as errors

Mauna Loa Keeling Curve

Monthly atmospheric concentration of CO2 from 1958 to March 9, 2022 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii observatory Increase over time is associated with fossil fuel combustion and deforestation Intra-annual cycle is associated with seasonal patterns of photosynthesis and respiration in Northern Hemisphere Dips down in summer, rises back up in winter

Water Vapor

Most abundant GHG, but human activity primarily irrigation and deforestation, little influence on atmospheric concentration BUT surface warming caused by human production of other GHG's leads to increased atmospheric H2O vapor -> warmer temperatures means increased evaporation. This creates a positive "feedback loop" in which warming leads to more warming.

Natural vs. Anthropogenic Climate Change Factors

Natural climate change: Greenhouse effect, albedo effect, solar radiation, ocean composition, continental land arrangement, volcanic eruptions Recent climate change: All of that^ plus fossil fuel combustion, land use change from human activities Today's carbon dioxide reservoir (concentration) is the largest in the past 800,000 years -->Driving force behind climate change

Stratosphere

Natural stratospheric O3 loss is a catalytic cycle involving NOx which speeds up O3 loss by cycling between NO and NO2 Stratosphere NOx is generated from inert tropospheric N2O (byproduct of bacterial decomp) Inert: can't move N2O is photolyzed by UV rays and oxidation reaction yields NOX

Greenhouse Effect

Natural warming effect of the atmosphere caused by certain gases GHGs are able to absorb longwave radiation, but shortwave (UV-A and B) get through Can change the energy balance of the planet Without GHGs life on the planet would not be the same

Ending World Hunger

Need to address its root causes: poverty and environmental degredation Green Revolution goals need to be tailored to unique conditions and constraints of impoverished areas, whole considering 5 key components: Soil nutrients: 'green fertilizers' like manure, nitrogen-fixing trees and beans, and cover crops to prevent soil erosion Reliable water: Water-harvesting technologies and small-scale irrigation which will avoid disrupting ecosystems or displacing people Effective agricultural extension services: To educate/facilitate small-scale irrigation and other new technologies, including low-till or no-till agriculture (reduces soil erosion) and integrated pest management (limits herbicide and pesticide use) Improved germplasm (crop seed, tree varieties, livestock breeds): Highly productive, adapted to local climates, pest/disease resistant Supplementary food supplies: Provide those most vulnerable to malnutrition: pregnant and nursing mothers, children under 2, school-aged children

Energy Classifications

Nonrenewables: are finite, cannot make more if it Fossile Fuels, Nuclear Energy Renewables: can be replaced or regrown, replenished at rate faster than rate of consumption Biomass (plants) Perpetual: virtually inexhaustible but not replaceable Sun, Wind, Tides, Falling Water

Ozone Depletion

Normal ozone thickness is 250-350 Dobson units (1960s readings) 220 Dobson units is considered thinning Pre 1979, ozone values over Antarctica were never below 220 DU From direct measurements over Antarctica Fast facts: Record size on Sep 9, 2000: 11.55 million square miles Record thinnest on Sep 30, 1994: 73 DU Ozone depletion is most severe over Antarctica but is also observed over Arctic Occurs annually: Antarctica: Sep-Nov Arctic: Jan-Mar Air from surrounding latitudes mixes into the polar region, the O3 destroying forms of chlorine disperse and the O3 layer stabilizes until the following winter/spring Antarctic Ozone Hole: Over some parts of Antarctica (the column zone), up to 60% of total overhead amount of ozone is depleted during spring (Sept-Nov)

World Energy Use

Nowadays: 37% Petroleum 32% Natural Gas 11% Coal 11% Other Renewables, Hydroelectric 8% Nuclear 4% Biomass Past (1900) Coal, Petroleum, No Renewables Increasing as developing nations modernize and mechanize: ~157 EJ in 1965 ~585 EJ in 2020: 3.75x increase in 55 years Changes in diets, transportation, electricity demand Specific stats: Nuclear and renewable had greatest overall increase from 1965-2020 Natural gas increased by the greatest amount among the fossil fuels with ~5x increase China surpassed US in 2009 as largest energy consumer US held this spot for 100 years Efficiency and conservation increasing- we use all E sources based on efficiencies, reserves, and infrastructure

What is the most common energy source worldwide?

Oil 33% of globale E-consumption

Oil

Oil is currently the most common energy source worldwide

Wind Energy

Old practice with a reliable energy source Off-shore wind is strong and uniform Clean and efficient, cost competitive with non-renewables, increasingly affordable for consumers More advantages and less disadvantages than any other energy source Wind is generated by uneven heating of the earth's surface Dept of Energy: five Great Plains states could produce enough energy from wind to meet more than the nation's electricity needs Worldwide wind capacity: ~8 million megawatts 5x the current total global electricity generating capacity Wind farms are made up of individual turbines: farms avg. 50 turbines in US Until late 2016, all US wind capacity was on land First US offshore wind project: Block Island Wind Farm, began commercial operation off Rhode Island in December 2016 Pros of wind energy: High net energy Moderate cost to build, cheap electricity, short planning and construction time Low pollution, no fuel costs or emissions Generates income for farmers who rent land for turbines or sell electricity Cons: Need steady wind and backup system for no wind, not enough wind everywhere Large land use, noise, bird mortality

Traditional Oil Extraction

Onshore Wells: Oil Well ,Water Injection Well, Steam Injection Offshore Wells>

CFCs and Carbon Tetrachloride

Past uses: Refrigerators and air conditioners- Freon Propellants in aerosol spray cans Plastic foam packing peanuts Cleaner solvents for electronic parts (computer chips) and cleaning industry Inhalers- still approved propellant Fire retardants 1978: US gov banned aerosols containing CFCs American production of CFCs was still permitted for refrigeration and other uses 1988: DuPont (primary maker of CFCs) acknowledged CFCs as cause of O3 depletion 1995: Mario Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland, and Paul Crutzen won Nobel Prize Even though production and use of CFCs and carbon tetrachloride was banned, they are still a threat because of their "atmospheric lifetime" CFC-11 atm lifetime: ~45-76 years CFC-12 atm lifetime: ~100-139 years CCI4 atm lifetime: ~85 years

Photolysis; Photolytic reactions

Photolytic: Chemical breakdown due to light energy or radiation O3+UV= O+O2

Biomass

Plant and animal material burned to provide heat or electricity and/or is converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels Most abundant source of worldwide renewable energy and 11% of all energy sources worldwide Biomass exists in 3 physical states: solid, gas, liquids Solid: Burn wood or manure for heat/cooking Biomass plantations, crop residues, animal manure, forest 'debris', urban 'waste' (construction debris) Flex-fuel boilers that burn a mixture of coal and biomass

Environmental degredation

Poor environmental condition and poor people cause each other -Lacking arable lands or decent incomes forces the poor to: Marginal lands where overworked soils cannot sustain civilization Overgraze grasslands and pastures Clear forests for fuel, food, or marketable resources All of these accelerate erosion, desertification, increase salinity in soils, and contaminate local water supplies The degraded environment offers less and less to support human inhabitants, resulting in increased local hunger and poverty

Unstainable Economic Practices

Poverty leads to unsustainable economic practices, which are often illegal and harmful to the environment Logging and clear cutting Poaching and illegal hunting Polluting and dumping of wastes Tolerating pollution Choices are made out of desperation or ignorance

Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS)

Process where CO2 is separated from the emission stream and contained in an underground storage location Being implemented in: Bioenergy Coal-to-liquids Production: cement, chemical, ethanol, fertilizer, hydrogen, iron and steel, methanol, synthetic natural gas Industrial application Natural gas processing Oil refining Power generation Waste incineration Also being called CCUS: carbon capture, utilization, and storage

Oil: Environmental impacts

Production - Disturbance to ocean, air, land and habitat - Unconventional oil leaves behind heavy metal contaminated tailing ponds (harmful to wildlife) • Transportation - Spills (pipelines, trucks, trains, vessels) - Fires and explosions • Combustion - Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxide, particulates, and toxic metals -Disrupts wildlife and plants • Burning oil produces carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. • Human health concerns depend on concentration and duration of exposure: inhalation causes nervous system issues (i.e. headache, nausea, dizziness) and respiratory irritation. Very high exposure can cause coma and death.

Carbon Offsets

Purchasing offsets reduces C emissions elsewhere, to compensate for the company's emissions Ex: forest-based carbon offset projects fight climate change by sequestering CO2 emissions from the atmosphere in trees and soil and have many co-benefits for community and local wildlife Creates jobs, maintains and expands wildlife habitats, protects biodiversity, improves local environmental quality Pros: Good off-sets can be a win-win, helps reduce carbon Cons: Avoids dealing with the real problems: damage caused in the first place Hard to quantify actual benefits May not reduce CO2 right away- ex. forests need to grow, might be felled down again Can displace or harm people

Power

Rate at which work is done Measured in watts/kilowatts, Btu, therm, or quad

Albedo

Reflectivity of Earth's atmosphere and surface The part of the sun's total average energy reaching the Earth that is reflected back into space Surfaces reflect energy differently, so albedo changes where you are Earth's average albedo: 31-33% Glaciers, ice, fresh snow: reflects 75-90% Clouds: 40-90% Asphalt pavement and buildings: 10-15% Forests: 5-15% Water: 2- >99%

Cap and Trade

Regulator establishes a 'cap' limiting C emissions, which is lowered over time to further reduce emissions 'trade' creates a market for carbon allowances/permits, encouraging companies to innovate in order to meet their allocated limit Emissions are divided into individual permits (ex 1 ton of carbon) Companies are permitted to emit up to capped amount Each company needs a certain amount of permits to operate their business Companies buy and sell permits to continue operating: If they can't buy more permits to operate under 'business-as-usual' conditions, they need to retrofit, increase efficiency, or downsize production This is the 'trade' part of cap and trade Key concepts: Biggest potential benefit is that it sets a mandatory cap on emissions while providing flexibility in how polluters meet the emissions target Trade markets are called Emissions Trade Schemes or Systems (ETS) Government-mandated, market-based approach Companies that cut pollution faster can sell allowances/credits to companies who need them or 'bank' them for future use

Poverty trap

Relief funds and health measures help alleviate symptoms of poverty, but unless poor, hungry, and sick people can feed and care for themselves, unless they are given the tools to become self-sufficient, the poverty and hunger trap will never be eliminated (education, healthcare etc.) Large numbers of the poor are sick and dying, and sick people are unable to earn income or pay taxes Children cannot attend school (no money, too far, etc.) No education or job training means children face same future as parents

What is the general rule of thumb for sea-level rise

Sea-level rise rule of thumb: 1 cm rise in sea level = shoreline retreat of 1 meter

What band of UV radiation does stratospheric ozone absorb? What is the name of this band?

Selective gas: absorbs only specific wavelengths of UV radiation Absorbs rays between 200nm and 300nm Aka: Hartley band (200-300nm)

Solar Energy

Solar energy: Harnessed for: Heat (passive or active) Electricity generation (active)- heat that is captured is used to generate electricity directly in the PV panel Passive solar heating system: Absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly in your building without mechanical devices (no moving parts) Orientation must be toward the sun- think greenhouse Active solar heating system: Absorbs energy by pumping a heat-absorbing fluid (water) through roof-mounted collectors Concentrated solar power (aka Solar Thermal Systems) are active systems Pros of solar: Non polluting once made, low environmental impact Systems last 20-40 years Uses existing grid- no pipelines Cons of solar: Expensive initial investment, maintenance costs Need light approx. 60% of time Requires use of plastics, glass, and other materials- mining impacts

Sea level rise

Steric sea-level changes: Ocean temp and salinity variations alter density and volumes of molecules Thermal expansion causes 1/3 of global sea-level rise Salinity gradients at poles are magnifying as circulation patterns slow down, leaving freshwater on top to warm up and expand Mass induced changes: Additions and subtractions of water to the oceans Melting sea ice (not icebergs) and land ice (sheets and glaciers) Causes 2/3 of global sea-level rise

Difference Stratosphere and Troposphere

Stratosphere ( mi 15km) weather balloons, ozone layers (31mi) Troposphere 9mi (15km) as high as Mount Everest The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This part of the atmosphere is the most dense. Almost all weather is in this region. -temperature decreases with height - water vapors, clouds and dust particles are found -atmosphere that we live in The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high -temperature increases with height -region where about 90 % of ozone is formed. Ozone (chemical formula: O3 ) is a gas that is formed by the action of the sun's rays on oxygen present in the stratosphere Ozone is important as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Ultraviolet rays destroy human cells and are harmful to life on earth. Thus stratosphere supports life on the earth. Thus, we can conclude that stratosphere the second most layer is very important for the survival of humans and also it is important for the jet aircrafts.

Carbon Tax

Taxes goods and services to more accurately reflect the full-cost pricing An example of correcting a negative externality by putting a price on C emissions First carbon tax in US was in Boulder, CO: Passed 11/7/2006, first municipal gov to impose an energy tax on its residents to directly combat climate change Citizens of Boulder voted to impose tax on themselves Pigouvian Tax: In the presence of negative externalities, the social cost of a market activity is not covered by the private cost of the activity In this case, the market outcome is not efficient and may lead to over consumption of the product Pros: Allows for more centralized handling of acquired gains; gov can use money to create other benefits Less complex, expensive, and time-consuming to implement Reduced risk of cheating, though under both trading and taxes, emissions must be verified Worth of carbon is stabilized by gov regulation rather than market fluctuations; poor market conditions and weak investor interest have a lessened impact on taxation as opposed to carbon trading

Implications of Climate Change

Temperature- increased energy demand for heating,coolening Increased vilnerability to respiratory disease, young and eldery Precipitation- increased risk of flooding, risk of landslide, distress migration - increase in waterborne, water wahsed diseases, food shortages Sea level rise -coastal flooding , salinzation of water sources - loss of land property, health problems from salinated water Extreme rainfall/ Tropical cyclones -more intense flooding, landslides -mortalities, loss of income and assets Drought water shortages, higher food prices, disruoption of hydroelectric -prevalence of waterborn diseases, food storages Heat or cold waves - short term changes in energy demand -morality Abrupt climate change -extreme sea levels, temperature change -effects on morbidity and morality Population movements movement from stressed rural habitats increased population, stress on infrastrucutre Biological changes -risk for diseases

OPEC

The Organizational of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPED) was organized in 1960 for the purpose of negotiating with oil companies on matters of oil production, prices, future concessions rights. 13 member Algeria, Angola, Cono, Guinea, Gabon, Iran , Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela Persian Gulf countries 5 Bahnrain, Iran, Iraq, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates

Energy (E)

The capacity to do work

Radiative Forcing

The measure of energy balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation

Energy efficiency

The measure of the percentage of the total energy input that does useful work Always less than 100% because heat E is given off at every conversion step

What is Global Warming?

The recent ongoing rise in global average temp near Earth's surface Measured by a 'temperature anomaly': A departure from a reference value or long-term average Positive anomaly: observed temp was warmer than reference value Negative anomaly: observed temp was cooler than reference value

UV rays that get absorbed by ozones

UV-B (absorbed by 95%) and UV-C (completely absorbed) -absorbs rays from 200nm and 300nm aka. Hartley Band

The Poles

Unique atmospheric features at the poles called polar or circumpolar vortices Polar vortex: West to east swirling mass of very cold air with low O3 concentration Winter phenomenon that builds as the sun sets and temps drop at the poles Polar winters isolate the mass from the rest of the atmosphere for several months The mass extends up through the stratosphere column Polar cortex isolates Antarctic/Arctic air and allows stratosphere to drop to extremely low temps and form ice crystal clouds called polar stratospheric clouds Southern vs northern vortex: Southern is stronger, larger, longer-lasting than northern vortex Southern has colder temps and lower ozone levels North pole has more interference with land masses so vortex can't keep energy spinning as long in the north Polar Stratospheric Clouds: Form at pole because of polar vortex super cooling the air below -80 Celsius At -80 chemicals freeze as solid ice crystals Clouds absorb molecules and freeze them, concentrating them for months at a time When sun returns in spring, solar energy liberates the chlorine, allowing it to take O molecules and destroying the O3 Ice crystals in the PSC clouds collect CFCs and other chemicals and set up conditions for formation of chlorine monoxide, the molecule most responsible for seasonal loss of ozone Type-1 PSC: Frozen nitric acid, sulfuric acid water Helps activate chlorine from CFCs in the stratosphere and cause O3 depletion The more clouds in winter, the more thinning we see The warmer the winter, the less thinning we see Type-2 PSC: Water ice

Past climate change that we know from human history

Vikings: 1,100 years ago, mild climate and ice-free seas allowed settlement of Greenland and North America Bering Land Bridge: Genetic evidence suggests that a single population of modern humans migrated from southern Siberia using this glacial land mass as early as 30,000 years ago and crossed over to the Americas by 16,500 years ago Ancient Maya: Maya civilization saw 2 collapses: One in the 2nd century One in the 8th and 9th century that led to their demise Civilizations are thought to have collapsed due to prolonged drought

Weather vs. Climate

Weather: Describes atmospheric conditions at a specific place at a specific point in time Includes short-term fluctuation in temp, humidity, precipitation, cloud cover Climate: How the atmosphere behaves over relatively long periods of time and is determined by long term trends in weather

Evidence of climate change

Will not be the same everywhere Some places = wetter, other places = drier Polar regions see greater temp increases than tropical -Changes in Earth's avg. temp -Changes in Weather patterns: 1.amounts of precipitation- storm strength and frequency and extreme weather event increases 2.Increased storm intensity and frequency 3.Increased drought and wildfires 4.Increased hot spells 5.Increased global land and ocean temps modify water circulation above and below the earth's surface 6. Hot water is needed for hurricane formation; increased GHG emissions increases water temp, which increases the duration of the hurricane season and likelihood of hurricane formation 7. Hot land increases evaporation rates, leading to drought and increased wildfire potential Ice and snow cover 8.Sea level rise Steric sea-level changes: Ocean temp and salinity variations alter density and volumes of molecules Thermal expansion causes 1/3 of global sea-level rise Salinity gradients at poles are magnifying as circulation patterns slow down, leaving freshwater on top to warm up and expand Mass induced changes: Additions and subtractions of water to the oceans Melting sea ice (not icebergs) and land ice (sheets and glaciers) Causes 2/3 of global sea-level rise Ocean acidification

Reserve Terms

economically recoverable reserves - proven (know quantity and location) and extractable now with current technology and be profited off sub economic reserves -deposits are known but not profitable to go after right now reserves -aka indicated/ inferred reserves -estimated of known reserves plus undiscovered quantity ( we think they are there & will be available in the future)

Coal

fossilized remains of plants from ancient swamp forests: Organic remains created peat bogs under the pressure of the water 100-360 million years ago Peat soils further compacted and condensed layers by a combination of heat and pressure Over millions of years, the heat, weight, and pressure of the overlying sediments turned the peat into coal

Petroleum

is a term that includes both crude oil and petroleum products. • Crude oil: hydrocarbon liquid and gas mixture; exists underground and remains a liquid when brought to the surface • Petroleum products: fuels made from crude oil and hydrocarbons in natural gas; can also be made from coal and biomass

Conservation

is the care and protection of these resources so that they can persist for future generations. It includes maintaining diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems, as well as functions of the environment, such as nutrient cyclin

Thermal expansion

is the tendency of matter to change in shape, volume, and area in response to a change in temperature. Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.

Temperature anomaly

means a departure from a reference value or long-term average. A positive anomaly indicates that the observed temperature was warmer than the reference value, while a negative anomaly indicates that the observed temperature was cooler than the reference value.

Ozone layer

naturally occurring gas that filters UV lights and reduce lights that enter troposphere - 31 miles in Stratosphere 03=

Solar radiation

often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies

Case Study Hurrican Florence, Sandy

one single storm, long term effects destruction of trailer - the poor usually no way to get out of harms way

Multi-Dimensional Poverty

poverty not just about money measuring peoples well being Education, Sanitation, Income, Water, Electricity Poverty not as just how much money/ wealth do you have? Basic human services and well-being services 1 in 8 are poor in monetary 8 of 9 deprived in at least 1 dimension

US COAL Reserves

recoverable US reserves could last ~470 years, but when looking at producing mines and current use rates, the estimate is only 25 years. • In 2010, estimates of reserves were 80 yrs

Anthropogenic

referring to environmental change caused or influenced by people, either directly or indirectly

The greenhouse effect

some of the infrared radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere, but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules and clouds. The effect of this is to warm the Earth's surface and the lower atmospher

Natural Disasters

widespread destruction, major -collateral damage, or loss of life Earthquakes, landslides -volcanic eruptions, prolonged drought, floods, blizzards and ice storms, tropical storms and hurricanes, heat waves, wildfires, virus and pest outbreaks, tornados, tsunamis -Climate change is affecting frequency and intensity of these events as are human activities (increased earthquakes due to mining and extraction practices) -Prolonged drought, floods, tropical storms, and insect pest outbreaks are among most widely recognized causes of hunger In early 2000s, drought reduced crops yields worldwide Most problematic in LDCs where a poor harvest can force those living on the edge into chronic undernutrition or malnutrition Natural disaster brings with it displacement and increased population density

Fracking

• Fracking was used for many decades, but horizontal fracking was developed in 2002 outside Fort Worth, TX • two small independent producers (Mitchell Energy and Devon Energy) decided to drill horizontally and fracture ("frac") the Barnett Shale rock (a gas-rich, but nonproductive deposit) • Issue: Chemical-laced water and sand are blasted underground to break apart rock and release gas. The compounds are protected by trade infringement laws and are unregulatedà • Fracturing received a specific exemption from the Safe Drinking Water Act from then-President George W. Bush in the 2005 energy bill.

What are some major environmental impacts from burning coal

• Mining and extraction • Process the coal • Burn coal to generate heat à heat converts water to steam • Steam turns turbine that generates electricity • Coal ash - waste product from burning coal needs to be removed from boiler • Dump ash into "ash ponds" where the ash settles out of the slurry • Ash contains - mercury, lead, chromium, and arsenic Leading cause of smog, acid precipitation, climate change, mercury contamination, and air toxins • Typical 500 mw coal plant burns 1.4 million tons of coal, uses over 2 billion gallons water, generates 200,000 tons of sludge called coal ash, and emits the following pollutants and toxins: • CO2 • CO • SO2 (75% of annual US emission - acid precipitation) • Mercury (25% of annual US emissions) • NOx (33% of annual US emissions - acid precipitation) • PM (4 million metric tons in US annually) • Radioactive uranium & thorium • Arsenic, lead, chromium, selenium and many more toxins are released into air, soil and water which are detrimental to human health Coal ash (ash from burning coal) is stored in open storage ponds, which are at risk of catastrophic failures causing millions of dollars in damages and polluting local water supplies

Unconventional Oil Extraction

• Oil Shales & Tar/Oil Sands • Hydraulic fracturing (fracking)