Ex Phys final exam review
Polysaccharides
"Many" sugars
Thermic effect of physical activity
(Duration and intensity) -in occupation -in home -in sport and Rec
Resting metabolic rate
(Fat free body mass; gender ; thyroid hormones; protein turnover ) -sleeping metabolism -basal metabolism -arousal metabolism
Thermic effect of feeding
(Food intake ; cold stress ; thermogenic drugs) -obligatory thermogenesis -facultative thermogenesis
Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
*not linear* Increase PO2= Increase in hemoglobin saturation Increase Altitude= decrease PO2 mmHg
Glycolysis for short term energy
- A series of 10 enzymatic reactions that metabolize glucose - Occurs in sarcoplasm of muscle cells - Produces energy for both aerobic & anaerobic activities - Results in ATP production from breakdown of glucose - Glucose may be supplied by blood glucose or glycogen - If starting with glucose, 2 ATPs are produced - If starting with glycogen, 3 ATPs are produced
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
- Also called Citric Acid Cycle (TCA cycle) - Oxidizes substrates & produces some ATP - Carbohydrate, fat, & protein can all enter - Completes the oxidation of substrates and produces NADH and FADH2 (flavin) for oxidative phosphorylation
Cardiac output (Q)
- Amount of blood pumped per minute - typical cardiac output: 5 L/min - resting cardiac output about the same in trained & untrained people - however, trained people have lower HR & higher SV
Redistribution of Blood Flow During Exercise
- At rest: 15−20% of cardiac output goes to skeletal muscle - During maximal exercise: 80−85% goes to skeletal muscle
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
- Average blood pressure between the two MAP = [(2 x diastolic pressure) + systolic pressure] / 3
coronary artery disease (CAD)
- Blockage of arteries supplying cardiac tissue - Most common during physical activity or times of stress
cardiac muscle (myocardium)
- Capable of contraction & force generation, like skeletal muscle - capable of initiating impulse (autorhythmaticity)
autonomic nervous system
- Controls physiological functions that are unconscious (innervate smooth muscle [intestine, blood vessels]) • Heart rate • Blood pressure • Digestion • Breathing • Subdivided into --- Sympathetic nervous system --- Parasympathetic nervous system
ATP-PC system characteristics
- Energy source for activities requiring much energy per second - Examples:sprinting,liftingaheavyweight - Can only provide energy for short time: • 20-30 sec run/jog • 5-6 sec sprint - Only small amount of ATP in cells; must be replenished quickly
Proteins
- Found in both animals & plants - Amino acids compose all proteins - 20 amino acids, distinguished by molecular structure - Essential amino acids (9) • Must be ingested in food; cannot be synthesized - Nonessential amino acids • Can be synthesized by body
carbohydrate metabolism
- Glycogenesis: formation of glycogen from glucose - Glycogenolysis: breaking down of glycogen into glucose (Primary fuel for muscles during exercise) (Brain uses glucose for fuel almost exclusively)
stroke
- Lack of blood supply to part of brain, causing brain tissue death - Types • Ischemic: blockage of vessel • Hemorrhagic: rupture of vessel
Anaerobic Metabolism
- No oxygen required - Generates energy, CO2, & lactic acid - Energy is made available quickly to muscle - Major energy source during high-intensity, short- duration activity - Examples: sprinting & weight lifting - Only involves carbohydrate
Fick equation
- Oxygen consumption = Blood Flow × a-vO2 diff • cardiacoutput(Q)=blood flow VO2 = Q x a-vO2 difference - So, increasing either Q or a-vO2 diff or combination can increase VO2 for whole body
aerobic metabolism
- Oxygen required - Generates energy, CO2, & water - All products can readily be used or expelled - Used at rest & during long-duration, lower intensity activity - Examples: road cycling & distance running - Most commonly involves mix of carbohydrate & fat - Can involve protein
protein metabolism
- Protein is constantly turning over - Building and breaking down protein -tissue building = anabolism -tissue breakdown = catabolism
Energy balance in body comp
- Ratio of caloric ingestion to caloric expenditure - Caloric expenditure > caloric ingestion = loss in body mass - Caloric expenditure < caloric ingestion = gain in body mass - Total caloric expenditure = resting metabolic rate (RMR) + caloric expenditure of physical activity - Changes in RMR affect total caloric expenditure
What is the autonomic nervous system subdivided into?
- Sympathetic nervous system - Parasympathetic nervous system
Catabolism and Catabolic reaction
- Tissue Breakdown - Breaking down of substrate into molecules; usually releases energy
Anabolism & Anabolic reaction
- Tissue building - Forming of product from molecules; usually requires energy
Components of the cardiovascular system
- heart - blood - the circulatory system
Regulation of Cardiac Output (Q= HR v SV)
- heart rate - stroke volume • End-diastolic volume (EDV): blood in ventricles at end of diastole • End-systolic volume (ESV): blood in ventricles at end of systole - SV (mL) = EDV (mL) − ESV (mL)
size principle
- motor neuron of fast twitch motor units = big - motor neuron of slow twitch motor units = small
Health benefit to training
- physiological adaptation that reduces risk of developing disease ex: ↓ resting BP
fitness benefit to training
- physiological adaptation that ↑ performance in a sport or activity ex: increase VO2max
RQ = VCO2 / VO2
- provides index of relative use of CHO and fat - RQ range = 0.70-1.0 Also called "non protein RQ"
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
- transports oxygen via hemoglobin
Actin (thin) filament
-2 intertwined helices of actin molecules -projects from z lines toward middle of sarcomere -active site where heads of myosin cross bridges bind to actin -wrapped by tropomyosin & troponin (regulatory protein molecules)
2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)
-By-product of RBC metabolism *Increase= shift right and down *Decrease= shift left and upward -May increase during exercise; increase at high altitude *Decrease in aerobic metabolism, facilitates increase O2 release to tissues
pH (Bohr) effect
-Decrease pH shifts curve right and downward -Increase pH shifts curve left and upward
Lactic acid produced
-Decreases ph and glycolysis -decrease calcium binding and contraction -regenerate NAD -substrate for gluconeogenesis-cori cycle -Liver
Inhalation
-Diaphragm contracts and moves down -Lungs expand -pressure in lungs drops < 760mmHg *Decrease in pressure*
Exhalation (Expiratory)
-Diaphragm relaxes and moves upward -elastic recoil of lungs -lung volume decreases - pressure in lungs increases > 760mmHg
sliding filament theory
-Explains how muscle proteins interact to generate force -proposed in 1954 Summary: -actin and myosin filaments slide over each other to produce force without the filaments themselves changing length -sliding of actin over myosin produces change in striation pattern -# of actomyosin complexes formed dictates how much force is produced
Lipids vs CHO for energy?
-Fat provides more energy per gram compared to CHO - fat oxidation requires more oxygen -energy yield from fat = 5.6ATP/O2 used -energy yield from CHO= 6.3 ATP/O2 used -During high intensity exercise: -oxygen delivery is limited -max rate of high -energy phosphorylation from lipids is too slow
Pulmonary (external) & cellular (internal) respiration
-Gas exchange between lungs-blood and blood-tissues occur via *diffusion* -Gases diffuse from areas of higher of pressure to lower areas of pressure -Each gas (O2, CO2) exerts a given pressure (partial pressure) PO2 PCO2
Temperature Effect
-Increase temp. shift curve right and downward *Weakens bond w/ O2 and hemoglobin =Increase O2 release to tissue* -Decrease temp. shift curve left and upward
What stimulates the Ventilatory Threshold?
-Mostly influenced by pH -Increased # of H+ that stimulate chemoreceptors
Diffusion is...
-Proportional to area of diffusion and pressure difference - Inversely proportional to membrane thickness
metabolic adaptations
-RMR decreases further than expected from the decrease based on body composition alone
Regulation of Respiration
-Respiratory control center within medulla oblongata (inspiratory and expiratory) - 2 more neural center within the Pons send feedback to the medulla *Apneustic area *Pneumotaxic These receive feedback from other areas
Plot VE vs VO2
-Similar to Lactate threshold -Decrease pH= increase ventilation
Fatty acid
-Usually 12-24 carbon atoms bound in chain -Saturated , monounsaturated , polyunsaturated
VO2 and Exercise Intensity
-VO2 increases in proportion to the increase in energy expenditure -therefore, VO2 increases linearly with submaxinal exercise intensity -point where vo2 no longer increases with increasing intensity = vo2 max
ATP and PC adaptations to exercise- what do you expect to see?
-WT may increase, endurance training does not -after 5 months PC-ATP are elevated (22 and 18%) and maximal strength improves 28% -shorter training stimulus does not improve the level of these phosphagens, but strength improves
aerobic metabolism
-acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle -Aerobic glycolysis - in "presence" of oxygen pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl-CoA -at the end 2 molecules of ATP have been formed and original carbohydrate broken down into carbon dioxide and hydrogen -more hydrogen released in Krebs cycle, this hydrogen moves to the ETC, with the help of NAD and FAD
As sarcomere shortens ...
-actin filaments slide over myosin -h zone disappears as actin filaments slide into it -I bands shorten as actin and myosin slide over each other -z lines approach ends of myosin filaments
oxidative metabolism
-aerobic -krebs/citric acid/ TCA and ETC -mitochondria -long term, slow Fuels ?
Blood Lactate Accumulation
-always formed -only at high intensities does it accumulate -contribute to muscle fatigue -lactate threshold -intensity of exercise where lactate begins to accumulate -lactate not wasted -converted to pyruvate in another cell -glucogneogenesis _liver - "Cori cycle"
glycolytic metabolism
-anaerobic -substrates Glucose , glycogen (not fat or protein) -end products Pyruvate , NADH2 , energy (2/3 ATP) -10 enzymatic steps
Sarcomere
-basic skeletal muscle unit -capable of force production & shortening -arrangement of protein filaments gives striated appearance
Titin
-connects z line to m line -stabilizes myosin in longitudinal axis -limits ROM of sarcomere and contributes to passive stiffness
Crossbridge
-consists of 2 myosin molecules, with 2 heads -interacts with actin -develops force to pull actin over myosin -features different isoforms of ATPase
Metabolic equivalents (MET)
-defined as a multiple of resting metabolic rate -1 met - 3.6 ml/kg/min= ~0.25L/min
Myosin ATPase Histochemical analysis
-differentiates among muscle fiber subtypes -involves histochemical staining procedure
aerobic adaptations to exercise
-enzyme adaptations : increase in number of mitochondria & enzyme activity within mito -substrate adaptations : prolong CHO availability -substrate availability- increase muscle glycogen , increase IMTG -substrate use during exercise - less CHO use at same intensity -Lactate threshold adaptations -increase buffering capacity
lactate threshold
-exercise intensity at which blood lactic begins to accumulate above resting levels -in untrained : occurs at 50% to 60% of max oxygen consumption -in endurance trained : 65% to 80% of max consumption -as lactate threshold increases, so does endurance performance -onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) : exercise intensity at which a specific blood lactic acid concentration occurs (usually 4.0 mM)
Nebulin
-extends from z line and is localized to i band -stabilizes actin by binding with actin monomers
Elastic component of CT contributes to:
-force and power production (like recoil of rubber band) -stretch-shortening cycle : *eccentric action (elongation) *concentric action (shortening)
Exercise intensity influences degree of EPOC
-greater PC Depletion & lactate concentration -higher body temp & hormone response
Myosin filament
-has globular head, hinged pivot point & fibrous tail -heads: made up of enzyme myosin ATPase -Tails: intertwine to form myosin filament -crossbridge *consists of 2 myosin molecules, with 2 heads * interacts with actin * develops force to pull actin over myosin * features different isoforms of ATPase
Metabolic Recovery After Exercise
-heart rate, breathing rate, and metabolic rate remain elevated for period of time after most types of physical activity -due to need to replenish PC from ATP which can be obtained from aerobic metabolism -lactic acid concentration can be decreased if aerobically metabolized or used to synthesize glycogen (Cori cycle) -metabolic recovery elevated b/c aerobic metabolism is used to recover from the exercise bout
Controlling enzymes in glycolysis
-hexokinase -PFK
Metabolic substrates for rest and exercise
-in general, if one substrate (CHO, FAT or PRO) is available in large quantities it will be preferentially metabolized -anaerobic = glucose; aerobic = glucose + fat -substrate used depends on: Substrate availability Intensity of physical activity Duration of physical activity
Effects of endurance training: increase in delivery of oxygen to muscle caused by:
-increase in # of capillaries per muscle fiber -increase in capillary density -increase in concentration of myoglobin, which increases rate of oxygen transport from capillaries to mitochondria -type 1 muscle fiber size may decrease
Hyperplasia
-increase in number of muscle fibers -occurrence is controversial
Effects of endurance training: enhanced ability for aerobic metabolism caused by:
-increase in size and number of mitochondria in muscle -increase in ability to produce ATP
hypertrophy
-increase in size of muscle fibers —results from addition of protein and new myofibrils to existing fibers making them larger -requires addition of myonuclei to support increase in muscle fiber size -size of existing myofibrils not altered ; length of sarcomere appear to remain constant . Density remains the same; spacial orientation remains intact
Aerobic metabolism at its best
-increased mitochondrial density anabolic volume -consistent increase succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) activity with aerobic type training -Increased blood supply (volume, capillaries) -faster removal of lactate -increase glycogen storage in muscles -increased activity of GLUT-4 -decreased FFA concentration
As sarcomere relaxes ...
-it returns to original length -h zone & I bands return to original size & appearance -less overlap between actin & myosin
Maximizing recovery/ active recovery :
-light to moderate aerobic exercise (30-45% cycling, 55/60% running) -decrease blood lactate faster than passive recovery -due to aerobic metabolism of lactate to provide ATP to meet energy need of light exercise -but passive recovery can result in greater muscle glycogen than active recovery
Post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
-oxygen debt : oxygen taken in above resting values after exercise -depends on exercise intensity
Noncontractile proteins
-provide lattice work for positioning of actin & myosin -contribute to elastic component of muscle fiber
electron transport chain
-reducing equivalents from glycolysis, B oxidation , Krebs cycle -H+ split into protons and electrons - Electrons provide energy for ADP phosphorylation -"Oxidative phosphorylation" -NADH = 3 ATP -FADH = 2 ATP -end product = water
Characteristics of Connective tissue
-sheaths coalesce to form tendons at each end of muscle -force generated by muscle is transferred to tendon & bone -epimysium helps prevent spread of signal for muscle activation
Conclusions from studies of concurrent endurance and resistance training :
-strength can be compromised due to endurance training -power may be compromised more than strength -anaerobic performance may be decreased due to endurance training -development of maximal oxygen consumption is not compromised -endurance capabilities are not diminished by strength training
ATP production from Triglycerides
-total amount varies - based on length of fatty acid chains 1) beta oxidation : fatty acids broken down into 2-carbon subunits (transformed to Acetyl-CoA) - 2 ATP required /FFA to supply activation energy -for each round of beta oxidation 1 NADH and 1FADH2 are formed (transport to ETC) 2) Acetyl-CoA enter Krebs cycle -for 16-carbon fatty acid = 129 ATPs produced
A sedentary person resynthesizes an amount of ATP each day equal to about what percent of body mass?
75%
method of carb loading
1 day strenuous exercise to deplete glycogen, 3 days of low-carbs and training, 3 days of high-carbs and no training
What is 1kcal equal to?
1 dietary calorie
monounsaturated
1 double bond of carbon molecules (olives, avocados)
Oxidation of Carb Energy Yield
1 glucose= 32 ATP 1 glycogen= 33 ATP Glycolysis= 2-3 ATP GTP(Krebs Cycle)= 2 ATP 10 NADH= 25 ATP 2 FADH= 3 ATP
3.5
1 met is approximately equal to this many ml/kg/min of oxygen
Formation of HCO3- (bicarbonate)
1) CO2+H2O= H2CO3 (carbonic acid) 2) H2CO3= HCO3- + H+ 3)H+ binds to HGB 4)HCO3- is carried in the plasma 5)Cl- ions shift from plasma to RBC to offset the loss of the "-" charge *In lungs, the opposite reaction occurs so CO2 can be eliminated*
CO2 transport in blood
1) dissolved in plasma (10%) 2) bound to HGB (20%) 3) as bicrbonate (HCO3-) (70%)
Free energy must be released from chemical compounds at controlled rate determined by
1)mass action effect 2) enzyme action
3 ATP Synthesis Pathways:
1. ATP-PCr 2. Glycolytic 3. Oxidative
Pros of Glycolysis
1. Allows muscles to contract when O2 is limited
What 4 components make up substrates?
1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Oxygen 4. Nitrogen
Factors affecting stroke volume
1. Cardiac filling (more specifically: ventricular filling) - the more blood filling the ventricle the more blood ejected - "preload" refers to the stretch on the muscle of the ventricle after filling 2. Resistance of blood flow ("afterload") - blood pressure
Sliding filament theory - steps mediating the contraction process
1. Electrical impulse is generated at neuromuscular junction 2. Impulse spreads across sarcolemma into T-tubules 3. Ryanodine receptors release Ca^++ into cytosol of muscle fiber 4. Ca^++ binds to troponin C subunit 5. Tropomyosin uncovers active sites of actin 6. Myosin crossbridge heads bind actin, form actomyosin complex 7. Heads pull actin toward center of sarcomere (power stroke) 8. Force is produced
3 Factors Determining Oxidative Capacity of Muscle:
1. Enzyme activity 2. Fiber type composition, endurance training 3. O2 availability vs. O2 need
3 Stages of Oxidation of Carbs
1. Glycolysis 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain
Cons of Glycolysis
1. Low ATP yield 2. Lack of O2 causes lactic acid, which impairs muscle contraction
Process of myosin ATPase histochemical analysis
1. Thin cross-section of muscle is obtained from biopsy sample 2. Sample is placed into baths of different ph conditions 3. Fibers are classified according to staining intensity
Oxygen deliver to tissue depends on two major factors
1. amount of oxygen tissue takes out of blood - arterial-venous oxygen difference 2. amount of blood flowing through the tissue - cardiac output
When FADH donates hydrogen, then on average how many molecules of ATP form for each hydrogen pair oxidized?
1.5
When the respiratory chain oxidizes cytoplasmic NADH, how many ATP molecules form?
1.5
The power generated solely by fat breakdown represents only about ____ that achieved with carbohydrate as the chief aerobic energy source
1/2
During light and moderate physical activity, what fraction of the body's energy requirements is supplied by carbohydrate?
1/3
How many steps are in the Krebs cycle?
10
protein
10-35% of total caloric intake
Changing from a slow walk to an all-out sprint almost immediately accelerates the rate of energy transfer within active muscles about how much?
120-fold
Hypertension is defined as resting arterial blood pressure equal to or greater than _____ mm Hg for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively. A) 120 and 80 B) 140 and 90 C) 130 and 80 D) 150 and 90
140 and 90
In poorly regulated diabetes, during starvation, or with prolonged low carb intakes, how long does it take the brain to adapt?
8 days- after this, large amounts of fat (as ketones) are metabolized as an alternative fuel
The complete breakdown of a single glycerol molecule synthesizes how many ATP molecules?
19
1 mole of glucose produces how many acetyl-CoA?
2
Glycolysis generates a net gain of how many ATP molecules?
2
How many ATP yielded from aerobic metabolism of glycogen?
2
Glucose vs muscle glycogen
2 atp for glucose vs. 3 for muscle glycogen -conserve atp at step one Preferred fuel for exercise? Glycogen
The oxidation of one NADH molecule produces on average how many ATP molecules?
2.5
How many total hydrogens are released by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
20 total
Calculate the estimated HRmax for a 37 year old individual:
220-37=183 bpm 207-0.7x(37)=181 bpm
When glycogen provides a glucose molecule for glycolysis, a net gain of ___ ATPs occurs rather than two ATPs during glucose breakdown
3
Buffering capacity in muscle
3 main buffering systems: -NaHCO3 + H+ -> H2CO3 -NA2HPO4 (sodium phosphate) - COO- group of protein - NH3+ group of protein (ammonia)
What is the limited quantity of ATP in the body?
3 oz
Energy conservation during substrate-level phosphorylation operates at what % efficiency?
30%
Energy conservation during the form of glycolysis using substrate-level phosphorylation operates at what % efficiency?
30%
How many ATP enter the cell's cytoplasm?
30-32
Intracellular and extracellular lipid molecules usually supply between what percent of the energy for biologic work?
30-80%
Glucose breakdown regenerates how many moles of ATP?
32
What is the net amount of ATPs formed when a skeletal muscle catabolizes a glucose molecule?
32 ATP
The complete breakdown of glucose yields how many ATPs?
34 total
What is the relative efficiency of conserving kcal of energy?
34%
For triglyceride...
3x ATP produced
Areas Sending Feedback
4 factors: Higher brain centers Systemic receptors Skeletal muscle chemoreceptors
The adult capacity is about: A) 1-2 L B) 2-4 L C) 4-6 L D) 6-8 L
4-6 L
How long does the effect of a CHO meal persist?
4-6 hours
How much more PCr do cells store than ATP?
4-6 times
Cells store approximately how much more PCr than ATP?
4-6 times more
How many kcal/g are in proteins?
4.1
How many kcal/g is carbohydrates?
4.1
The caloric value of 10 grams of glucose is _____ kcal
40
What percent of the potential energy in food nutrients transfers to the high-energy compound ATP?
40%
carbs
45-65% of caloric intake, preferred energy source for aerobic activity
For each triacylglycerol molecule catabolized, how many molecules of ATP are generated?
460
Rapid glycolysis generates how much of the total ATP during the glucose molecule's complete degradation to energy?
5%
What percent of energy is released in anaerobic reactions of glycolysis per glucose molecule?
5%
Plasma
55-60% of blood - may increase up to 10% at rest because of adaption to training - may decrease in volume as much as 10% during intense physical activity
Typical cardiac output at rest is _______L/min and is similar between trained and untrained people, however trained people have a ____ HR and ____ SV (Higher or lower)
5; Lower HR & higher SV
RMR
60-75 percent of individuals energy expenditure comes from this
Resting metabolic rate accounts for roughly ____ of daily total energy expenditure. A) 15-30% B) 45-60% C) 60-75% D) 75-90%
60-75%
Fat oxidation rate peaks at about ____% of VO2max.
65%
Maximum fat oxidation rate occurs at an exercise intensity of about: A) 15% V02max B) 35% V02max C) 65% V02max D) 95% V02max
65% VO2max
Water makes up _____% of lean tissue weight.
65%-75%
The complete breakdown of one mole of glucose to carbon dioxide and water yields a maximum of how many kcal of chemical free energy available for work?
686 kcal
Each mole of ATP formed from ADP conserves how many kcal of energy?
7
Under normal resting conditions, how much ATP does the body store at any time?
80-100g
How many kcal/g is in fat?
9.4
Coupling all of the energy from glucose oxidation of phosphorylation could theoretically form how many moles of ATP per mole of glucose?
94
Coupling all of the energy from glucose oxidation to phosphorylation could theoretically form how many moles of ATP?
94
What percent of adipocyte cell volume do triacylglycerol make up?
95%
Red blood cells containing hemoglobin bind oxygen and are responsible for transporting _______ of oxygen in the blood. A) 2% B) 45% C) 80% D) 98%
98%
triglycerides (lipids/fats)
<30% of total caloric intake, needed for synthesis of steroid hormones, source of energy, stored in fat cells
Hemoconcentration
A decrease in the fluid content of the blood (plasma), resulting in an increase concentration. This is determined by an increase in the hematocrit. Caused by a filtration of plasma into the body tissue and often created by dehydration
motor unit
A functional unit made up of an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it contains and controls, ranging from a few to a hundred or more.
What similar characteristic do Pcr and ATP share?
A large amount of free energy releases when the bond cleaves between the PCr's creatine and phosphate molecules
Frank-Starling Mechanism
A mechanism by which the stroke volume of the heart is increased by increasing the venous return(Blood returning from veins) of the heart (thus stretching the ventricular muscle).
540
A triglyceride that contains 3 fatty acids each with a 22 carbon skeletal chain will yield this many ATP molecules
fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K, can be dissolved in fat, stored in large quantities
When ATP levels are down:
ADP & CK levels are up
Synthesis of ATP from by-products formula:
ADP + Pi + energy----> ATP; can occur with or without O2
When ATP joins with water, what is the result and what is the catalyzing enzyme?
ADP is the result; the enzyme ATPase catalyzes the reaction
Energy provided by oxidation of NADH and FADH resynthesizes ____ to ____
ADP to ATP
What does GLUT 4 catabolize into?
ATP
What is the body's energy currency?
ATP
What is the ideal energy transfer agent?
ATP
What is the special carrier molecule of free energy?
ATP
Breakdown of ATP to release energy formula:
ATP+ water+ ATPase--> ADP + Pi+ energy
atrioventricular (AV) node
AV node delays impulse by 1/10 of second, allowing atria to contract before ventricles - Impulse sent through
In humans, the cells' capacity for glycolysis remains crucial during maximum-effort physical activities for up to how long?
About 90s
What does pyruvate convert to?
Acetyl-CoA
What is the starting point for synthesizing cholesterol and many hormones?
Acetyl-CoA
This reaction uses two ADP molecules to produce one molecule of ATP and AMP
Adenylate kinase reaction
This is the energy-generating catabolic reactions where oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor in the respiratory chain to combine with hydrogen to form water
Aerobic metabolism
Oxidative System
Aerobic; 32-33 ATP/ glucose, 100+ ATP/FFA; lasts a long time; Occurs in the mitochondria, not the cytoplasm
Interaction Among Systems
All 3 systems interact, not all doing 100%; cooperation during transition periods
steady-state
All energy needed is provided by aerobic metabolism -blood lactate doesn't accumulate
Motor Unit (All or None Principle)
All fibers of motor unit contract upon nerve stimulation
Energy from ATP hydrolysis powers:
All forms of biologic work; thus, ATP constitutes the cell's "energy currency"
What principle has All fibers of motor unit contract upon nerve stimulation
All-or-none principle
What does lactate formation allow?
Allows electron transport-oxidative phosphorylation to continue to provide energy as needed
The component of the respiratory system where gas exchange takes place with the capillaries is the ______. a. bronchioles b. ventricles c. alveoli d. pleural sac
Alveoli
What composes all proteins?
Amino Acids
Energy sources
Amino acids - What's unique about amino acids? Gluconeogenesis? Lipogenesis? Only small amount provides energy
Residual Volume
Amount of air that remains in a person's lungs after fully exhaling.
Glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
ATP- PCr System
Anaerobic, substrate level metabolism; 3-15 sec. max; Body breaks down PCr to make Creatine & Pi & energy; uses energy to synthesize ATP combine Pi and used ADP.
ATP provides the energy needed in what type of physical activity?
Anaerobic- some type of "rapid" movements
Glycolytic System
Anaerobic; yield 2-3 ATP/substrate; lasts 15s to 2 min; breakdown of glucose via glycolysis
The fick equation is used to calculate oxygen consumption and is the product of cardiac output and: A) Arterial-venous oxygen difference B) stroke volume C) blood pressure D) end-systolic volume
Arterial-venous oxygen difference
increase
As a trained individual increases exercise intensity her RER will do this
increase
As fat free mass increases RMR does this
Respiratory exchange ratio- use of RQ depends on....
Assumption that the o2 and co2 exchange in the lungs reflects the actual gas exchange from fuel metabolism in the cell -more appropriate term for this ratio measured from the lungs is respiratory exchange ratio (RER) -in general for our purposes RQ - RER - RER (also abbreviated as "R") is more common.
Where is bioenergetics performed?
At the cellular level
What are free radicals?
Atoms, molecules, or ions with an unpaired electron in their outer shell- making them highly reactive
A respiratory exchange ratio (VCO2/VO2) equal to 0.7 indicates that the substrate being consumed for energy production is: A) Carbohydrate B) Fat C) 50% fat/ 50% carbohydrate D) Protein
B) Fat
The largest component of total daily energy expenditure is: A) Thermic effect of feeding B) Resting metabolic rate C) thermic effect of physical activity D) thermic effect of fidgeting
B) Resting metabolic rate
water-soluble vitamins
B, C, can be dissolved in water, little capacity to store
Tendons
Bands of tough fibrous CT that connect muscle to bone
Monosaccharides
Basic carbohydrate unit
Why is carbohydrate replenishment so important?
Because more fat is stored in the body than carbohydrates
Why do NADH and FADH provide energy-rich molecules?
Because they carry electrons with high energy-transfer potential
Why is epinephrine's action termed glycogenolysis cascade?
Because this hormone affects progressively greater phosphorylase activation to ensure rapid glycogen mobilization
Fatty acids broken down into 2-carbon subunits, which are transformed into acetyl-CoA - enter TCA Whats this process called?
Beta oxidation
Carbon dioxide is primarily transported in the blood in the form of __________
Bicarbonate
The process of converting substrates to energy is what?
Bioenergetics
Where is 99% of glucose found?
Blood
change in pressure/resistance to flow= ______ ______
Blood flow - So, decreasing resistance increases flow - Increase in radius of vessel increases flow
The brain normally uses what almost exclusively as its fuel?
Blood glucose
End Systolic Volume (ESV)
Blood in ventricles at end of systole
Active
Blood lactate levels decrease more quickly during this type of recovery from exercise
What would happen if the body required only heat energy?
Body fluids would boil and tissues would burst into flames
Is increased VE due to tidal volume or breathing rate? or both?
Both: depends on intensity 50-60%:Tidal 70-80%: breathing rate
Glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose; anaerobic or aerobic
ATPase
Breaks ATP down into ADP+ Pi+ energy
VE is determined by
Breathing (respiratory) frequency: breaths/min -Rest: ~12-15; Max ~40*60 Tidal Volume: volume of air per breath -Rest: ~.5L; Max: ~3-3.5L
How does oxidative phosphorylation synthesize ATP?
By transferring electrons from NADH and FADH to oxygen
Maximum fat oxidation rate occurs at an exercise intensity of about: A) 15% VO2max B) 35% VO2max C) 65% VO2max D) 95% VO2max
C) 65% VO2max
Which system of metabolism is responsible for synthesizing the most ATP: A) Glycolysis B) Krebs cycle C) Electron transport chain D) ATP-PC system
C) Electron transport chain
When ATP levels are up:
CK levels down
RER is calculated as: A) CO2 produced/O2 consumed B) O2 consumed/CO2 produced C) CO2 produced/N2 consumed D) CO2 consumed/O2 produced
CO2 produced/O2 consumed
Muscle contraction is regulated by _____________, which once bound to ___________ induces a conformational change and pulls tropomyosin from the active site on actin.
Calcium & troponin
Measurement of energy expenditure
Calorimetry- measurement of energy Direct calorimetry - subject enclosed in a chamber -measures heat production Indirect calorimetry .....
During high intensity exercise RER....
Can be measured to be > 1.0 -violates the rule of 0.70-1.0! -due to excess CO2 not produced from substrate breakdown -CO2 released in response to buffering lactic acid by bicarbonate
Troponin C
Can bind calcium
What provides the only macronutrient substrate whose stored energy generates ATP without oxygen
Carbohydrate
What is pyruvate a product of?
Carbohydrate breakdown
What is the primary ATP substrate for the muscles and brain?
Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates made up of many sugars -Two common plant forms: STARCH "Complex carbohydrates" FIBER -Animal form: Glycogen
Fuel for body- "macronutrients"
Carbohydrates, Fat (lipid), protein
In short exercise, what substrates is mostly used?
Carbs
What are the 2 primary substrates used?
Carbs and fats
What are the 3 types of substrates?
Carbs, fats, and proteins
_______ refers to the amount of blood pumped per minute (L/min) by the heart A) stroke volume B) cardiac output C) blood pressure D) mean arterial pressure
Cardiac output
____________ refers to the amount of blood pumped per minute (L/min) by the heart A) Stroke volume B) cardiac output C) blood pressure D) mean arterial pressure
Cardiac output
motor neurons (efferent)
Carry messages from CNS to muscles
What exerts the greatest effect on the rate-limiting enzymes that control macronutrient energy metabolism?
Cellular ADP
Chemoreceptors (feedback)
Central vs Peripheral
Higher Brain centers (feedback)
Cerebral cortex hypothalamus
The cell's primary endergonic means to extract and trap chemical energy in the high-energy phosphates
Chemiosmotic coupling
When the concentration of a hormone peaks at a certain time of day within a 24-hour period, then its release is considered to have a _________ pattern or rhythm.
Circadian
What is the second stage of carb breakdown?
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
What is the vital link between macronutrient energy and chemical energy in ATP?
Citric acid cycle (krebs cycle)
What are the three components of aerobic metabolism?
Citric acid cycle, ETC, and oxidative phosphorylation
Acetyl CoA
Common point where all fuels "meet" at the start of aerobic ATP production -Glucose -> pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA -fatty acid -> fatty acyl-CoA-> acetyl-CoA B-oxidation = cleaving fatty acids Protein -> amino acids -> acetyl-CoA
slower
Compared to fast twitch muscle fibers, slow twitch fibers reach maximal force production at this rate
What three factors regulate glycolysis?
Concentrations of the four key glycolytic enzymes Levels of the substrate fructose 1,6-diphosphate Oxygen, which in abundance inhibits glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
Converts 2 acetyl-CoA to 2 GTP to 2 ATP; also produces NADH, FADH, H+
Beta-Oxidation of Fat
Converts FFAs to acetyl-CoA before Krebs Cycle; requires 2 ATP upfront; requires more 02, but more ATP later
Select the option that is NOT true: The nasal passages and structures prior to the respiratory bronchioles: a. humidify air b. cool air c. are conduits for air travel d. filter air
Cool air
Lactic acid concentration can be ↓ if aerobically metabolized or used to synthesize glycogen. This is an example of ________
Cori Cycle
What cycle removes lactate released from active muscles and uses it to replenish glycogen reserves depleted from intense physical activity?
Cori cycle
__________ is released from the adrenal cortex and is the primary catabolic hormone ofthe body, and its release is stimulated by adrenocorticotropin hormone
Cortisol
Perimysium
Covers bundles of muscle fibers (fasciculi)
Endomysium
Covers individual muscle fibers
Epimysium
Covers whole muscle
ATP-PCr is catalyzed by what enzyme?
Creatine Kinase
What enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of PCr?
Creatine kinase
A series of iron-protein electron carriers dispersed on the inner membranes of the mitochondrion
Cytochromes
As exercise intensity increases, the % of ATP from fat (increases or decreases)
Decreases
For impulses to be sent out from cell body through it's axon... threshold amount of stimulus must be received through _________
Dendrites
Does the Respiratory system limit exercise performance
Depends Yes: -People with pulmonary disease -Elite level aerobic athletes *due to increase cardiac output, decreases ventilation No: Cardiovascular limitation
O2 deficit
Difference between total O2 uptake during exercise and product of steady-state VO2 and exercise duration - Training decreases O2 deficit
Explain how/why oxygen diffuses from the blood into skeletal muscle tissue
Difference in partial pressure drives diffusion of oxygen, particularly from high partial pressure to low partial pressure. In the arterial blood delivered to tissue, partial pressure of oxygen is 100 mmHg, while partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue is 40 mmHg. This difference in partial pressures (60 mmHg) drives oxygen to diffuse from the blood into the tissue.
Explain how/why oxygen diffuses from the blood into skeletal muscle tissue.
Difference in partial pressure drives diffusion of oxygen, particularly from high partial pressure to low partial pressure. In the arterial blood delivered to tissue, partial pressure of oxygen is 100 mmHg, while partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue is 40 mmHg. This difference in partial pressures (60 mmHg) drives oxygen to diffuse from the blood into the tissue.
Once starch enters _______
Digestive tract in form of monosaccharides can be used immediately for energy or stored in the form of glycogen
What happens to most energy generated in glycolysis?
Dissipates as heat
What happens to most energy generated in glycolysis?
Dissipates as heat; most of it does not result in ATP resynthesis
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
Division of the autonomic nervous system that helps body maintain or resume normal resting function. - "Rest and digest".
Enzymes
Do not start chemical reactions; facilitate breakdown and lower the activation energy for a chemical reaction
The two main factors that determine which energy substrate will be used during exercise are exercise ________ and exercise __________
Duration & Intensity
Replenish phosphocreatine stores
During EPOC heart rate remains elevated due to the need to -
VO2 at Start of Exercise - Oxygen Deficit
During the transition of rest to exercise - takes time for VO2 to reach steady-state • This delay creates a disparity between the energy demands of exercise and the supply of energy aerobically • O2 Deficit = difference between total O2 actually consumed during exercise and the total O2 that would have been consumed had VO2 reached steady state immediately • Training decreases O2 deficit
Oxidation of Protein
Early used as substrate except during starvation; can be converted to glucose and acetyl-CoA
Neurons
Electrically excitable cell that initiates, receives, and transmits info - Nerve cell
Which system of metabolism is responsible for synthesizing the most ATP: A) gylcolysis B) krebs cycle C) Electron transport chain D) ATP-PC system
Electron transport chain
Is anabolism an endergonic or exergonic process?
Endergonic
What do we make from substrates?
Energy aka ATP
What provides for a high efficiency of energy transformations?
Energy lost by one molecule transfers to the chemical structure of other molecules without appearing as heat
ATP-PC system
Energy released from breakdown of phosphcreatine is used to produce ATP
Endurance Training
Enhances oxidative capacity of Type 2 fibers; develops more and bigger mitochondria
What happens to surplus glucose?
Enters the pathways of energy metabolism, stores as glycogen, or converts to fat
3 layers of CT in muscle
Epimysium Perimysium Endomysium
What is the glycogenolysis cascade known as? (it is a hormone)
Epinephrine
Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
Equation for substrate oxidation (utilization) - Substrate+O2CO2 +H2O • Due to different chemical compositions of lipids, CHO, and proteins, different amounts of O2 are required to oxidize them to the end products of CO2 and H2O • RQ=VCO2/VO2 - Provides index of relative use of CHO and fat • RQ range = 0.70 - 1.0 • Also called "Non-Protein RQ"
__________ is the only method of heat loss by the body that can workwhen the environmental temperature is higher than body temperature
Evaporation
Metabolic substrates for rest & exercise
Exercise duration: (no change in intensity)- triglyceride or carbohydrate metabolism -gradual shift from carb to fat metabolism in low intensity , long duration activity -example: jogging >30 mins -hormonal response (catecholamines, glucagon) triggers lipase activity (breakdown of TG into FFA -depletion of glycogen stores (hitting the wall) triggers increase in fat metabolism -does the ingestion of sport drink improve performance for events > 60 mins
What are the cell's two major energy-transforming activities?
Extract potential energy from food and conserve it within the bonds of ATP, extract and transfer the chemical energy in ATP to power biologic work
Fats
FATTY ACID: Saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated TRIGLYCERIDE: Storage form of fat in cells
What is the process where glucose locates in the surrounding extracellular fluid for transport across the cell's plasma membrane?
Facilitative diffusion
What are the five proteins that mediate facilitative diffusion collectively termed?
Facilitative glucose transporters
T/F Triglycerides can contribute to both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
False
T/F: A low muscle to fiber-to-nerve ratio is associated with intricate movements
False
T/F: An increase in temperature increases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
False
T/F: Hyperplasia is the increase in the size of the muscle due to an increase in the number of contractile proteins within the original muscle cells.
False
T/F: Pre-exercise meals less than 1h before competition will reduce endurance performance in all individuals.
False
T/F: Under aerobic conditions, more ATP are produced from one molecule of glucose compared to one molecule of fatty acid.
False
T/F: Vo2 decreases in proportion to the increases in energy expenditure.
False
T/F: Anaerobic capabilities are not impacted by reduced core body temperature.
False
T/F: At altitude, reduced oxygen delivery to tissue is the result of reduced oxygen content in the air
False
T/F: Diastole refers to the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
False
T/F: Hypertrophy is the increase in the size of the muscle due to an increase in the number of muscle fibers.
False
T/F: Optimal physiological adaptation to altitude in regards to exercise performance occurs when one lives and trains at altitude.
False
T/F: Sensory neurons, which carry a message from sensory receptors to the central nervous system, are also called e(erent neurons.
False
T/F: The sympathetic nervous system stimulated the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal cortex.
False
T/F: ATP represents a significant energy reserve
False
T/F: Energy in food directly transfers to cells for biologic work
False
T/F: Ketogenic compounds can be used to synthesize glucose
False
T/F: Oxygen participates directly in the citric acid cycle reactions (krebs cycle)
False
T/F: The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA is a reversible process
False
T/F: The process of gluconeogenesis replenishes/maintains glycogen stores without adequate carb consumption
False
T/F: You are able to carry out maximal exercise by using just the ETC for energy
False
T/F: Triglycerides can contribute to both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
False (Only Aerobic)
T/F: blood flows from are of low pressure to higher pressure
False - High to lower
T/F: Unmyelinated nerves have a higher velocity of neural conducon than myelinated nerves
False - Myelinated nerves have a much higher velocity of neural conduction
T/F: Unmyelinated nerves have a higher velocity of neural conduction than myelinated nerves
False - Myelinated nerves have a much higher velocity of neural conduction
T/F: Sensory neurons, which carry a message from sensory receptors to the central nervous system, are also called efferent neurons
False - Sensory= afferent - Motor= efferent
T/F: Tidal volume is the volume of air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.
False - Tidal volume is the amount of air moved per breath
T/F: The main method of transport of carbon dioxide in the blood is by binding to hemoglobin.
False - main method is transported by bicarbonate
T/F: Diastole refers to the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
False - relaxation phase
T/F: The intensity and volume of training needed for health benefit is greater than that needed for fitness benefit
False -greater for fitness benefit
T/F: A muscle cell is also called a myofibril.
False (A muscle fiber)
T/F: Glycolysis takes place in the mitochondria of the cell.
False (Cytoplasma)
T/F: At maximal intensity of exercise, cardiac output is higher in trained individuals because of a higher maximal heart rate.
False (Due to increased stroke volume)
T/F: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for reducing heart rate after a bout of exercise.
False (Parasympathetic)
T/F: The fluid component of the blood is called hematocrit
False (Plasma)
T/F: Higher carbohydrate intake is associated with greater endurance performance.
False (worse endurance performance)
T/F: The body can use heat energy
False; it cannot
T/F: Oxygen participates directly in ATP synthesis when aerobic metabolism takes place
False; it does not, even though it has the term aerobic in it
T/F: We get our energy directly from food
False; it happens through an interconversion in your body
T/F: The decimal 2.5 for ATP indicates formation of one-half of an ATP molecule
False; it indicates the average number of ATP produced per NADH oxidation with the energy for mitochondrial transport subtracted
T/F: Lactate accumulates in the muscles
False; its removal rate equals its rate of production
T/F: There is a lot of benefit from taking creatine supplements
False; only small
T/F: Lipid-mobilizing hormones enter the cell to activate cyclic AMP
False; they don't actually enter the cell
T/F: Lactate should be viewed as a metabolic waste product
False; this is a myth
What does surplus dietary protein convert to?
Fat
What is the primary energy fueld for exercise and recovery when intense, long-duration exercise depletes glycogen?
Fat
Which substrate has a high net ATP yield but slow ATP production?
Fat
What are the major energy sources for maintaining as-needed ATP resynthesis?
Fat and glycogen
Which one of the following statements is incorrect: A) Fat can be converted to carbohydrates B) Proteins can be converted to fat C) Carbohydrates can be converted to fat D) Carbohydrates can be converted to proteins
Fat can be converted to carbohydrates
Fat use during exercise
Fat is primary fuel at rest and low intensity during exercise
In long exercise, what substrate is mostly used?
Fats
What energy substrate is for prolonged, less intense exercise?
Fats
What substrate must be broken down into free fatty acids (FFAs) and glycerol?
Fats
What substances can you metabolize
Fats, carbs and proteins
Role of the enzyme
Free energy must be released from chemical compounds at controlled rate, determined by :
Dynamic constant external resistance
Free weights
Muscle fibers and adipocytes contain an insulin-dependent transporter known as:
GLUT 4
Fick's Law of Diffusion
Gas diffusion: Area x diffusion coefficient x (P1-P2) (increase surface ares= increase diffusion / membrane thickness (increase thickness= decrease diffusion)
Functions
Gas exchange between atmosphere and body Occurs on 3 levels: Pulmonary ventilation Pulmonary (external) respiration Cellular (internal) respiration
Dead Space
Gas exchange between atmosphere and lungs occurs via pressure gradients *Atmospheric pressure ~760mmHg* *Diaphragm (skeletal muscle)* Inhalation Exhalation
Celluluar (internal) Respiration
Gas exchange between blood and body tissues
What is the primary function of the citric acid cycle?
Generate energy-rich electrons for passage in the respiratory chain to NAD and FAD, forming NADH+H and FADH, respectively
Protein is converted into glucose through what process?
Gluconeogenesis
What is Glycogen converted back into _________ to make more ATP.
Glucose
What is carbohydrates converted to?
Glucose
ATP yield of Glycolysis
Glucose- 2 Glycogen-3
What serves as a precursor for glucose synthesis, when it is delivered to the liver?
Glycerol
Polysaccharide - animal form:
Glycogen
In the presence of this enzyme, glucose links/polymerizes with other glucose molecules to form a large glycogen molecule
Glycogen synthase
What is the cleavage of glucose from the glycogen molecule?
Glycogenolysis
Amount of ADP controls
Glycolysis
The three types of energy transfer
Glycolysis (Short-term energy system) Aerobic (long-term energy system) ATP-CP (Immediate energy system) -
What two processes are included in substrate-level phosphorylation?
Glycolysis and citric acid cycle
What is causing fatigue?
H^+ , P , compartmentalized
Fast twitch (type II) fibers
Have a more rapid force production, produce higher amounts of force, and relax more rapidly than slow-twitch (type I) fibers
Cardiac output is determined by ________ & _________
Heart rate (HR) & stroke volume (SV) Q= HR (bmp) x SV (mL)
What are the four key glycolytic enzymes?
Hexokinase, phosphorylase, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase
Troponin I
Holds to actin
Troponin T
Holds to tropomyosin
In order for beta oxidation to proceed, what must oxygen join with?
Hydrogen
NADH/NAD
Hydrogen produced in sixth reaction accepted by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) -NADH is produced -transported H+ to mitochondria for use in aerobic metabolism -if aerobic metabolism cannot occur , H+ given to pyruvate to form lactate -what does the ratio indicate?
Effects of resistance training
Hyperplasia
Effects of Resistance training
Hypertrophy
Subtypes; from most oxidative (slowest), to least (fastest)
I, IC, IIC, IIAC, IIA, IIAX, IIX
Mass Action Effect
If there's more available substrate, then cells rely more on that substrate for energy
Intrinsic control of cardiac cycle:
Impulse initiates in the sinoatrial (SA) node • naturalpacemaker - Spreads through atria to atrioventricular (AV) node - AV node delays impulse by 1/10 of second, allowing atria to contract before ventricles - Impulse sent through AV bundle (bundle of His) - Purkinje fibers: rapidly spreads impulse out from AV node to contract throughout ventricles
In what amount of time does PCr reach its maximum energy yield?
In about 10s
Where is the enzyme phosphatase located?
In liver and kidney cells
What is the location of most fat formation?
In the cytoplasm of liver cells
Where does more than 90% of ATP synthesis take place?
In the respiratory chain by oxidative reaction coupled with phosphorylation
Where does GLUT 4 catabolize and form ATP?
In the sarcoplasm
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the watery medium of the cell outside the mitochondrion
Effects of endurance training
Increase in delivery of oxygen to muscle caused by...
Name one physiological adaptation that ↑performance in a sport or activity
Increased VO2 max
Carbohydrate ingestion before exercise results in (Increased or decreased) carbohydrate oxidation.
Increases
During concentric muscle contraction, as the speed of the contraction increases, the ability to produce force: A) Decreases B) Increases C) depends on the weight being lifted D) depends on the velocity
Increases
Ventilatory response to acute exercise
Incremental exercise: -VE increase and then rises exponentially -Ventilatory Threshold - Possible mechanisms (decrease in pH)
Isotonic
Infers muscle generates the same force throughout the entire ROM (does this occur naturally?)
2 functions of the nervous system
Initiates movements maintains homeostasis
Accessory Muscles
Inspiratory: External intercostals, sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor Expiratory: internal intercostals, abdominal muscles
Ischemia
Insufficient blood to tissue due to partial blockage of artery • Results in angina pectoris (severe chest pain)
The two factors responsible for the development of transient hypoglycemia that occurs during exercise after a pre-exercise (<1hr) meal are ___________ and __________
Insulin & muscle contraction
lactate threshold
Intensity of exercise where lactate begins to accumulate
Metabolic substrates for rest and exercise
Interactions of substrates : >Exercise intensity ~ triglyceride or carb metabolism -at rest 33% of ATP derived from CHO & 66% from fat -at exercise intensity increases, % of ATP from CHO increases -Max exercise intensity : 100% carbs -factors resulting in this switch -carbohydrate metabolism produces more energy per liter of oxygen (5.0kcal/L O2 vs 4.7 kcal/L O2) -more fast/twitch muscle fibers are recruited (more glycolytic) -hormonal changes (increase in epinephrine - glycolytic enzymes)
The compound AB is bound ___
Into the enzyme molecule -undergoes modification while in combination with the enzyme and, -is broken down , thereby -releasing the energy that originally held the compound together
In activities requiring rapid energy release above levels supplied by aerobic metabolism, what supplies most of the energy for ATP resynthesis?
Intramuscular glycogen
autonmic nervous system
Involuntary part which controls smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands -Heart rate - Blood pressure - Digestion - Breathing
Choose the answer that is NOT correct: In theory, the excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) period: A) May be used to restore intramuscular phosphocreatine B) May be used for aerobic metabolism of lactic acid C) May be used to restore blood and myoglobin oxygen D) Is characterized by excess oxygen consumption over that seen during the exercise bout
Is characterized by excess oxygen consumption over that seen during the exercise bout
Inspiratory Muscle training
Is it useful for performance? No: Average person Yes: -People with pulmonary disease -Elite level aerobic Athletes
_________ exercise describes the type of exercise in which velocity of the limb's movement throughout the range of motion is held constant and resistance is varied
Isokinetic
Anaerobic means
It can proceed without oxygen directly involved , doesn't mean no oxygen is present * protein and fat cannot be broken down like this! Pyruvate is end product : it immediately dissociates
How does the structure of the alveoli relate to diffusion?
It has a circular structure = increase in surface area
What does glucose delivery to cell influence?
Its subsequent use in energy metabolism
High-protein diets and very-low calorie diets result in the formation of ____________ bodies.
Ketone
fat metabolism
LIPOLYSIS= Triglyceride breakdown into fatty acids and glycerol LIPASE is enzyme that breaks down triglycerides ESTERIFICATION= process of combining fatty acids and glycerol to make triglyceride
What serves as an indirect precursor of liver glycogen?
Lactate
What enables glycogenolysis in one cell to supply other cells with fuel for oxidation?
Lactate shuttling among cells
There are two forms of glycolysis. In one form ___ is the ned product, whereas in the other form _____ is the end product
Lactate; pyruvate
By-product of Glycolysis without O2
Lactic Acid
Buffering __________ by sodium bicarbonate during high intensity exercise results in increased CO2 release and an RER greater than ____
Lactic acid & 1
Cori Cycle
Lactic acid can be used to synthesize glycogen via this cycle
Intensity and volume of training needed for health benefit (< or >) fitness benefit
Less than
______ is the enzyme that breaks down triglycerides
Lipase
Protein is converted into FFAs through what process?
Lipogenesis
What is the main site for deamination?
Liver
Chemoreceptors: Peripheral
Located in arteries -Respond to H+, PCO2, PO2 - Elevated H+, PCO2, and decrease PO2 increase ventilation
Chemoreceptors: Central
Located in medulla -Respond to H+ (increase metabolism in some way) -Elevated H+ increases ventilation * Also, high PCO2 causes an increase in H+ which stimulates increase ventilation
muscle fiber
Long multinucleated cell that generates force when stimulated
A)The duration of exercise B)substrate availability C)the intensity of exercise
Major factors when determining which energy substrate will be used during exercise?
Hematocrit
Make up 40-45% of blood percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells (99%)
EPOC
May be accounted for by oxygen cost of adjustments in: Ventilation Hormones Circulation Temperature Reloading blood with oxygen
Inspiratory Capacity
Measures the max amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle
Why does core temperature increase during exercise?
Metabolism goes up because we're inefficient, During exercise, the higher rate of metabolism results in a higher rate of heat production from the heat lost through metabolism.
Resting metabolic rate (RMR)
Minimal amount of energy required to sustain the body's vital functions -RMR varies with age , sex, body temp, stress, body surface area
During beta oxidation, fatty acid molecules transform into acetyl-CoA in the _____
Mitochondria
glycogen composed of
Monosaccharide glucose bound together in long, highly branched chains
Type 1 Fibers:
More mitochondria; high enzyme concentrations
More enzyme activity means:
More product
The combination of a motor and the muscle fibers it innervates is called a _______________, and all the muscle fibers there in are of the same ___________.
Motor unit & Type
What do increases in energy transfer depend on?
Movement intensity
The 4 physiological sources of substrate used in aerobic metabolism are: A) plasma glucose, plasma fatty acids, protein, oxygen B) Muscle glycogen, muscle triglycerides, plasma fatty acids, plasma glucose C) Plasma fatty acids, plasma glucose, phosphocreatine, ATP D) Liver glycogen, plasma glucose, phosphocreatine, plasma fatty acids
Muscle glycogen, muscle triglycerides, plasma fatty acids, plasma glucose
White substance high in lipid that covers axon?
Myelin sheath
_________ ________ conduct impulses using saltatory conduction
Myelinated nerves
severe or complete blockage, leading to cell death in heart is called ____________
Myocardial infarction
__________________ is the oxygen transport molecule found within skeletal and cardiac muscle and functions as an oxygen reserve at the start of exercise.
Myoglobin
Glycolytic metabolism : NAD
NAD serves to transport H+ within the cell, the NADH/NAD ratio is important in control of metabolism . Under slow conditions NADH transported to mitochondria
Under fast conditions of glycolysis -
NADH is oxidized to NAD and lactate
Electron Transport Chain
NADH, FADH molecules carry H+ electrons to ETC; H+, electrons travel down the chain; H+ combine with O2 to form H2O, which helps form ATP; 2.5 ATP/ NADH, 1.5 ATP/FADH
Why is pyruvate converted to lactic acid at the end of glycolysis?
NaDH has to give up hydrogen, oxygen cannot take it, so it goes to pyruvate and changes structure to lactate.
Control of Oxidative Phosphorylation
Negative feedback regulates Krebs Cycle; Isocitrate dehydrogenase- rate-limiting-enzyme; regulates etc, inhibited by ATP, activated by ADP
What two things make up a motor unit?
Nerve + muscle fiber combo - One nerve interacts with several muscle fibers
Glycolytic metabolism
Net formation of lactate or pyruvate depends on relative glycolytic And mitochondrial activities, not solely on presence of oxygen
resting membrane potential?
No impulse being conducted - Inside of neuron= net negative charge -outside of neuron= net positive charge
What stimulates sympathetic motor system?
Noradrenaline
___________ stimulates the sympathetic motor system.
Noradrenaline
Cellular (internal) respiration [movement]
O2 diffuses from the blood to tissue CO2 diffuses from tissues to blood *CO2 has a greater diffusion rate*
Pulmonary (external) respiration [movement]
O2 diffuses from the lungs to blood CO2 diffuses from the blood to lungs *CO2 has a greater diffusion rate*
O2 use in muscle formula:
O2 levels leaving lungs- O2 levels enter lungs
Glycolysis
Occurs with or without o2, but yields the same ATP; converts Pyruvic Acid to acetyl-CoA
Where does cellular oxidation occur?
On the inner lining of the mitochondrial membranes
detaches
Once atp attaches to myosin head the head does this
When do ATP levels in skeletal muscle decrease?
Only under extreme conditions of physical activity
Pyruvate formed during glucose catabolism plays an important role in maintaining a proper level of ______
Oxaloacetate
What is the term that describes "biologic burning"?
Oxidation
What constitute the biochemical mechanism that underlies energy metabolism?
Oxidation and reduction reactions
ATP synthesis occurs during:
Oxidation-reduction reactions
In Aerobic metabolism, the adiposity go ATP is produced during: A) Beta oxidation B) Glycolysis C) Kreb's cycle D) Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation
During aerobic ATP resynthesis, what is the final electron acceptor in the respiratory chain to combine with hydrogen to form water
Oxygen
What is the final electron acceptor in the respiratory chain?
Oxygen
Oxygen consumption during exercise
Oxygen consumption= (O2 in)- (O2 out) -pulmonary oxygen uptake -oxygen is measured at lung, not tissues...but O2 is used in tissue not lungs -VO2
VO2 at start of exercise ...
Oxygen deficit. -during transition of rest to exercise- takes time for VO2 to reach steady state -this delay creates a disparity between the energy demands of exercise and the supply of energy aerobically -o2 deficit = difference between total O2 actually consumed during exercise and the total 02 that would have been consumed had VO2 reached steady state immediately -training decreases 02 deficit
What is the last electron receiver in the transport chain?
Oxygen; it possesses the largest reduction potential
What has a larger free energy of hydrolysis, PCr or ATP?
PCr
What serves as a reservoir of high-energy phosphate bonds?
PCr
What drives ADP phosphorylation to ATP?
PCr hydrolysis
LDH competing with PDH, therefore
PDH indirectly affect the NADH/NAD ratio
Rate-limiting Enzyme of the Glycolytic System
PFK
One way through which cells generate ATP?
Pathway 1: ATP itself -splitting of ATP is called hydrolysis -what enzyme facilitates this reaction? -what are the products of this reaction? -ADP is reenergized by phosphorylation?
2nd way through which cells generate ATP?
Pathway 2: ATP-PC PC concentration 3-4 times greater than ATP Enzyme present?
What enzyme frees glucose from the cell for transport throughout the body?
Phosphatase
What is known to "prime the pump" for continued energy metabolism?
Phosphorylation
What process allows for the synthesis of ATP
Phosphorylation
Ventilation is associated with metabolism
Plasma PCO2 more important than plasma Po2 in controlling pulmonary ventilation
Carbohydrates distribution in the body :
Plasma glucose - 3g (12kcal) Liver glycogen - 100g (400kcal) Muscle glycogen - 400g (1600 kcal) Total glycogen - 503g (2012 kcal) *relatively little CHO stored in body
Determining Ventilatory Threshold
Plot VE vs VO2 V-slope method Ventilatory equivalents method
Ventilatory Equivalents method (slope)
Point where VE/VO2 increases without increase in VE/VCO2 *see notes for graph page 10, last slide*
Respiratory Compensation Point
Point where both VE/VO2 and VE/CO2 increase -Associated with OBLA *Buffer System Failure* -Buffer system can't keep up with H+
V-slope method
Point where the slope of VCO2 over VO2 increase from less than 1 to greater than 1 *More acidity increases Buffer system work, therefore, increase VCO2
Synapses
Points of connection and communication between neurons
Myofibril
Portion of muscle composed of thin and thick myofioaments (actin and myosin)
Metabolic Recovery After Exercise
Postexercise Oxygen Consumption - Oxygen debt: oxygen taken in above resting values after exercise -depends on exercise intensity • Heart rate, breathing rate, and metabolic rate remain elevated for period of time after most types of physical activity - due to need to replenish PC from ATP, which can be obtained from aerobic metabolism • Lactic acid concentration can be ↓ if aerobically metabolized or used to synthesize glycogen (Cori cycle)
Ventricle wall thickness of the heart increases in response to training because of the _________ overload that occurs during exercise.
Pressure
Ventricle wall thickness of the heart increases in response to training because of the _________ overload that occurs during the exercise.
Pressure
Within the heart, _________ overloads leads to an increase in ventricular wall thickness, while ________ overload leads to an increase in chamber diameter
Pressure & volume
Glyogenolysis
Process by which glycogen is broken down into glucose-1phosphate to be used for Energy production
Glycogenesis
Process by which glycogen is synthesized from glucose to be stored in the liver or muscle
Skeletal muscle (feedback)
Proprioceptors and Chemoreceptors (H+ and K+)
Which of the following is NOT a function of connective tissue of muscle? A) To stabilize and support the muscle B) Help transfer force through tendon to bone C) Prevent signals from spreading to adjacent fibers D) Protect against the overly elastic component of muscle
Protect against the overly elastic component of muscle
What substrate uses gluconeogenesis to convert into glucose?
Protein
What substrate uses lipogenesis for conversion to FFAs?
Protein
Which energy substrate is used during starvation?
Protein
Enzymes
Protein molecules that facilitate a chemical reaction.
Movement of air into and out of the lungs is known as _________________
Pulmonary ventilation
What does lactate convert to?
Pyruvate
What are the three products of deaminated glucogenic amino acids?
Pyruvate, oxaloacetate, malate
What are the intermediates for glucose synthesis via gluconeogenesis?
Pyruvate, oxaloacetate, or malate
By-product of Glycolysis with O2
Pyruvic acid
Calorie =
Quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 ml of water 1 degree Celsius -the calories we often refer to in food are actually kilocalories (kcal) or in 1000 calories —-300 calories on the food wrapper is really 300,000 calories
What are the two terms used to describe glycolysis?
Rapid (anaerobic) and slow (aerobic)
Conduction of Impulses
Rate of conduction down axon is greatly affected by myelination of nerve
In biochemical terms, the affinity for electrons represents a substance's:
Reduction potential
What does the net formation of either lactate or pyruvate depend on?
Relative glycolytic and mitochondrial activities, rather than on the presence of molecular oxygen
During cross bridge cycling, energy released from the breakdown of ATP within the muscle directly allows for: A) The binding between myosin head and actin B) Repositioning of the myosin head C) the power stroke and moving of the actin filament D) the exposure of the actin active sight
Repositioning of the myosin head
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate...
Requires NADH as a cofactor
Isokinetic
Resistance in which velocity of limbs movement throughout ROM is held constant by a device
Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) BP = Q x TPR = (HR x SV) x TPR
Resistance to arterial blood flow BP = Q x TPR = (HR x SV) x TPR
The final common pathway where electrons extracted from hydrogen pass to oxygen
Respiratory chain
The largest component of total daily energy expenditure is: A) thermic effect of feeding B) resting Metabolic rate C) thermic effect of physical activity D) thermic effect of fidgeting
Resting Metabolic rate
Disaccharides (two sugars)
SUCROSE - glucose + fructose - table sugar (cane and beet sugar) - 25% of caloric intake of average American LACTOSE - glucose + galactose - found only in milk MALTOSE - glucose + glucose - found in beer, cereal, germinating seed
decreases
Simultaneous weight and aerobic training will do this to power and development
The _________ describes how the nervous system recruits individual motor units in an orderly, predictable fashion from smaller to larger motor units. A) Action potential B) size principle C) asynchronous recruitment D) All-or-none-law
Size principle
What tissue possesses the largest quantity of glycolytic enzymes?
Skeletal muscle
Carbohydrate breakdown in the citric acid cycle is a (slow, fast) process
Slow
Increased NADH/NAD......
Slows glycolysis
Rate-limiting enzyme
Slows the overall reaction and prevents runaway reaction
As intensity goes up,
So does ATP demand
LDH is abundant and therefore .....
Some lactate is always produced
In mamilian muscle
Some lactate produced can be converted to glucose
Decreased NADH/NAD
Speeds glycolysis
Role of CT (Connective tissue)
Stabilizes and supports components of skeletal muscle Surrounds muscle at each organizational level
What are the two stages of glucose degradation?
Stage one- glucose breaks down rapidly into two molecules of pyruvate Stage two- pyruvate degrades further to carbon dioxide and water
Polysaccharide plant forms : starch / fiber
Starch- -Storage form of CHO in plants -50% of total CHO intake -commonly called "complex carbohydrates" Fiber- -Non starch polysaccharides -resistant to human digestion
The three major types of hormones are: A) Steroid, peptide, and amines B) Steroid, leukocytes, and peptides C) Steriod, anabolic, and catabolic D) Steroid, platelet, and growth
Steroid, peptide, and amines
Where and what is extra glucose stored as?
Stored as glycogen in liver and muscles.
What is the body's most plentiful source of potential energy?
Stored fat
Systemic receptors (feedback)
Stretch receptors (Hering-Breuer reflex)
RMR-measurement made under....
Strict conditions is considered basal metabolic rate (BMR) >12 hour fast before test -not active during the day (18h) before the test -sit quietly for > 30 min before measuring -usually done right after waking
Respiratory quotient: quation for substrate oxidation (utilization)
Substrate + o2 -> co2 + h2 Due to different chemical compositions of lipids, CHO and proteins, different amounts of o2 are required to oxidize them to the end products of co2 and h20
What is the primary function of carbs?
Supplying energy for cellular work
The "fight or flight" response is controlled by the _______ nervous system A) Sympathetic B) Central C) Parasympathetic D) Somatic
Sympathetic
The "fight-or-flight" response is controlled by the ______ nervous system A) Sympathetic B) Central C) Parasympathetic D) somatic
Sympathetic
Which subdivision shows an increase in heart rate and blood pressure when stimulated?
Sympathetic nervous system
__________ is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle.
Systolic
force-time curve
The ability to produce force quickly is an important quality of neuromuscular function
Expiratory reserve volume
The additional amount of air that can be expired from the lungs after normal exhalation
Stroke Volume (SV)
The amount of blood pumped per contraction of ventricles.
The imbalance between ATP and ADP and P- causes by an increase in energy requirement- stimulates what?
The breakdown of other stored energy-containing compounds to resynthesize ATP
A)Beta oxidation B)Krebs cycle C)electron transport chain
The complete oxidation of fatty acids involves
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
The component of the autonomic nervous system that responds to stressful situations by initiating the "fight-or-flight" response.
What is glycolysis?
The dissolution of sugar
4NADH+4ATP is the end product of...
The end products of the glycolytic breakdown of 2 glucose molecules is
ATP
The energy currency 1)Adenine 2)Ribose 3) 3 phosphates
The free energy liberated in ATP hydrolysis reflects what?
The energy difference between reactant and end product
lactate threshold
The exercise intensity or relative intensity at which blood lactate begins an abrupt increase above the baseline concentration. - In untrained: occurs at 50% to 60% of max oxygen consumption - In endurance trained: 65% to 80% of max oxygen consumption - As lactate threshold increases, so does endurance performance - Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA): exercise intensity at which a specific blood lactic acid concentration occurs (usually 4.0 mM)
creatine kinase
The hydrolysis of PCr is facilitated by this enzyme
What is the glucose paradox?
The indirect pathway from lactate to liver glycogen synthesis
Inspiratory reserve volume
The maximal amount of air that can be brought into the lungs after normal inhalation
The citric acid cycle degrades the acetyl-CoA substrate to carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms within what area?
The mitochondria
What does most energy for phosphorylation derive from?
The oxidation (biologic burning) of dietary carb, lipid, and protein macronutrients
Where does GLUT 4 facilitate glucose to transport to?
The sarcoplasm
Capillaries
The smallest blood vessels; site of gas and nutrient exchange
Toral lung capacity
The total amount of air in the lungs after taking the deepest breath possible
Type 2
These muscle fibers have a high amount of ATPase activity
Why are fast-twitch muscle fibers ideally suited for generating anaerobic energy via glycolysis?
They contain relatively large quantities of phosphofructokinase
Why are enzymes necessary to obtain energy
They facilitate breakdown
Calorimeter
This device measures the bodys heat production
Decrease
This is what happens to EPOC following aerobic training
3
This number of atps produced directly from 1 molecule of glycogen during glycolysis
Energy from macronutrient oxidation is harvested how?
Through ATP
What are the three conditions that cause hydrogen and electrons to shuttle uninterrupted down the respiratory chain to oxygen during energy metabolism?
Tissue availability of the reducing agent NADH, presence of the oxidizing agent oxygen in the tissues, sufficient concentration of enzymes and mitochondria to ensure that energy transfer reactions proceed at their appropriate rate
Energy release in macronutrient catabolism serves one crucial purpose:
To phosphorylate ADP to reform the energy-rich compound ATP
What is the one crucial purpose of energy release in macronutrient catabolism?
To phosphorylate ADP to reform the energy-rich compound ATP
Too many H+ in a cell=
Too acidic
Resistance to arterial blood flow is called ______ _______ _______
Total Peripheral resistance (TPR)
12
Total number of atp produced from one molecule of AceTyl Coa entering the Krebs cycle
Dalton's Law
Total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of all gases composing the mixture -Partial pressure of a gas is a product of it's % and the *overall pressure* Example: Atmospheric pressure: 760mmHg O2: 20.93%; CO2: .03%; N:79.04% PCO2: .0003 * 760=.228mmHg PN2: .7904 * 760= 600.7mmHg
Substrate use during exercise
Trained vs untrained -highly trained individual will metabolize a higher percentage of fat when running a 10 - minute mile compared to untrained -This postpones fatigue and is glycogen sparing
Neural adaptions to exercise
Training adaptations to the nervous system improve physical performance: - Increase number of motor units recruited & increase rate of recruitment (increase "neural drive") - at submax exercise: lower drive required for same force production - at max exercise: greater drive is achieved resulting in greater force production Endurance training: - Increased ability to rotate recruitment (asynchronous) - prevents fatigue
NAD serves to _____
Transport H+ within cell, the NADH/NAD ratio is important in control of metabolism.
What are the six fuel sources that supply substrate for ATP formation?
Triacylglycerol and glycogen molecules stored within muscle cells Blood glucose Free fatty acids Intramuscular- and liver-derived carbon skeletons of amino acids Anaerobic reactions in the cytosol in the initial phase of glucose or glycogen breakdown (small amount of ATP) Phosphorylation of ADP by PCr under enzymatic control by creatine kinase and adenylate kinase
Fats- storage form:
Triglyceride -glycerol molecule plus 3 fatty acids Where stored? How are they broken down? What happens to glycerol? Does fat depletion occur?
Subunits of troponin
Troponin I: holds to actin Troponin T: holds to tropomyosin Troponin C: can bind calcium
T/F ATP is a product of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
True
T/F The three energy transfer systems can occur at the same time
True
T/F: A severe or complete blockage of a coronary artery that leads to cell death in the heart is myocardial infarction.
True
T/F: In response to resistance training, initial strength gains are due to improved neural recruitment pattern.
True
T/F: The blood flowing away from the heart and toward peripheral or pulmonary circulation is arterial blood.
True
T/F: Type I muscle fibers have a lower threshold for recruitment and are therefore always recruited first.
True
T/F: A long-term high-fat diet can lead to improved endurance capacity in moderate intensity exercise.
True
T/F: ATP is a product of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism
True
T/F: Aerobic capabilities are more affected by altitude than anaerobic capabilities.
True
T/F: Aerobic capabilities are more affected by dehydration than anaerobic capabilities.
True
T/F: Creatine supplementation enhances strength and power safely
True
T/F: During a low-intensity, long-duraton activity at steady workload there is a gradual shift from carbohydrate to triglyceride metabolism.
True
T/F: Only muscle fibers activated by the nervous system will benefit from training.
True
T/F: Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) increases with increasing workload.
True
T/F: The aqueous component of blood is called plasma.
True
T/F: The physical training needed to bring about fitness benefits is greater in intensity and what is needed for health benefits.
True
T/F: The pulsality of some hormones is thought to stimulate more effective hormonal signaling (amplifies effect)
True
T/F: The three energy transfer systems can occur at the same time
True
T/F: During exercise, increases in blood temperature and acidity shift the oxyhemoglobin disassociation curve to the right causing greater delivery of oxygen to muscle tissue.
True
T/F: ADP and NAD function as enzyme activators
True
T/F: ATP and NADH serve as enzyme inhibitors
True
T/F: ATP resynthesis proceeds uninterrupted
True
T/F: ATP splits almost instantly without the need for molecular oxygen
True
T/F: All cells store some fat
True
T/F: During exercise, increases in blood temperature and acidity shift the oxyhemoglobin disassociation curve to the right causing greater delivery of oxygen to muscle tissue.
True
T/F: Endurance athletes show an enhanced ability for lactate turnover during exercise
True
T/F: Energy transfer for phosphorylation occurs without oxygen
True
T/F: FFA are not truly "free" entities
True
T/F: Fatty acid breakdown relates directly to oxygen consumption
True
T/F: Fatty acids cannot contribute to glucose synthesis
True
T/F: Free radical formation in muscle might contribute to muscle fatigue or soreness
True
T/F: High cellular ATP levels indicate a relatively low energy requirement
True
T/F: If the conditions are right, hydrogens and electrons shuttle uninterrupted down the respiratory chain to oxygen during energy metabolism
True
T/F: Lactate provides a valuable source of chemical energy
True
T/F: No single chemical regulator dominates mitochondrial ATP production
True
T/F: Not only is muscle a major site of lactate production, but also is a primary tissue for lactate removal via oxidation
True
T/F: Plasma PCO2 is more important than plasma PO2 in controlling pulmonary ventilation.
True
T/F: Relative to carb and protein, stored ft provides almost unlimited energy
True
T/F: Resting cardiac output averages about 5 L/min in healthy adults.
True
T/F: The aqueous component of blood is called plasma
True
T/F: The percentage of 34% for kcal of energy conserved is a relatively high efficiency rate
True
T/F: The process of glycolysis does not involve oxygen
True
T/F: Under normal conditions following a meal, glucose does not accumulate in the blood
True
T/F: Without ADP availability for phosphorylation to ATP, electrons generally do not shuttle down the respiratory chain to oxygen
True
T/F: Resting cardiac output about the same in trained & untrained people
True - however, trained people have lower HR and higher SV
T/F During a low-intensity, long duration activity at steady workload there is a graduate shift from carbohydrate to triglyceride metabolism
True (aerobic metabolism)
False - to fat being the preferred source of energy for intense muscular contraction because of its fast energy production...it's slow!!! But sustained!!!!
True or false: because it's rate of energy production is so fast, fat is the preferred source of energy to meet the demands of intense muscular contraction
False
True or false: the ph inside of a cell increases with increased lactate production
T/F: Glucose used the majority of the time
True, but costs 1 ATP
Glycolysis generates a net gain of how may ATP molecules?
Two
How many molecules of ATP contribute to the initial phosphorylation of a glucose molecule?
Two
Muscle Fiber Types
Type I (slow twitch) Type II fibers (fast twitch) ANSWER THESE! -how long to reach peak force production? -amount of peak force? -oxidative potential? -fatigability? -conducive to what type of event?
Oxidation of Fat
Uses Triglycerides as a major fat energy source broken down into 1 glycerol & 3 FFAs; yields 3-4 times more ATP than glucose but slower
indirect calorimetry
Uses measurements of VO2 and VCO2 to assess energy expenditure -Closed circuit spirometry - Open circuit spirometry - metabolic cart
Pulmonary Ventilation Units of measurement
VE- volume of air exhaled per minute VI- Volume of air inhaled per minute -L/min
Ventilatory Equivalents method units
VE/VO2 -VE needed to consume 1 L of O2 VE/VCO2 -VE needed to expire 1 L of CO2
Calculation of VO2
VO2= oxygen inspired -oxygen expired
Factors affecting redistribution of blood (3)
Vasodilation, vasoconstriction, Precapillary sphincters
Factors affecting redistribution of blood (3)
Vasodilation, vasoconstriction, Precapillary sphincters:
____________________ is the exercise intensity where VE increases disproportionately to VO2, and can be used as an estimate for lactate threshold.
Ventilatory Threshold
heart failure
Ventricles cannot contract, so cardiac output os insufficient
What does phosphocreatine reservoir allow for?
Very rapid resynthesis of ATP
How do human energy dynamics transfer energy?
Via chemical bonds
How is chemical energy harnessed?
Via electron transport oxidative phosphorylation
Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
Volume measured when exhale as fast and as forceful as possible (~3-5L)
Tidal Volume
Volume of air per breath
Select the option that is NOT true: Carbohydrate is the preferred energy source for aerobic activity because: A) It is more efficient energy source than fat B) It converts to ATP twice as fast as protein or fat C) We have greater energy stores of carbohydrate than fat D) It allows for higher exercise intensity
We have greater energy stores of carbohydrate than fat
stays constant
What happens to lactate levels during steady state exercise
Creatine kinase- the protein molecule that facilitates breakdown of ________
What is the protein molecule that facilitates breakdown of PCr to Phosphate and Creatine?
stops
When CA is re-sequestered (returns) by the SR the muscle contraction does this
When does biologic work occur?
When compounds low in potential energy become "juiced up" from energy transfer via high-energy phosphate bonds
When does a molecule become reduced?
When it accepts electrons from an electron donor
Active site
Where heads of myosin cross bridges bind to actin
Components of the sarcomere
Z lines: at the end of sarcomere H zones: in middle of sarcomere, contains myosin I bands: at edges of sarcomere, contain actin A bands: overlapping actin and myosin M line: middle of h zones, holds myosin in place
exercise physiology
a basic and an applied science that describes, explains, and uses the body's response to exercise and adaptation to exercise training to maximize human physical potential
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
exercise
a single acute bout of bodily exertion or muscular activity that requires an expenditure of energy above resting level and that in most, but not all, cases results in voluntary movement
relative submaximal workload
a workload above resting but below maximum that is prorated to each individual; typically set as some percentage of maximum
___________ stimulates the parasympathetic motor system.
acetylcholine
VO2 during exercise: steady state
all energy needed is provided by aerobic metabolism - Blood lactate doesn't accumulate
What technique does the body NOT use to control blood flow during activity? A) vasoconstriction B) vasodilation C) altering the contraction state of pre capillary sphincters D) altering the hemoglobin content of blood
altering the hemoglobin content of blood
The component of the respiratory system where gas exchange takes place with the capillaries is the ______. a. bronchioles b. ventricles c. alveoli d. pleural sac
alveoli
carbon dioxide produced (VCO2)
amount or volume of carbon dioxide generated during metabolism
oxygen consumption (VO2)
amount or volume of oxygen taken up, transported, and used at the cellular level
bulimia nervosa (BN)
an eating disorder marked by an unrealistic appraisal of body weight and/or shape that is manifested by alternating bingeing and purging behavior
Vitamin E
antioxidant, exercise may increase storage in muscle, decrease muscle damage
The Fick equation is used to calculate oxygen consumption and is the product of cardiac output and: A) arterial-venous oxygen difference B) Stroke volume C) blood pressure D) End-systolic volume
arterial-venous oxygen difference
decreases
as exercise intensity increases , the reliance on fat for energy does this
recommended daily allowance (RDA)
average daily intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of 97-98% of healthy individuals
mean power (MP)
average power (force times distance divided by time) exerted during a short duration (typically 30 sec) work
saturated
bad fats, usually found in animal food sources, increases risk of CVD, limited intake
Monosaccharides
basic unit of carbohydrates - Glucose, fructose, galactose
protein supplementation before, during, after resistance training
before 3 hrs of exercise increases protein synthesis, prior to exercise maximizes protein synthesis, increase in muscle mass
set point theory
belief that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined 'set point'
________ helps prevent the increase in acidity from extreme exercise and thus delay fatigue A) creatine B) androstenedione C) epinephrine D) blood buffering
blood buffering
peripheral circulation
blood from heart to body and back to heart
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
blood in ventricles at end of diastole
Stroke volume increases with *endurance training* mainly because of an increase in: A) ventricular wall thickness B) heart rate C) total peripheral resistance D) blood volume
blood volume
catabolic reactions
breaking down of substrate into molecules; usually releases energy
nonessential amino acids
can be produced by body
The smallest blood vessels; site of gas and nutrient exchange
capillaries
macronutrients (organic)
carbs, proteins, lipids
Arteries
carry blood away from the heart
sensory neurons (afferent)
carry messages from the sensory receptors to CNS
mitochandria
cell organelles in which the formation of acetyl CoA , Krebs Cycle, electron transport, and oxidative phosphorylation take place
Anatomical Nervous System
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system broken down
moderate glycemic index (56-69)
cereal, cranberry juice, ice cream
hydrolysis
chemical process in which a substance is split into simpler compounds by the addition of water
minerals (inorganic)
chemical reactions and body functions
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
compound used by cells to store and release energy (most important energy molecule in cells)
eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS)
conditions of disordered eating that do not meet the complete criteria for AN or BN
training
consistent or chronic progression of exercise sessions designed to improve physiological function for better health or sport performance
actin and myosin
contractile proteins in muscle
Cardiac Cycle: Systole
contraction phase; blood is pumped out of chamber
why are carbs the preferred energy source for aerobic activity
converts to ATP twice as fast as protein/fat, faster sustainable pace, more efficient O2 use
sensory-somatic nervous system
coordinates actions and responses to external environment (voluntary)
gluconeogenesis
creation of glucose in the liver from noncarbohydrate sources, particularly glycerol, lactate or pyruvate, and alanine
beta-oxidation
cyclic series of steps that breaks off successive pairs of carbon atoms from FFA, which are then used to form acetyl CoA
vasoconstriction
decrease in radius of vessels
As exercise intensity increases, the % of ATP from fat __________
decreases
health benefits of omega 3 and 6 FA
decreases BP, blood clots, irregular heartbeats, and risk of CVD
vitamins
deficiencies can have severe consequences, some have RDA others have AI
The __________ of the neuron receive impulses and send them to the cell body, the _________ carries the impluses from the cell body to another neuron or target tissue
dendrites; axon
Which of the following might explain fatigue following a 100 meter sprint? A) depletion of muscle glycogen B) depletion of blood glucose C) depletion of intramuscular triglycerides D) depletion of PCr
depletion of PCr
Pulmonary ventilation increases during the onset of exercise first as a result of an increase in _______________, then as an increase in ____________________
depth of breathing; frequency of breaths
dose-response relationship
description of how change in one variable is associated with a corresponding change in another variable
Which of the following does not affect resting metabolic rate: A) diet B) body temperature C) fat-free mass D) age
diet
oxygen deficit
difference between oxygen required during exercise and oxygen supplied and utilized. occurs at the onset of all activiy
negative feedback loop
diminishes intensity of process to return to initial status quo Ex: Increased body heat triggers sweating mechanism, which cools body
hypokinetic diseases
diseases caused by and or associated with lack of physical activity
eating disorders (ED)
disturbances of eating habits or weight-control behavior that can result in significant impairment of physical health or psychosocial functioning
Acclimatization to heat results in (delayed) or (earlier) onset of sweating
earlier
anorexia nervosa (AN)
eating disorder characterized by marked self-induced weight loss accompanied by reproductive hormonal changes and an intense fear of fatness
anorexia athletica (AA)
eating disorder that is characterized by a food intake less than that required to support the training regimen and by a body weight less than 95% of normal
action potential?
electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters
minerals
elements, not of animal or plant origin, that are essential constituents of all cells and of many functions in the body
caloric cost
energy expenditure of an activity performed for a specific period of time. it may be expressed as a total calories (kcal), calories or kilojoules per minute, or relative to body weight
glycolysis
energy pathway responsible for the initial catabolism of glucose in a 10- or 11- step process that begins with glucose or glycogen and ends with pyruvate (aerobic glycolysis) or lactate (anaerobic glycolysis)
Suffix: ase=
enzyme
Iron
enzymes and proteins, role in oxygen transport and metabolism, most common mineral deficiency
Release of _________ by sympathetic nerves can cause both vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
epinephrine
supramaximal exercise
exercise bout in which energy requirement is greater than what can be supplied aerobically at VO2 max
T/F: Skeletal muscle is roughly 50-60% water.
false (60-75%)
the classic accepted RQ values are 1.0 for protein, .81 for carbs, and .7 for fat
false; .81 proteins, 1.0 carbs, .70 fat
ATP is constantly being hydrolyzed and resynthesized. the amount in skeletal muscle at rest can supply about 3 minutes of maximal contraction
false; 3 seconds
stored body fat in the form of triglycerides are turned over constantly in the body such that a complete turnover occurs once every 6 months
false; 3-4 weeks
pyruvic acid/ pyruvate is the universal or common intermediate in the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, protein
false; acetyl CoA
aerobic metabolism, oxidative metabolism, anaerobic (slow) glycolysis, and the 02 system are different terms to describe the same process
false; aerobic glycolysis
Before fatty acids (derived from triglycerides) can be converted to acetyl CoA and enter the Krebs cycle, electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation pathways, they must undergo the process of oxidative deamination
false; beta-oxidation; amino acids undergo oxidative deamination
2.7 g of water are stored in muscle per gram of dried triglyceride
false; dried glycogen
the primary fuel for slow glycolysis is glycogen and the end product is pyruvic acid/pyruvate
false; glucose; glycogen is fast and produces lactate
the highest blood lactate values are typically seen during the last 15s of short term, high intensity anaerobic activity, compared with the rest and at 5-10 min recovery
false; highest during 5-10 min recovery
the relationship between oxygen consumption and economy is direct. that is, the more oxygen consumed, the higher the economy of the activiy
false; inverse, lower
when amino acids are used as a fuel source, the group known as branched chain amino acids (BCAA), consisting of alanine, glutamine, and glutamate, are preferentially used
false; leucine, isoleucine, and valine
the oxygen deficit can be accurately attributed to an inability of the circulatory are respiratory systems to respond quickly enough to the increased energy demands at the onset of activity
false; limited cellular utilization of 02 as a result of metabolic adjustments in both the anaerobic and aerobic systems
more glycogen is stored in the liver than in skeletal muscles
false; more is stored in skeletal muscles
the time to achieve steady state varies from 1 to 3 min in youths and young adults at light to moderate submaximal exercise intensity, but it takes less time at high intensity exercise and in the elderly
false; more time
the first law of thermodynamics states that energy can either be created or destroyed
false; neither
compared with the aerobic energy system, the anaerobic systems are high in capacity, but low in power for producing energy
false; opposite
lactic acid is produced in muscle cells when the NADH+H formed in step 6 of glycolysis is reduced to NAD by the transfer of the H to pyruvic acid, which in turn is oxidized to lactic acid
false; oxidized, reduced
peak oxygen consumption and maximal oxygen consumption are the same thing
false; peak oxygen consumption is more accurate in young children and elderly individuals
the most important rate-limiting or regulatory enzyme in glycolysis is lactic dehydrogenase
false; phosphofructokinase (PFK)
anaerobic and aerobic production of energy cannot and do not work together (at the same time)
false; they do
A respiratory exchange ratio (VCO2/VO2) equal to 0.7 indicates that the substrate being consumed for energy production is A) carbohydrates B) fat C) 50% fat/50% carbohydrate D) protein
fat
2 fats important for metabolism
fatty acid, triglyceride
Purkinje fibers
fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract
electron transport system (ETS)
final metabolic pathway, which proceeds as a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that transfer electrons from the hydrogen atom carriers NAD and FAD to oxygen; water is formed as a by-product; the electrochemical energy released by the hydrogen ions is coupled to the formation of ATP from ADP and P
Pyruvate
final product of glycolysis
pulmonary circulation
flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
high carb diets
for athletes in training, carbs > 50% total caloric intake
anabolic reactions
forming of product from molecules; usually requiring energy
substrate
fuel substance acted on by an enzyme
training princibles
fundamental guidelines that form the basis for the development of an exercise training program; specificity, overload, rest/recovery/adaptation, progression, maintenance, individualization, warm-up/cooldown
oxidation
gain of oxygen, a loss of hydrogen, or the direct loss of electrons by an atom or substance
Pulmonary (external) Respiration
gas exchange between lungs and blood
Pulmonary Ventilation
gas exchange between the atmosphere and lungs
________ is secreted from alpha cells of the pancreas to increase blood glucose when low A) insulin B) somatostatin C) aldosterone D) glucagon
glucagon
unsaturated
good fat
Unmyelinated nerves: A) have a white, high-fat exterior B) conduct their impulses using salutatory conduction C) gradually conduct the action potential along the nerve fiber D) are insulated to maintain electrical signal strength
gradually conduct the action potential along the nerve fiber
The longer the half-life of a hormone, the (greater) or (lower) the potency of that hormone
greater
Type I muscle fibers: A) rapidly develop force B) have a high capacity for oxidative metabolism C) have a high peak force D) fatigue easily
have a high capacity for oxidative metabolism
Motor neurons: A) have a short axon and send impulses from the peripheral nervous system to the muscle B) have a long axon and send impulses from the central nervous system to the muscle C) have short dendrites and send impulses from muscle to the peripheral nervous system D) have short axons and long dendrites
have a long axon and send impulses from the central nervous system to the muscle
maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max)
highest amount of oxygen an individual can take in, transport, and utilize to produce ATP aerobically while breathing air during heavy exercise
maximal exercise
highest intensity, greatest load, or longest duration of exercise of which an individual is capable
Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)
highest pressure in arteries during ventricle contraction (systole) - typical resting value = ~120 mm Hg
maximal lactate steady state (MLSS)
highest workload that can be maintained over time without a continual rise in blood lactate; it indicates an exercise intensity above which lactate production exceeds clearance
The ability of an organism or cell to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological processes to keep functions in limits is called __________. A) homeostasis B) homocystine C) hemoglobin D) hormone
homeostasis
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
hydrogen carrier in cellular respiration
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
hydrogen carrier in cellular respiration
__________ occurs when someone drinks too much water resulting in a low blood sodium concentration
hyponatremia
Core body temperature is regulated by the: A) hypothalamus B) pituitary gland C) adrenal gland D) hypoxia
hypothalamus
Sweat is _______ compared to blood, meaning it has a lower osmotic pressure: A) hypotonic B) hypertonic C) hypohydrated D) hyperplasia
hypotonic
Vitamin C
important in immune function and as antioxidant
anaerobic
in the absence of, not requiring, nor utilizing, oxygen
aerobic
in the presence of, requiring, or utilizing oxygen
high glycemic index (>70)
increase blood glucose quickly, decrease performance in long-term events (fruit bars, rice cakes)
vasodilation
increase in radius of a blood vessel
Which physiological response does NOT occur in response to cold stress: A) shivering B) increased thyroid hormone C) increased blood how to muscle D) piloerection
increased blood how to muscle
Training adaptation to the nervous system include all of the following except: A) increased drive required for same force production B) increased number of motor units recruited C) increased rate of motor unit recruitment D) increased ability to rotate motor unit recruitment
increased drive required for same force production
spirometry
indirect calorimetry method for estimating heat production, in which expired air is analyzed for the amount of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide produced
What does the motor division do in the sensory-somatic nervous system?
initiates contraction of muscles & limb movements
The left ventricle: A) is decreased in size by endurance training B) has the thinnest wall of the cardiac chambers C) is increased in size with strength training D) pumps blood into the pulmonary artery
is increased in size with strength training
polyunsaturated
less than 1 double bond of carbon molecules (nuts, seeds)
coupled reactions
linked chemical processes in which a change in one substance is accompanied by a change in another
reduction
loss of oxygen, gain of electrons, or a gain of hydrogen by an atom or substance
before competition meals
low in fat and fiber, contain carbs, liquid to maximize gastric emptying
Veins
low-pressure collecting system to return oxygen-poor blood to the heart
Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP)
lowest arterial pressure during relaxation phase of the heart beat (during diastole) - Arterial BP decreases to ~70-80 mm Hg during diastole
fatty acids
major substrate used in metabolism at rest and in low-intensity exercise
glucose + glucose =
maltose
energy system power
maximal amount of energy that can be produced per unit of time
maximal voluntary contraction (MVC)
maximal force that the muscle can exert
1-RM
maximal weight that an individual can lift once during a dynamic resistance exercise
peak power (PP)
maximum power (force times distance divided by time) exerted during a very short duration (5 sec or less) work
$ Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
may be accounted for by oxygen cost of adjustments in: • ventilation • hormones • circulation (heart rate) • temperature • reloading blood with oxygen
Maximal Voluntary Ventilation (MVV)
measure maximal ventilation for 15-seconds and estimate minute ventilation (~80-180 L/min)
glycemic index (GI)
measure that compares the elevation in blood glucose caused by the ingestion of 50 g of any carb food with the elevation caused by the ingestion of 50 g of white bread of glucose
calorimetry
measurement of heat energy liberated or absorbed in metabolic processes
direct calorimetry
measurement of heat production as an indication of metabolic rate - Subject enclosed on a chamber
glycemic index
measures blood glucose after eating a carb and is compared with stander glucose of 100
Vitamin B
metabolism, increased carb metabolism and decreased blood lactate concentrations, aid in overall health and increase physical performance if deficiency exists
3 forms of carbohydrates
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
During physical activity: A) the arterial-venous oxygen difference decreases B) more oxygen is taken from the blood by the muscle C) the body attempts to decrease blood flow to improve oxygen delivery D) there is a decrease in oxygen delivery to tissue
more oxygen is taken from the blood by the muscle
calcium
most abundant mineral in body, necessary for muscle and heart contraction and tooth development
criterion test
most accurate tests for any given variable; the measurement standard against which other tests are judged
pulmonary ventilation
movement of air into and out of the lungs - GENERALLY INVOLUNTARY, but can be changed to voluntarily
Transient hypoglycemia results from a large increase in glucose uptake due to the combination of increased insulin concentration and _________________ during exercise after pre-exercise meal. A) decreased fat oxidation B) ketone body production C) glycemic index D) muscle contraction
muscle contraction
minerals are necessary for
muscle contraction, nerve transmission, protein synthesis, regulation of bodily fluid, metabolism, hormone functions
precapillary sphincters
muscular rings at entrance of capillary bed; react to local changes by constricting or relaxing, therefore controlling blood flow to tissues
Rate of conduction down axon is greatly affected by _________ of nerve
myelination
Isometric
no movement. Lateral raise within a door frame. Contraction yes, but no movement. Plank..?
coenzyme
nonprotein substance derived from a vitamin that activates an enzyme
Release of ____________ by sympathetic nerves causes vasoconstriction
norepinephrine
Release of ____________ by sympathetic nerves causes vasoconstriction.
norepinephrine
essential amino acids
not produced by body, must be consumed, primary stimulators of muscle protein synthesis
high protein diets
not recommended because of risks: heart disease, cancer, adult bone loss, kidney disease, difficulty with weight control
caloric equivalent
number of kilocalories produced per liter of oxygen consumed
low glycemic index (<55)
oatmeal, bananas
vitamins
organic substances of plant or animal origin that are essential for normal growth, development, metabolic processes, and energy transformations
excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)
oxygen consumption during recovery that is above normal resting values
economy
oxygen cost of any activity, but particularly walking or running at varying speeds
oxygen debt
oxygen taken in above resting values after exercise - depends on exercise intensity
oxygen debt
oxygen taken in above restingvalues after exercise -depends on exercise intensity
Sinotrial (SA) node
pacemaker of the heart
Which subdivision lowers heart rate and blood pressure when stimulated?
parasympathetic nervous system
detraining
partial or complete loss of training induced adaptation as a result of a training reduction or cessation
What factor does NOT play a big role in regulation the rate of ventilation at sea level? A) partial pressure of oxygen in the circulation B) partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the circulation C) the presence of H+ in the circulation D) stretch receptors in the lungs and respiratory muscles
partial pressure of oxygen in the circulation
mechanical efficiency
percentage of energy input that appears as useful external work
fatigue index (FI)
percentage of peak power drop-off during high-intensity, short-duration work
field tests
performance-based test that can be conducted anywhere and that estimates the values measured by the criterion test
training adaptations
physiological changes or adjustments resulting from an exercise training program that promote optimal functioning
physical fitness
physiological state of well-being that provides the foundation for the tasks of daily living, a degree of protection against hypokinetic disease, and a basis for participation in sport
Although it is often controlled by another gland, the ______ gland is referred to as the master gland because the hormones it produces impact almost every tissue and system in the body A) hypothalamus B) pituitary C) adrenal D) pancreas
pituitary
periodization
plan for training based on a manipulation of the fitness components with the intent of peaking the athlete for the competitive season or varying health related fitness training in cycles or harder and easier training
lactate thresholds
points on the linear-curvlinear continuum of lactate accumulation that appear to indicate sharp rises, often labeled as the first (LT1) and second (LT2) lactate threshold
omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids
polyunsaturated fatty acids, not produced by body
sport-specific physical fitness (SSPF)
portion of physical fitness directed toward optimizing athletic performance
protein supplementation before, during, after endurance training
postexercise enhances glycogen resynthesis and reduces muscle damage and soreness
laboratory tests
precise, direct measurement of physiological functions for the assessment of exercise responses or training adaptations; usually involves monitoring, collections, and analysis of expired air, blood, or electrical signals
cellular respiration
process by which cells transfer energy from food to ATP in a stepwise series of reactions. it relies heavily on the use of oxygen
glycogenolysis
process by which stored glycogen is broken down (hydrolyzed) to provide glucose
oxidative phosphorylation (OP)
process in which NADH + H and FADH2 are oxidized in the electron transport system and the energy released is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and P
carbohydrate loading (glycogen supercompensation)
process of nutritional modification that results in an additional storage of glycogen in muscle fiber up to two to three times the normal levels
positive feedback loop
promotes or intensifies a process Ex: Increase in acidity during exercise further stimulates an increase in blood flow
protein is needed for
protein synthesis, repair and recovery of skeletal muscle and connective tissue
enzyme
protein that accelerates the speed of a chemical reaction
Receptors
proteins designed to bind to specific neurotransmitter - Each neurotransmitter has its own unique receptor, which allows accuracy in communication - On binding a neurotransmitter, receptor opens channels for ions - Each receptor allows only 1 type of ion to pass through channels
sports drinks
provide exogenous glucose to spare muscle glycogen and replace electrolytes
The right ventricle: A) pumps blood to the periphreal circulation B) pumps blood to the aorta C) pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation D) pumps blood into the left atrium
pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation
The right ventricle: A) Pumps blood to the peripheral circulation B) Pumps blood to the aorta C) pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation D) pumps blood into the left atrium
pumps blood to the pulmonary circulation
training volume
quantity of training overload calculated as frequency times duration for anaerobic or aerobic continuous exercise or number of sets times number of repetitions for resistance exercise
Respiratory Qutient (RQ)
ratio of the amount of carbon dioxide produced divided by the amount of oxygen consumed at a cellular level
respiratory exchange ratio (RER)
ratio of the volume of CO2 produced dived by the volume of O2 consumed in the body as a whole
Cardiac Cycle: Diastole
relaxation phase; blood fills chamber - requires constant supply of oxygen to cardiac muscle
after competition meals
replenish carbs quickly, ingest protein to supply needed amino acids, create anabolic environment for muscle protein repair
Choose the answer that is NOT correct: Proprioceptors play a role in: A) returning muscle fiber to original length during relaxation B) how the body senses where it is in space C) the learning effect associated with performing a skill D) preventing damage to the muscle
returning muscle fiber to original length during relaxation
Blood returning to the heart from the periphery enters into what chamber: A) right ventricle B) right atrium C) left ventricle D) left atrium
right atrium
metabolic pathway
sequence of enzyme-mediated chemical reaction resulting in a specific product
Krebs Cycle
series of eight chemical reactions that begins and ends with the same substance; energy is liberated for direct substrate phosphorylation of ATP from ADP and P, carbon dioxide is formed and hydrogen atoms removed and carried by NAD and FAD to the electron transport system; does not directly utilize oxygen by requires its presence
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high-energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions - Oxidative phosphorylation: production of ATP by ETC
absolute submaximal workload
set exercise load performed at any intensity from just above resting to just below maximum
FEV1/FVC
should be >80 in non-diseased -You get 80% of air out of the lungs in the first second
carb loading
shown to improve endurance in events longer than 1 hr
The ________ is the tissue in the heart where a contraction impulse is initiated A) atrioventricular node B) sinoarterial node C) purkinji fibers D) bundle of His
sinoarterial node
oxygen drift
situation that occurs in submaximal activity of long duration, or above 70% VO2 max, or in hot and humid conditions where oxygen consumption increases, despite the fact that the oxygen requirement of the activity has not changed
The _______ describes how the nervous system recruits individual motor units in an orderly, predictable fashion from smaller to larger motor units A) Action Potential B) Size principle C) asynchronous recruitment D) All-or-none-law
size principle
Fasciculus
small bundle of fibers
Venules
small veins that carry blood toward heart
Arterioles
small, branch arteries
simple carbs
soda
velocity at VO2 max
speed at which an individual can run when working at his or her maximal oxygen consumption, based on both submaximal running economy and VO2 max
Select the option that is NOT true: A typical neuron consists of: A) dendrites B) a cell body C) axons D) spindles
spindles
stress
state manifested by the specific syndrome that consists of all the non specifically induced changes within a biological system; a disruption in body homeostasis and all attempts by the body to regain homeostasis
overtraining syndrome (OTS)
state of chronic decrement in performance and ability to train, in which restoration may take several weeks, months, or even years
homeostasis
state of dynamic equilibrium of the internal environment of the body
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
stored chemical energy that links the energy-yielding and energy-requiring functions within all cells
glycogen
stored form of carb composed of chains of glucose molecules chemically linked together
Vitamin C may combat
stress, fatigue and muscle injury, delayed onset musclar soreness
branched chain
substrates for oxidation and thus ATP production, most important stimulators of protein synthesis
Where does the sensory division receive signals from in the sensory-somatic nervous system?
tendons, joints, skin, muscles, eyes, nose, ears, tongue, etc.
health-related physical fitness (HRPF)
that portion of physical fitness directed toward the prevention of or rehabilitation from disease, the development of a high level of functional capacity for the necessary and discretionary tasks of life, and the maintenance or enhancement of physiological functions in biological systems that are not involved in performance but are influenced by habitual activity
What physiological adaptation does NOT occur when muscle fibers are recruited to perform an endurance exercise workout? A) the capillary density inn the type I fibers increase B) the # of mitochondria increases C) the concentration of myoglobin increases D) the # of type I fibers increases
the # of type I fibers increases
phosphorylation
the addition of a phosphate (Pi)
The peripheral nervous system may be subdivided into: A) the automatic and autonomic nervous system B) the autonomic and sensory-somatic nervous system C) the distal and proximal peripheral motor nervous system D) the central and voluntary nervous system
the autonomic and sensory-somatic nervous system
Glycolysis
the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. - Two ATP consumed during first 3 reactions • Total of 4 ATP generated later in process • Hydrogen produced in sixth reaction accepted by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
During exhalation: A) Accessory muscles may contract, pulling the ribcage upward B) the diaphragm relaxes increasing intrapulmonic pressure C) lung volume increases D) atmospheric pressure increases
the diaphragm relaxes increasing intrapulmonic pressure
During exhalation: a) accessory muscles may contract, pulling the ribcage upward b) the diaphragm relaxes, increasing intrapulmonic pressure c) lung volume increases d) atmospheric pressure increases
the diaphragm relaxes, increasing intrapulmonic pressure
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
the energy expenditure of the body under BMR conditions plus other daily sedentary activities - varies with age, sex, body temp, stress, body surface area
venous return
the flow of blood back to the heart
Vital Capacity
the greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath.
exercise response
the pattern of homeostatic disruption or change in physiological variables during a single acute bout of physical exertion
Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)
the ratio of carbon dioxide expired to oxygen consumed at the level of the lungs -In general, for our purposes RQ ~ RER - RER (also abbreviated as "R") is more common
Cardiac Wall Thickness
the thicker the wall of cardiac chamber, the greater the force - Regular physical training & chronic hypertension (high resting BP - 140/90 mm Hg) result in: • thickening of L ventricle wall • increase in L ventricular mass
Functional Residual Capacity
the volume of air present in the lungs at the end of passive expiration
Abnormal respiration
this can be due to pulmonary diseases such as asthma or Cystic Fibrosis
Basal metabolic rate is regulated by: A) Cortisol hormone B) Beta-endorphin hormone C) thyroid hormones T3 and T4 D) Luteinizing hormone
thyroid hormones T3 and T4
The amount of air moved per breath is classified as ___________ A) Pulmonary ventilation B) residual volume C) cardiac output D) tidal volume
tidal volume
During the onset of exercise, pulmonary ventilation increases first as a result of an increase in _____________, then as an increase in ____________
tidal volume & frequency
Why do people tend to open their mouths to breathe during heavy exercise? a. to reduce the anatomical dead space b. to reduce the resistance to airflow c. to reduce the calories consumed with temperature changes in the nasal passages d. to alter the pressure difference
to reduce the resistance to airflow
energy system capacity
total amount of energy that can be produced by an energy system
metabolism
total of all energy transformations that occur in the body
Training effect on stroke volume
training leads to increased blood volume - more blood -> + venous return -> + cardiac filling -> force of contraction -> + SV
substrate level phosphorylation
transfer of P directly from a phosphorylated intermediate or substrates to ADP without any oxidation occuring
transamination
transfer of the NH2 amino group from an amino acid to a keto acid
sports anemia
transient decrease in RBC and hemoglobin level (grams per deciliter of blood)
exercise intensity
triglyceride or carbohydrate metabolism
ATP is produced in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation, but by oxidative phosphorylation in the ETS
true
aerobic metabolism can be assessed by measuring oxygen consumption or heat production
true
alactic anaerobic metabolism, the phosphagen system, and the ATP-PC system are different terms to describe the same process
true
because resting individuals rarely, if ever, use only one fuel, an RQ of .93 indicates a high reliance on carbs, .75 indicates a high reliance on fat, and .82 indicates either a normal mixed diet or all three fuels or a fasting individual burning muscle protein
true
before amino acids (derived from proteins) can be converted to keto acids and ultimately enter the Krebs cycle, electron transport system/oxidative phosphorylation pathways, they must undergo the process of oxidative deamination or transamination
true
brain cells produce energy anaerobically and cardiac muscle cells have only a minimal capacity for anaerobic energy production
true
during incremental exercise to maximum, the appearance of elevated levels of lactic acid/lactate is as a continuous positive curvlinear rise or recticlinear breakpoints represent anaerobic thresholds
true
during long-term exercise, growth hormone and cortisol stimulate both glycogen breakdown and formation as well as fat mobilization and amino acid uptake
true
during very short term, high intensity anaerobic exercise (~20-40 s), CP stores have depleted rapidly and ATP levels drop to <25% of normal resting
true
most Wii fit active video games have been shown by research to fall into the moderate (3-5.9 METs) and vigorous (>6 METs) activity classification
true
muscle cells both produce and consume lactate at the same time
true
one MET for an adult is set at 3.5 mL*kg/min or 1 kcal/kgh
true
open-circuit indierct spirometry accurately measures aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during rest, steady state submaximal, non steady state submaximal and maximal exercise
true
the RER that is measure during exercise does not provide any indication of the amount or percentage of protein used as fuel
true
the anaerobic exercise response can be described either by changes in chemical substances (ATP,PC, lactate) or by measuring the amount of work performed or power generated during short-duration, high-intensity activity
true
the most important rate-limiting or regulatory enzyme in ETS/OP is cytochrome oxidase
true
the most important rate-limiting reaction in the Krebs cycle is isocitrate dehydrogenase
true
the time point at which the aerobic and anaerobic energy contribution to ATP production becomes approximately equal in maximal exercise is 75 s
true
two shuttle systems operate to transport hydrogen across the inner mitochondrial membrane: the malate-aspartate shuttle predominates in cardiac muscle and the glycerol-phosphate shuttle predominates in most skeletal muscle
true
lactic acid is always produced in the body; the amount of lactate measured in blood represents the balance between lactic acid production and removal
true; RBCs, kidneys, and eyes
lactic anaerobic metabolism, the glycotic system, and the LA system are different terms to describe the same process
true; anaerobic glycolysis
once inside any particular muscle cell, glucose and glycogen are trapped there. however, glycogen stored in the liver can be released into the blood stream as glucose and travel to any cell where it is needed
true; step 1 glycolysis
exercise mode
type of activity or sport; usually classified by energy demand or type of muscle action
MET
unit that represents the MET in multiples of the resting rate of oxygen consumption of any given activity
At rest, the largest amount of body water is lost as: A) insensible perspiration B) feces C) sweat D) urine
urine
O2 storage limited
use it or lose it
adequate intake (AI)
used when an RDA cannot be determined. the AI is an estimate of intake by healthy individuals
complex carbs
veggies, grains
micronutrients (organic)
vitamins, minerals, iron, calcium
Forced expiratory volume in 1 sec (FEV1)
volume expired in 1 second when exhale as fast and as forceful as possible (~2-4L)
myelin sheath
white substance high in lipid that covers axon
O2 transport in blood
~99% of O2 is transported bound to hemoglobin (HGB) ~1% us dissolved in plasma *every HGB molecule can carry 4 O2 molecules
Metabolic substrates for rest and exercise
• Aerobic Adaptations to Exercise - Enzyme adaptations - increase number of mitochondria & enzyme activity within mito. - Substrate adaptations - prolong CHO availability • substrate availability - ↑ muscle glycogen, ↑ IMTG • substrate use during exercise - less CHO use at same intensity - Lactate threshold adaptations • ↑ buffering capacity
Blockage is the result of plaque formation in CAD, plaque formation leads to:
• Atherosclerosis: progressive narrowing of artery • Arteriosclerosis: thickening & loss of elasticity of arterial wall
Name the three neuron components and what they do
• Dendrites: receive impulses & send to cell body • Cell body: contains nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc. • Axons: send impulses from cell body to another neuron or target tissue
RER > 1
• During high intensity exercise, RER can be measured to be > 1.0 • Violates the rule of 0.70 - 1.0! • Due to excess CO2 not produced from substrate breakdown - CO2 released in response to buffering lactic acid by bicarbonate - HLa+NaHCO3NaLa+H2CO3H2O+CO2lungs
Indirect Calorimetry (Open circuit spirometry)
• Measures - % O2 expired - % CO2 expired - Volume expired or inspired (l/min) • Assumes - % O2 inspired (20.93%) - % CO2 inspired (0.03%)
Oxygen Consumption During Exercise
• Oxygen consumption = (O2 IN) - (O2 OUT) - Pulmonary oxygen uptake • Oxygen is measured at lung, not tissues...but O2 is used in tissue not lungs - VO2
oxygen consumption during exercise
• Oxygen consumption = (O2 IN) - (O2 OUT) - Pulmonary oxygen uptake • Oxygen is measured at lung, not tissues...but O2 is used in tissue not lungs - VO2
what are the two nerve fibers apart of the Extrinsic control of the cardiac cycle
• Parasympathetic nerve fibers • Sympathetic nerve fibers
Aerobic metabolism for long term energy
• Provides means to synthesize large amounts of ATP • Important for exercise lasting longer than a few seconds or minutes • Aerobic production takes place in mitochondria and involves two major enzymatic systems: - Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) - Electron transport chain
VO2 and Exercise Intensity
• VO2 increases in proportion to the increase in energy expenditure • Therefore, VO2 increases linearly with submaximal exercise intensity • Point where VO2 no longer increases with increasing intensity = VO2max
Much of the effect of CHO ingestion is due to __________
• increased blood glucose concentration • increased plasma insulin concentration
parasympathetic nerve fibers
• release acetylcholine at SA & AV nodes - decreased activity of nodes= decreased heart rate (bradycardia)
Sympathetic nerve fibers
• release norepinephrine - Increased activity of nodes= increased heart rate (tachycardia)
