EXAM 2 Readings / lecture 9-16

Match each type of potassium imbalance to its neurological effects.

slow-onset hyperkalemia - voltage-gated sodium channels inactivate. This prevents the firing of action potentials hypokalemia - the concentration gradient for K+ across the membrane becomes steeper, resulting in hyperpolarization. This makes neurons and muscle cells less excitable rapid-onset hyperkalemia - neurons and muscle cells depolarize suddenly and fire action potentials. Synchronous activation of cardiac muscle cells can lead to cardiac arrest

During dehydration, urine volume decreases and more body water is retained. This is often due to increased reabsorption of which of the following?

sodium

The osmotic and electrical gradients that drive the reabsorption of water and solutes is created by reabsorption of the solute ______.

sodium

Changes in urine volume are often linked to adjustments in which of the following?

sodium reabsoption

Aldosterone increases reabsorption of the electrolyte ______ while increasing secretion of the electrolyte ___________.

sodium, potassium

The type of recombination whereby several hundred DNA segments are shuffled and combined in various ways to produce antibody genes unique to each clone of B cells is ______ recombination.

somatic

True or false: Evidence suggests that ventilation increases more quickly in response to high levels of CO2 than it does to low levels of O2 in the blood.

true

True or false: The kidneys cannot compensate very well for inadequate fluid intake, but they compensate very well, on the other hand, for abnormally high fluid intake.

true Reason: The statement is true. Below an intake of about 1 L/ day, the kidneys fail to compensate, thus the blood volume drops significantly and there may be a threat of death from hypovolemic shock. In cases of high fluid intake, the kidneys eliminate the excess by water diuresis and maintain a stable blood volume.

The mechanism by which the glomerulus receives feedback on the status of downstream tubular fluid is called _______ feedback.

tubuloglomerular

Urine flows from the renal pelvis directly into ______.

ureter

The male _______ is a tube that conveys both urine and semen out of the body.

urethra

Urine is conveyed out of the body by a tube called the ________.

urethra

Regarding nitrogenous wastes, the PCT reabsorbs most of the ______, but none of the ______.

uric acid, creatinine

The total water output per day in a resting adult is about 2500 mL. Match the route of water loss with its approximate normal volume

urine = 1500 mL/da feces = 200 mL/day sweat = 100 mL/day expired breath = 300 mL/day cutaneous transpiration = 400 mL/day

The __________ recta within the medulla of the kidney acts as a countercurrent exchanger.

vasa

The sympathetic nervous system and adrenal epinephrine cause ______ of the afferent arterioles, thereby reducing the glomerular filtration rate.

vasoconstriction

What does hyperemia result from?

vasodilation

What is artificial active immunity?

Acquiring one's own immunity against an attenuated pathogen

How does the ascending limb of the nephron loop shift sodium, potassium, and chloride into the ECF?

Active transport

Calcium does which of the following?

Acts as second messenger and activates exocytosis during neurotransmission Participates in bone and tooth development Participates in muscle contraction Acts as a factor for blood clotting

What is the role of the pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory group?

Adjusts respiratory rate based on stimuli from limbic system or cerebral cortex

Since HCl is a strong acid and would lower the pH of the tubular fluid below the limiting pH, H+ is instead excreted as which of the following?

Ammonium chloride

Which describe lysozyme?

An enzyme Found in saliva, tears, and other body fluids Capable of destroying bacteria

Which hormones regulate the amount of water and salt reabsorbed by the DCT and collecting duct?

Antidiuretic hormone Aldosterone Natriuretic peptides

Which cell phagocytizes an antigen and displays fragments of it on its surface?

Antigen-presenting cell

The water content (as a percentage of total body weight) of a 70 kg young male is which of the following?

Around 55 - 60% of total body weight

The salts in the medullary ECF were transported from which limb of the nephron loop?

Ascending

Since there is so much chloride in the tubular fluid, why is H+ excreted as ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and not simply excreted as hydrochloric acid (HCl)?

Because HCl is too strong of an acid and would drop the pH of the tubular fluid below the limiting pH

After several days of severe vomiting, a pregnant woman suffers from alkalosis. Her urine will contain an elevated concentration of which of the following?

Bicarbonate

Oxygen is unloaded in the body tissues because the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is lower in the systemic capillaries (compared to its affinity in the alveolar capillaries). Which factor contributes to this?

CO2 produced in the peripheral tissues leads to increased H+ concentration.

By which means can water move from one fluid compartment to another?

Capillary filtration osmosis

Hemoglobin and carbon dioxide form which of the following?

Carbaminohemoglobin

The renal tubules are incapable of reabsorbing HCO3- directly. Instead, an enzyme breaks down the H2CO3 in the tubular fluid to form CO2, which can be reabsorbed. What is the name of the enzyme?

Carbonic anhydrase

Which is true about carbon dioxide loading?

Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H20 into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

The buffering ability of proteins is primarily due to which of the following? formation of carbonic acid amino side groups bind H+ when pH beings to rise ability of HPO42- to bind H+ when pH begins to rise carboxyl side groups release H+ when pH begins to rise

Carboxyl side groups release H+ when pH begins to rise Amino side groups bind H+ when pH falls

The filtration pressure in the glomerulus is determined by the balance of which two pressures?

Colloid osmotic Blood hydrostatic

Which proteins found in blood are involved in the nonspecific defense against pathogens?

Complement

What are three antimicrobial proteins?

Complement Defensin Interferon

Acidosis depresses the central nervous system and alkalosis makes the nervous system hyperexcitable. Based on this, which of the following are possible symptoms of acidosis?

Confusion Coma Disorientation

Which T cells attack and destroy target cells by secreting perforins and granzymes?

Cytotoxic

On the image, which area of an antibody determines its class? (figure 21.19)

D

Which are types of fluid deficiency? Choose two of the options from the list below.

Dehydration volume depletion

In which form of fluid imbalance is total body water reduced and osmolarity elevated?

Dehydration (negative water balance)

Which two factors contribute most to airflow resistance? Select two answers below.

Diameter of the bronchioles Lung compliance

Which structure determines what solutes are able to pass from the glomerular blood into the capsular space?

Filtration membrane

Which structure is composed of a fenestrated capillary endothelium, a basement membrane, and a filtration slit?

Filtration membrane

Within the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which cells are smooth muscle cells in the afferent arteriole?

Granular cells

Deoxygenated blood can carry more carbon dioxide, whereas oxygenated blood has a lower carbon dioxide carrying capacity. This phenomenon is known as the ______ effect.

Haldane

Deoxygenated blood can carry more carbon dioxide, whereas oxygenated blood has a lower carbon dioxide carrying capacity. This phenomenon is known as the _______ effect.

Haldane

Soda is bottled under high pressure so that more carbon dioxide will dissolve in the drink. When you open the bottle, you suddenly decrease the pressure and the carbon dioxide comes bubbling out of solution. This is a practical example of which law?

Henry's law

Peripheral chemoreceptors trigger an increase in ventilation in response to which of the following?

High levels of blood CO2

The kidneys help regulate acid-base balance through the tubular secretion of which molecules?

Hydrogen and bicarbonate ions

Which reduces the sodium permeability of plasma membranes and inhibits the depolarization of nerve and muscle cells, as well as causing muscular weakness, depressed reflexes, and cardiac arrhythmia?

Hypercalcemia

Which term refers to a plasma sodium concentration in excess of 145 mEq/L?

Hypernatremia

What are possible consequences of hypernatremia? Select all that apply.

Hypertension Edema Water retention (NOT cellular swelling - that's a possible consequence of hyponatremia)

Which causes an increase in the sodium permeability of plasma membranes, making the nervous and muscular systems to be overly excitable?

Hypocalcemia

Which term refers to plasma concentrations of calcium less than 4.5 mEq/L?

Hypocalcemia

Which term refers to a plasma concentration of chloride less than 95 mEq/L?

Hypochloremia

Which may be caused by acidosis?

Hypochloremia Hyperkalemia Hypocalcemia

Hyperactivity of the nervous and muscular system is a symptom of which of the following?

Hypomagnesemia

What stimulates the secretion of aldosterone? Select all that apply.

Hypotension Hyperkalemia Hyponatremia

What might happen if you lost large volumes of water and salt and then drank large quantities of plain water?

Hypotonic hydration

Which term (also called water intoxication or positive water balance), refers to a condition in which more water than sodium is retained or ingested?

Hypotonic hydration

Which may occur when proportionate amounts of water and sodium are lost without replacement, for example due to hemorrhage, chronic vomiting, or diarrhea?

Hypovolemia

In which form of fluid imbalance is total body water reduced while osmolarity remains normal?

Hypovolemia (volume depletion)

Which form of hypoxia would result from carbon monoxide poisoning?

Hypoxemic hypoxia

What is it called when mature T-cells become capable of recognizing antigens presented by APCs?

Immunocompetence

Hypovolemia and dehydration are both examples of fluid deficiency. How do they differ?

In dehydration water is lost, and in hypovolemia both water and electrolytes are lost.

How does activation of the renin-angiotensin mechanism affect blood pressure?

In increases the BP. (Renin leads to the production of angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor)

Which leads to an increased secretion of natriuretic peptides?

Increased blood pressure

How does hypertension lead to kidney damage?

It can rupture glomerular capillaries.

Which are true regarding respiratory compensation?

It is effective in correcting for PCO2 imbalances. It corrects the pH of body fluids by expelling or retaining CO2.

Long-term satiation of thirst depends on which of the following?

Lowering of blood osmolarity

Which of these occurs during exhalation?

Lung volumes decrease and intrapulmonary pressure increases.

What is the order of urine-collecting structures found within the kidney?

Minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter

Which hormone regulates phosphate homeostasis as part of the mechanism for increasing extracellular free calcium concentrations?

Parathyroid hormone

Which term refers to the pressure that each individual gas in a mixture would exert if the other gases were not present?

Partial pressure

Fluid and solutes reabsorbed in the PCT are picked up by which capillary bed?

Peritubular capillaries

The pH of intracellular fluid is buffered mainly by which of the following?

Proteins

What is longest and most coiled region of the renal tubule?

Proximal convoluted tubule

Which region of the nephron is adapted for reabsorption, as seen in its length and prominent microvilli?

Proximal convoluted tubule

Which structure is composed of a proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct?

Renal tubule

The atrial and brain natriuretic peptides inhibit the secretion of which of the following?

Renin ADH

How is the functional residual capacity calculated?

Residual volume + expiratory reserve volume (RV + ERV)

During reabsorption from the PCT, water can carry dissolved substances by which process?

Solvent drag Reason: Facilitated diffusion is the process by which a membrane protein acts as a carrier for solutes to cross the plasma membrane, which means they're not carried by water.

What are the three segments of the male urethra?

Spongy urethra Prostatic urethra Membranous urethra

What is the intrapleural pressure?

The pressure in the fluid-filled space between the parietal and visceral pleurae

Boyle's Law states which of the following?

The pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume at a constant temperature.

Dalton's Law states which of the following?

The total atmospheric pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases present.

_______refers to a shift in the pH of blood above 7.45.

alkalosis

Angiotensin II stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to secrete _______ hormone.

antidiuretic

Increased blood osmolarity stimulates hypothalamic osmoreceptors. This triggers the posterior pituitary to release which of the following?

antidiuretic hormone

Any large molecule capable of triggering an immune response is called a(n) .

antigen

Cells that phagocytize antigens and display antigenic fragments on their surface are called _________ -presenting cells.

antigen

What is any large molecule capable of triggering an immune response called?

antigen

Interferons, complement, defensins and granzymes are examples of which of the following?

antimicrobial proteins

Antidiuretic hormone increases water permeability of the collecting ducts by altering the number and location of membrane proteins called ______.

aquaporins

Water is reabsorbed through specialized water channels called ______.

aquaporins

The ability of the nephrons to adjust their own blood flow and GFR without nervous or hormonal control is called renal ______.

autoregulation

Which renal tubule segment is indicated in the figure? (figure 23.6)

collecting duct

The alternative, classical, and lectin pathways are the three pathways to activate ______.

complement

Which globulins make powerful contributions to both nonspecific resistance and specific immunity?

complement

What type of cell phagocytizes antigen antibody complexes, allergens, and inflammatory chemicals and secretes histaminase and other molecules that combat parasitic infections?

eosinophils

What is the region of an antigen that stimulates an immune response?

epitope

Match the steroid hormones below with their effects on Na+ homeostasis.

estrogen - mimics the effect of aldosterone and causes women to retain water during pregnancy and part of the menstrual cycle progesterone - reduces sodium reabsorption and has a diuretic effect glucocorticoid - promotes sodium reabsorption and edema

Which term refers to relaxed, quiet breathing?

eupnea

True or false: Respiratory loss decreases in cold weather.

false Reason: Respiratory loss increases in cold weather because cold air is drier and absorbs more body water.

True or false: During dehydration, the kidneys restore blood volume by the formation of metabolic water.

false Reason: The statement is false. The kidneys do not restore blood volume. They can minimize volume loss by forming concentrated urine, however they can not "make" enough water to replace that lost in urination. In dehydration they can support existing fluid levels and slow down the rate of loss until water and electrolytes are ingested.

True or false: All of the oxygen transported in the blood is usually unloaded at a systemic capillary.

false (Reason: RBCs usually leave the systemic capillaries at about 75% oxygen saturation. This is called venous reserve of oxygen and can sustain the body for several minutes)

True or false: The majority of dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as carbaminohemoglobin.

false (only a small proportion of the body's carbon dioxide is transported by carbaminohemoglobin. Most is transported as bicarbonate dissolved in the blood.)

True or false: Complement functions to induce pathogen destruction by inducing apoptosis.

false (reason: apoptosis is the programmed cell death of our own cells. Complement functions to induce destruction of pathogens)

Which term refers to the volume of air (or percentage of the vital capacity) that can be exhaled in a specific amount of time?

forced expiratory volume

Examples of pathogens are ______.

fungi bacteria viruses

In glomerular filtration, blood is filtered to form ______.

glomerular filtrate

The capillary bed fed by an afferent arteriole and drained by an efferent arteriole is a ______.

glomerulus

The Valsalva maneuver involves closing the ______ while trying to exhale.

glottis

Hyperglycemia in diabetes results in glucose in the urine, a condition called

glycosuria

Hyperglycemia in diabetes results in glucose in the urine, a condition called _____.

glycosuria

Which is an anticoagulant secreted by basophils and mast cells?

heparin

If the glomerular filtration rate is too ______, fluid flows through the renal tubules too rapidly. Urine output will increase and electrolyte depletion may occur.

high

Compared to capillaries beds in the rest of the body, the hydrostatic pressure within the glomerular capillary bed is ______.

higher

The more concentrated the urine, the ______ its specific gravity.

higher

The following electrolyte imbalances may all be caused by acidosis. Match each type of imbalance to the explanation of how it may be caused by acidosis.

hyperkalemia - H+ diffuses into cells and displaces K+ (as K+ leaves the ICF, K+ concentration in the ECF rises) hypochloremia - more Cl- is excreted as NH4Cl to buffer the excess acid in the renal tubules, leaving less Cl- in the ECF hypocalcemia - acidosis causes more Ca2+ to bind to plasma protein and citrate ions, lowering the concentration of free, ionized Ca2+

Plasma concentrations of calcium less than 4.5 mEq/L are known as ______ .

hypocalcemia

A plasma concentration of chloride less than 95 mEq/L is called ______ and it is usually a side effect of hyponatremia.

hypochloremia

Some tumors of the adrenal cortex secrete excess aldosterone. Paralysis may occur because aldosterone stimulates renal secretion of potassium ions, which may result in a potassium deficiency called _________.

hypokalemia

Match each form of fluid imbalance to its description.

hypovolemia = Total body water is reduced; ECF remains isotonic. dehydration = Total body water is reduced; ECF becomes hypertonic. volume excess = Total body water is elevated; ECF remains isotonic. hypotonic hydration = Total body water is elevated; ECF becomes hypotonic.

How is hypoxia classified according to cause? Choose the four types of hypoxia from the list below.

hypoxemic - low arterial PO2, usually due to inadequate pulmonary gas exchange ischemic - inadequate blood circulation (seen in congestive heart failure) anemic - due to anemia and inability of blood to carry adequate oxygen histotoxic - occurs when a metabolic poison such as cyanide prevents tissues from using the oxygen delivered to them

An increased GFR results in a(n) ______ urine volume and ______ blood volume.

increased, decreased Increased GFR means more blood plasma will become filtrate and urine

Even though aldosterone ______ the tubular reabsorption of sodium and water, this is offset by a(n) ______ in GFR; thus there is only a small ______ in urine output.

increases; increase; decrease

As fluid flows down the water-permeable descending limb of the nephron loop, the osmolarity of the tubular fluid is ______.

increasing

Redness, heat, swelling, and pain are signs that accompany which process?

inflammation

Which type of defense guards against a broad range of pathogens?

innate

The accumulation of reabsorbed fluid on the basal side of the epithelial cells creates a high tissue fluid pressure that drives water ______ the peritubular capillaries.

into

To measure glomerular filtration rate, a substance that is neither secreted, reabsorbed, or metabolized is needed. The compound ______ is an example of a substance used to measure GFR.

inulin

Exposure to smog and dust can lead to coughing and bronchoconstriction. Which type of respiratory receptors initiate this response?

irritant receptors

The organic acid that may be excreted in sweat and inhibits microbial growth is __________ acid.

lactic

The trachea, primary bronchi and the alveolar sacs all belong to which of the following?

lower respiratory tract

Match the pH disorder with its cause.

metabolic acidosis - excess production of organic acids i.e. diabetes meliltus and starvation; hyperkalemia, chronic diarrhea; excessive alcohol consumption; aspirin; laxatives Metabolic alkalosis - rare but can result from chronic vomitting; overuse of antacids; aldosterone hypersecretion respiratory acidosis - hypoventilation; apnea respiratory alkalosis - hyperventilation due to pain or emotions such as anxiety

Which structures increase the absorptive area of proximal convoluted tubule cells?

microvilli

Which leukocyte transforms into a macrophage when it moves from the blood into the tissues?

monocyte

When considering all of the pressures present within the renal corpuscle, the net filtration pressure causes the movement of fluid ______ the glomerular capillaries.

out of

Central chemoreceptors in the brain stem that are involved in respiratory control respond most directly to changes in which of the following?

pH

Organisms that cause disease, such as bacteria or fungi, are considered ___ .

pathogens

Chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies are called ______ chemoreceptors.

peripheral

Constriction of the efferent arteriole by angiotensin II lowers blood pressure in the ______ capillaries and enhances the reabsorption of sodium and water.

peritubular

The ______ capillaries pick up fluid and solutes that are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.

peritubular

The ______ buffer system is a solution of H(PO4)2 and H2(PO4).

phosphate

The segment of renal tubule indicated in the figure is the convoluted tubule. (figure 23.6)

proximal

Which are parts of a renal tubule?

proximal convoluted tubule nephron loop distal convoluted tubule collecting duct

Which term describes the ease with which lung tissue expands during breathing?

pulmonary compliance

The accumulation of dead cells, fluid, and tissue debris is called .

pus

In the kidney, the process by which fluid and solutes from the tubular fluid are reclaimed and returned to the blood is called tubular ______.

reabsorption

Match the type of fluid replacement with the ideal case in which it could be used.

normal saline isotonic 0.9% - patients with extensive blood loss ringer's lactate solution - patients with acidosis potassium chloride - patients with alkalosis (with no renal failure) and close monitoring of blood pH plasma volume expanders (i.e. mannitol) - patients with seizures or coma (in order to combat hypotonic hydration) isotonic 5% dextrose - patients who cannot eat (for example after severe trauma)

What is a urine output of less than 500 ml/day called?

oliguria

Which statements are true regarding acid-base imbalances?

pH imbalances can cause electrolyte imbalances. Fluid imbalances can cause pH imbalances. Electrolyte imbalances can cause pH imbalances.

In artificial ________ immunity, the body is injected with antibodies from another person or an animal.

passive

When the body acquires antibodies from another person or an animal that has developed its own immunity to the pathogen, this type what type of immunity?

passive

_____-cells secrete antibodies.

plasma

Which locations contain the brainstem respiratory centers?

pons medulla oblongata

Which term refers to water that is taken into the body in food and drink?

preformed water

_______ T cells inhibit multiplication and cytokine secretion by other T cells, and thus limit immune responses.

regulatory

Which occurs when blood volume and pressure are too high?

release of ADH is inhibited

The vasa recta is a network of blood vessels located mostly within which of the following?

renal medulla

The enzyme ______ converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

renin

When there is a drop in blood pressure, the juxtaglomerular cells respond by secreting which of the following?

renin

Which term refers to the volume of air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation?

residual volume

The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs are the principal organs of which system?

respiratory

The system that supplies the body with oxygen and expels carbon dioxide by the rhythmic intake and expulsion of air is the ______ system.

respiratory

Which term refers to one complete breath, in and out?

respiratory cycle

Prolonged, heavy work increases which of the following? Select all that apply.

respiratory loss perspiration

Fever and inflammation belong to the body's ______ line of defense.

second

Which line of defense consists of several nonspecific defense mechanisms against pathogens that break through the skin or mucous membranes?

second

What is the normal pH of urine?

slightly acidic

Which form of lung cancer is most likely to become metastatic?

small-cell carcinoma

The most abundant cation in the glomerular filtrate is ______.

sodium

What is the third line of defense against pathogens?

specific defenses

Which is the most common form of lung cancer?

squamous-cell carcinoma

Match each type of lung cancer to its description.

squamous-cell carcinoma = originates in the basal cells of the bronchial epithelium adenocarcinoma = originates in the mucous glands of the lamina propria small-cell carcinoma = originates in the main bronchi but invades the mediastinum and metastasizes quickly

____receptors respond to the degree of inflation of the lungs/alveoli.

stretch

Which receptors associated with the respiratory system respond to the inflation of the alveoli?

stretch receptors

Which decreases surface tension in the fluids of the alveoli?

surfactant

The ______ nervous system causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles, reducing glomerular blood flow and the GFR.

sympathetic

Ambient (outside) air at 22O C is inhaled. The gases are warmed to body temperature (37.5O C) by the time they reach the alveoli of the lungs. According to Charles's law, what will happen to the volume of the inhaled air?

the volume will increase

What effect do fibers from the micturition center in the brain have on the sympathetic neurons that control the internal urethral sphincter?

they inhibit them

Adaptive immunity is part of the body's ______ line of defense.

third

Which line of defense not only defeats a pathogen but also leaves the body with a "memory" of it?

third

Where do T cells mature?

thymus

_____volume is the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle.

tidal

Which of these calculated volumes typically has the greatest value?

total lung capacity

The openings of the ureters and the urethra mark a triangular area within the urinary bladder called the ______.

trigone

True or false: Glomerular filtrate is similar to blood plasma except that it contains little or no proteins.

true

True or false: Interleukins are a class of cytokines secreted by a variety of cells which function to promote the development and differentiation of T, B, and hematopoietic cells.

true

True or false: The chloride shift allows RBCs to continue to produce carbonic acid.

true

True or false: When the diaphragm contracts and lung volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure drops.

true

True or false: Acidosis can cause hyperkalemia, and conversely, hyperkalemia can cause acidosis.

true Reason: Recall that in many cases of imbalances of water, electrolyte or acid-base the relationships are reciprocal, i.e. acidosis can cause hyperkalemia, and conversely, hyperkalemia can cause acidosis.

True or false: Cold weather has a dehydrating effect on the human body.

true (drier and absorbs more body water from respiratory tract)

Pulmonary compliance is reduced in which of the following?

tuberculosis patients

The renal pelvis of each kidney funnels urine into a tube called a ______.

ureter

RBCs usually leave the systemic capillaries at about 75% oxygen saturation. Which term refers specifically to the oxygen remaining in the blood after it passes through a capillary bed?

venous reserve

The ______ respiratory group sets the basal respiratory rate which may then be adjusted by commands from the pontine and/or dorsal respiratory groups.

ventral

Which component of the respiratory center is responsible for setting the basal respiratory rate and providing output to the muscles of respiration?

ventral respiratory group

The sum of the expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory reserve volume is the _____ capacity.

vital

Which best defines partial pressure?

The pressure that each gas in a mixture would exert alone

Which statements are true concerning the protein buffer system?

The protein buffer system is especially important in the ICF. Carboxyl groups (-COOH) release H+ and buffer increases in pH. Amino groups (-NH2) bind H+ and buffer decreases in pH.

Which best summarizes the Haldane effect?

The rate of CO2 loading into the blood is increased in metabolically active tissues.

Which best summarizes the Bohr effect?

The rate of O2 unloading is increased in metabolically active tissues due to increased acidity.

What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct?

The reabsorption of water and salts

Oxygen loading in the lungs decreases hemoglobin's affinity for H+. How does this promote alveolar gas exchange?

The released H+ combines with HCO3- to form free CO2, which can diffuse out of the blood.

Which variables affect the filtration coefficient?

- permeability of filtration membrane - surface area available for filtration

Describe renal compensation in response to alkalosis.

The renal tubules decrease the rate of H+ secretion.

Describe renal compensation in response to acidosis.

The renal tubules increase the rate of H+ secretion.

Place the events of the humoral response in order.

1. immunocompetent B cells bind to an antigen 2. A B cell internalizes an antigen and displays it on MHC-II proteins to TH cells 3. TH cells secrete interleukins which activate the B cell 4. The B cell undergoes clonal selection 5. B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells 6. Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies

Starting at a renal papilla, place the structures through which urine will flow in order.

1. minor calyx 2. major calyx 3. renal pelvis 4. ureter

About how many nephrons are in a kidney?

1.2 million

In young females, the glomerular filtration rate is about ______ mL/min.

105 mL/min

A normal residual volume would be ______ mL of air.

1200

According to this graph, how much of the oxygen bound to hemoglobin is released into the tissues as the blood flows through the systemic capillaries?

22%

Reduced blood osmolarity stops the osmoreceptor response and produces long-term thirst satiation. Approximately how long after drinking will these long-term changes take effect?

30 minutes or longer

Hemoglobin is composed of how many subunits?

4

How many oxygen molecules are bound to a fully loaded hemoglobin molecule?

4 (4 globin chains contain one heme group; each heme can bind 1 O2, so the entire hemoglobin molecule can hold 4)

What is the normal range for the pH of urine?

4.5-8.2

What is the normal systemic arterial blood value for PCO2?

40 mm Hg

An average tidal volume is about ______ mL of air.

500 mL

A normal total lung capacity would be ______ mL of air.

6000

The hormone that makes the collecting duct more permeable to water, thus increasing its reabsorption, is ______.

ADH

Which cells carry MHC class II proteins?

APCs

Most magnesium is found in intracellular fluid complexed with ______.

ATP

The nephron reabsorbs how much urea from the tubular fluid?

About half (40-60%)

What is the role of the dorsal respiratory group?

Adjusts respiratory rate based on stimuli from peripheral chemoreceptors

The myogenic mechanism maintains glomerular blood flow, and therefore GFR, by relaxing or constricting which structure?

Afferent arteriole

Which blood vessel carries blood into a glomerulus?

Afferent arteriole

Antibodies provide an important defense against bacteria when they bind two or more cells together. What is this immobilization called?

Agglutination

Estrogen causes women to retain salt and water during pregnancy by mimicking the effects of which other steroid hormone?

Aldosterone

Which are possible causes of hypokalemia?

Alkalosis Aldosterone hypersecretion Excessive use of laxatives Heavy sweating, chronic vomiting or diarrhea

Which term refers to the exchange of gases across the respiratory membrane?

Alveolar gas exchange

Which is likely to be increased in the urine of a person with diabetic acidosis?

Ammonium chloride

An antiport transports sodium into the cells of the PCT while pumping hydrogen ions out. What hormone activates this transport?

Angiotensin II

To confirm exposure to an antigen what is measured to demonstrate that an immune response has occurred?

Antibody titer

What is the level of antibody present in the blood plasma called?

Antibody titer

What does the body's second line of defense against pathogens consist of?

Antimicrobial proteins, leukocytes, and macrophages

Why does air flow into the lungs during inspiration?

Atmospheric pressure is greater than intrapulmonary pressure, and air flows toward the lower pressure area.

Humoral immunity is mediated by ______ lymphocytes.

B

Carbon dioxide is transported in different forms in the blood. What is the most common form?

Bicarbonate ion

What occurs during the "chloride shift" in red blood cells?

Bicarbonate ions are transported out of the RBC. Chloride ions are transported into the RBC.

According to this figure, most of the carbon dioxide you exhale comes from which of the following? (figure 22.25)

Bicarbonate ions transported into the RBCs and used to generate free CO2.

Choose the types of transcellular fluids.

Bile and fluid in the digestive, urinary, and respiratory tracts Cerebrospinal, synovial, peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial fluids Vitreous and aqueous humors of the eye

Which explains why the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is nonlinear (s-shaped)?

Binding of the first oxygen molecule to hemoglobin facilitates the binding of additional oxygen, so the midportion of the curve becomes steeper.

__________T cells attack foreign cells.

Blank 1: Cytotoxic or cytotoxic

The peripheral chemoreceptors detect changes in which of the following?

Blood carbon dioxide saturation Blood pH Blood oxygen saturation

Which are affected by aldosterone? Choose three answers from the list below.

Blood pressure Blood volume Urine volume

About 54% of the body's magnesium is found in which type of tissue?

Bone

As the volume of a closed container decreases, the pressure of the gas within it increases. This is an example of which gas law?

Boyle's Law

The bicarbonate system works quite well because the lungs and kidneys constantly remove which of the following? This prevents equilibrium from being reached.

CO2

What is the complete chemical equation for the bicarbonate buffer system?

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+

______ are a group of lung diseases (asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema) that result in long-term obstruction of airflow and substantially reduced pulmonary ventilation.

COPDs

Tetany occurs when the plasma concentration of which ion drops to 6 mg/dL?

Calcium

Which is a cation that lends strength to the skeleton, activates muscle contraction, serves as a second messenger for some hormones and neurotransmitters, and is an essential factor in blood clotting?

Calcium

Which can occur during rapid-onset hyperkalemia?

Cardiac arrest

Cells maintain a very low intracellular calcium concentration to avoid crystallization of calcium phosphate. Which mechanisms maintain intracellular calcium concentrations low?

Cells sequester Ca2+ in the smooth ER and release it only when needed. Cells often have a protein called calsequestrin, which binds the stored Ca2+ and keeps it chemically unreactive. Cells actively pump out Ca2+.

Which factor is typically responsible for setting the respiratory rate in healthy individuals?

Cerebrospinal fluid pH

What is the most abundant anion in the extracellular fluid?

Chloride

Which ions are the most abundant anions of the ECF and thus make a major contribution to its osmolarity?

Chloride

Which ions are the most abundant anions of the ECF? They are required for the formation of stomach acid and play a major role in the regulation of body pH.

Chloride

______ Law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures of gases.

Dalton's

Which of the following forms pus?

Dead neutrophils and macrophages

Which is an effect of atrial natriuretic peptide?

Decreased sodium reabsorption Reason: The mechanism used by natriuretic peptide to decrease blood pressure is to increase the excretion of water and sodium. This decreases blood volume and therefore, blood pressure.

Which two muscles (or muscle groups) are primarily responsible for resting (non-forced) inspiration? Choose two answers from the list below.

Diaphragm Intercostals

Identify the forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.

Dissolved gas Carbaminohemoglobin Bicarbonate ion

What is the primary effect of chloride imbalances?

Disturbances in acid-base balance

Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction of which of the following?

Efferent arterioles and those throughout the body

Water balance is most directly tied to which of the following?

Electrolyte balance

What are the beneficial effects of fever?

Elevated metabolic rate Elevated interferon activity Inhibition of bacterial and viral replication

Select two examples of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease from the list below.

Emphysema Chronic bronchitis

Which hormones promote oxygen delivery to tissues by stimulating bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) synthesis?

Epinephrine Growth hormone Testosterone Thyroxine

Any surface glycolipid on a bacterium or virus that stimulates fever is what type of pyrogen?

Exogenous

The functional residual capacity is obtained by adding together which of the following respiratory volumes?

Expiratory reserve volume Residual volume

Glucose is cotransported with sodium by the sodium-glucose transporter and then removed from the basolateral surface of the cell and into the blood by which process?

Facilitated diffusion

True or false: We salivate more when we are thirsty because of sympathetic output from the hypothalamus.

False Reason: When we are thirsty, we salivate less because osmoreceptor response inhibits the salivary glands, and also because the lower capillary blood pressure and higher blood osmolarity in a dehydrated person, leads to a decrease in saliva production.

True or false: Normally very little glucose is reabsorbed from the tubular fluid and is therefore lost in the urine.

False unless glucose levels become very high, all the glucose is reabsorbed

The glomerulus is composed of which type of capillaries?

Fenestrated

What does this graph illustrate? (figure 22.26)

For a given PO2, hemoglobin unloads more oxygen at lower pH.

Which respiratory volume takes into consideration the rate at which air is exhaled?

Forced expiratory volume

Phosphate is a necessary component of which of the following?

GTP Phospholipids Nucleic acids ATP cAMP

Within the renal corpuscle, the colloid osmotic pressure (COP) is a pressure drawing fluid into what?

Glomerular capillaries

The glomerulus is surrounded by which of the following?

Glomerular capsule

What is the amount of filtrate formed per minute by the two kidneys called?

Glomerular filtration rate

What are the two components of the renal corpuscle?

Glomerulus Glomerular capsule

Which T cell plays an integral role in both humoral and cell mediated immunity?

Helper T cell

Which factors can lead to volume depletion (hypovolemia), in which proportionate amounts of water and sodium are lost?

Hemorrhage Diarrhea Chronic vomiting Reason: Recall that profuse sweating leads to dehydration because the body eliminates significantly more water than sodium.

______ law states that the amount of gas dissolved in water is determined by its solubility in the fluid and the partial pressure of the gas in the surrounding air.

Henry's

What does this graph illustrate? (figure 22.26)

Higher temperatures promote the unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin.

What are three inflammatory mediators released by basophils and mast cells?

Histamine Leukotriene Heparin

Some bacteria produce which enzyme that allows them to more readily spread throughout connective tissues?

Hyaluronidase

Which term refers to plasma concentrations of calcium greater than 5.8 mEq/L?

Hypercalcemia

The respiratory burst by neutrophils leads to the production of which of the following?

Hypochlorite Superoxide anion Hydrogen peroxide

Which most often results from heavy sweating, chronic vomiting or diarrhea, excessive use of laxatives, aldosterone hypersecretion, or alkalosis?

Hypokalemia

Which term refers to a plasma potassium concentration of less than 3.5 mEq/L?

Hypokalemia

Match each type of hypoxia to its cause.

Hypoxemic hypoxia = inadequate pulmonary gas exchange Ischemic hypoxia = inadequate circulation of blood Anemic hypoxia = inability of the blood to carry adequate oxygen due to anemia Histotoxic hypoxia = metabolic poison prevents tissues from using the oxygen delivered to them

MHC class ______ proteins occur on all nucleated somatic cells and may trigger a cytotoxic T cell response if displaying a viral protein.

I

Class ______ MHC proteins occur only on APCs.

II

The function of complement is to induce pathogen destruction by several mechanisms. Identify four of these.

Immune clearance Inflammation Cytolysis Phagocytosis of pathogens

Where does most tubular reabsorption take place?

In the proximal convoluted tubule

Which result from activation of the renin-angiotensin system?

Increased secretion of aldosterone Increased release of ADH Stimulated thirst

Which factors that would decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen? Select all that apply.

Increased temperature Increased bisphosphoglycerate production by RBC

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases excretion of phosphate in order to do which of the following?

Increasing the concentration of free calcium ions in the ECF

Hypercalcemia causes which of the following?

Inhibition of depolarization of nerve and muscle cells Reduced sodium permeability of plasma membranes Muscular weakness, depressed reflexes, and cardiac arrhythmia

Which class of cytokines promotes the development and differentiation of T, B, and hematopoietic cells?

Interleukins

Why do memory T cells allow for a faster immune response when the body is exposed to the same antigen again?

There are more of them. There are fewer steps to activation.

Why are there are no bicarbonate ions in urine of a person with normal acid-base balance?

They are consumed by neutralizing H+.

Which describes a clonal population of T cells?

They are self-tolerant. They are identical. They react to the same antigen.

Which are functions of chloride ions?

They contribute to formation of stomach acid. They are important in osmotic balance. They play a major role in the regulation of body pH. They participate in the chloride shift in that accompanies carbon dioxide loading and unloading.

Which of the following describes the ureters?

They convey urine from each kidney to the bladder.

What is the correct calculation for vital capacity?

Tidal volume plus expiratory reserve volume plus inspiratory reserve volume

How is inspiratory capacity calculated?

Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume

What are the leaky junctions between epithelial cells in the proximal convoluted tubule that allow water to move through called?

Tight junctions

What is the role of the collecting ducts?

To adjust the concentration of urine

What are the immunological benefits of inflammation?

To remove the debris of damaged tissue To limit the spread of pathogens To initiate tissue repair

Which term is a catch-all category for cerebrospinal, synovial, peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial fluids; vitreous and aqueous humors of the eye; bile; and fluid in the digestive, urinary, and respiratory tracts?

Transcellular fluid

When the transporters within the proximal convoluted tubule are saturated and no additional solute can be reabsorbed, which of the following has been reached?

Transport maximum

Aspirin, penicillin, and other drugs are cleared from the blood via the kidneys by which of the following processes?

Tubular secretion

Cytotoxic T cells attack and destroy target cells by secreting which of the following?

Tumor necrosis factor Interferons Perforins Granzymes

Which wastes are removed from the blood by tubular secretion?

Urea Bile acids Ammonia

Which system buffers the greatest quantity of acid or base but requires several hours to days to exert an effect?

Urinary system

The ______ maneuver entails increasing abdominal pressure by holding a deep breath while contracting the abdominal muscles. The depressed diaphragm increases abdominal pressure and helps push out organ contents during childbirth, urination, and defecation.

Valsalva

The renal pyramids of the medulla receive their blood supply from which blood vessel network?

Vasa recta

Which structure acts as a countercurrent exchanger?

Vasa recta

Which result from activation of the renin-angiotensin system?

Vasoconstriction Increased blood pressure Increased water retention

Which represents the largest fluid compartment in the body?

Intracellular fluid

Which are true regarding renal compensation? It adjusts for pH imbalances by changing the rate of H+ secretion by the kidneys. It corrects the pH of body fluids by expelling or retaining CO2. It is slower than respiratory compensation, but better at restoring a fully normal pH. It is most effective at compensating for short term pH imbalances, such as acidosis resulting from an asthma attack.

It adjusts for pH imbalances by changing the rate of H+ secretion by the kidneys. It is slower than respiratory compensation, but better at restoring a fully normal pH.

What is the importance of the medullary ECF osmolarity gradient?

It allows the production of very concentrated urine.

How can hypertension damage the glomerular capillaries?

It can scar them.

What does the enzyme renin do?

It converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

Which best describes the action of carbonic anhydrase?

It converts carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid which dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

Which describes the urethra?

It conveys urine from the bladder out of the body.

What is the action of parathyroid hormone on the kidneys?

It decreases phosphate reabsorption and increases calcium reabsorption.

Which are true regarding phosphate?

It exist in fluids as an equilibrium mixture of phosphate, monohydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate. It can be generated by the hydrolysis of ATP. It is a component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP, GTP, and cAMP.

Which best describes how aldosterone acts as the "salt retaining hormone"?

It increases the number of Na+-K+ pumps in the nephron.

How does antidiuretic hormone affect the permeability of the collecting ducts to water?

It increases their permeability.

A T cell will only become activated if what occurs? Select all that apply.

It is costimulated by other surface molecules. It binds to a foreign antigen presented on an MHC protein.

Which are important functions of sodium?

It is involved in generating body heat via the Na-K pump. It participates in muscle and nerve depolarization. It participates in cotransport of glucose, K+ and Ca+.

Which defines the transport maximum?

It is the upper limit of the rate solute can be reabsorbed.

Which statements are true regarding fluid replacement therapy (i.e. intravenous fluids)?

It is usually used for persons who are seriously ill. Patients need to be carefully monitored when they receive intravenous fluids. The type of fluid replacement needs to be carefully selected.

Which are characteristics of a secondary immune response?

It occurs after the second and subsequent exposures to an antigen. IgG antibodies are formed first. Antibodies first appear within hours, peaking at day 3.

Which are characteristics of a primary immune response?

It occurs with the first exposure to an antigen. Antibodies first appear 3-6 days after exposure, peaking at day 10. IgM antibodies are formed first.

Which statements are true regarding the phosphate buffer system? Select all that apply.

Its optimal pH is 6.8. It plays an important role in the renal tubules. It plays an important role in the ICF where there is constant production of metabolic acids.

What are the three components of the juxtaglomular apparatus?

Juxtaglomerular cells Macula densa Mesangial cells

Which structures are part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system?

Larynx Pharynx Main bronchi Trachea

Which are considered principal organs of the respiratory system?

Larynx Trachea Lungs Pharynx

Which is a common effect of hypokalemia?

Loss of muscle tone

Which two factors facilitate systemic unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin in the peripheral tissues? Select two answers from the list below.

Lower PO2 in tissue fluid Binding of protons to hemoglobin

Why do people salivate less when they are thirsty?

Lower capillary blood pressure and higher osmolarity of the blood leads to a decrease in saliva production. Sympathetic output from the hypothalamus inhibits the salivary glands.

The proteins on the surface of APCs that function to present antigens to other cells are called the ______.

MHC proteins

Which describe MHC proteins?

MHC proteins present exogenous antigens. MHC proteins present endogenous antigens. MHC proteins function as self identity markers.

Once a B cell binds an antigen, it phagocytizes it and displays antigen fragments on what molecules?

MHC-II proteins

Which T cells are descended from the cytotoxic T cells and responsible for subsequent immune responses to the same antigen?

Memory T cells

______ may be caused by diabetes mellitus, hyperkalemia; chronic diarrhea and excessive alcohol consumption, whereas ______ is rare and may be caused by chronic vomiting; overuse of antacids and aldosterone hypersecretion.

Metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis

Which term refers to water that is produced as a by-product of dehydration synthesis reactions and aerobic respiration?

Metabolic water

The presence of which structures in the proximal convoluted tubule cause the lining to be referred to as a brush border?

Microvilli

The Bohr effect occurs because CO2 lowers the pH of the blood, which (as this graph illustrates) facilitates the unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin. Given this, what is the physiological significance of the Bohr effect?

More oxygen is released to tissues that have higher metabolic rates.

Active tissues are warmer than less active ones. Based on that information and the graph shown here, which of the following statements is true? (figure 22.26)

More oxygen will be delivered to more active tissues.

Which best defines alveolar gas exchange?

Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the respiratory membrane

Which describes a neutrophil?

Multi-lobed nucleus with cytoplasmic granules

Acidosis depresses the central nervous system and alkalosis makes the nervous system hyperexcitable. Based on this, which of the following are possible symptoms of alkalosis?

Muscle spasms Convulsions

Which are types of lymphocyte?

NK cell T cell B cell

Which cells induce cytolysis by secreting perforin?

NK cells Cytotoxic T cells

Which inhibits Na+ and water reabsorption and lowers the blood pressure?

Natriuretic peptides

Which regulate sodium homeostasis? parathyroid hormone aldosterone calcitriol antidiuretic hormone natriuretic peptides

Natriuretic peptides Aldosterone Antidiuretic hormone

During which of the following are self reacting T cells eliminated?

Negative T cell selection

Which segment of the renal tubule acts as a countercurrent multiplier?

Nephron loop

What is the overall pressure found at the glomerulus that determines the amount of filtration called?

Net filtration pressure

What are the four predominant components of inspired air? Select four options from the list below.

Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water vapor

The PCT reabsorbs water at a constant rate known as what?

Obligatory water reabsorption

Where are type I MHC proteins found?

On all nucleated body cells

Which describes the respiratory cycle?

One complete inspiration and expiration

Which triggers the release of ADH?

Osmoreceptors detect the increase in osmotic pressure of body fluids and signal the posterior pituitary.

Which statements are true regarding how water intake is regulated?

Osmoreceptors respond to angiotensin II and to rising osmolarity of the ECF. Hypothalamic neurons produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH), thus promoting water conservation. Cerebral cortex produces a conscious sense of thirst.

How does water move from the digestive tract to the bloodstream?

Osmosis

Bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) promotes which of the following?

Oxygen unloading

Which term is used to describe hemoglobin with only one molecule of oxygen bound to it?

Oxyhemoglobin

Match each of the following to its description.

Oxyhemoglobin = hemoglobin with one or more oxygen molecules bound to it Deoxyhemoglobin = hemoglobin with no oxygen bound to it Carboxyhemoglobin = hemoglobin with carbon monoxide bound to it Carbaminohemoglobin = compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide

Hypoxic drive refers to a condition where the respiratory centers of the brainstem respond to which of the following?

PO2 of arterial blood

Imbalances in which of the following are not as critical as imbalances of other electrolytes? sodium phosphate calcium potassium

Phosphate

Which symptoms are seen with diabetes mellitus?

Polyuria Glycosuria Dehydration

Which ion is the greatest determinant of intracellular osmolarity and cell volume?

Potassium

Which ion is the most abundant cation of the ICF?

Potassium

Which statements are true regarding potassium homeostasis?

Potassium homeostasis is closely linked to that of sodium. Aldosterone stimulates renal secretion of potassium.

Antibodies function to render antigens harmless by which of the following?

Precipitation Neutralization Complement fixation Agglutination

List the mechanisms used by eosinophils to kill parasites.

Produce hydrogen peroxide Produce superoxide anion

Which are possible complications of volume excess and hypotonic hydration?

Pulmonary edema cerebral edema

Describe respiratory compensation in response to acidosis.

Pulmonary ventilation rate increases.

Fluid intake is governed mainly by thirst. Which of the following can make a person thirsty?

Reduced blood pressure

How can the respiratory system compensate for a drop in blood H+ concentrations?

Reduced pulmonary ventilation allows CO2 to accumulate, lowering the pH back to normal.

What are possible effects of hypokalemia?

Reflexes may become depressed. Neurons become hyperpolarized and are less excitable. Electrical activity of the heart becomes irregular.

Which T cell inhibits multiplication and cytokine secretion by other T cells and thus limits immune responses?

Regulatory T cell

What is the correct formula for calculating total lung capacity?

Residual volume+vital capacity

The addition of CO2 to the body fluids raises H+ concentration and lowers pH, while the removal of CO2 has the opposite effect. This is the basis for the strong buffering capacity of which system?

Respiratory

Where does the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood occur?

Respiratory division

Which physiological buffer system exerts an effect within a few minutes but cannot alter the pH as much as the urinary system? integumantary respiratory muscular reproductive

Respiratory system

Which two organ systems form physiological buffers that help stabilize pH by controlling the body's output of acids, bases, or CO2? Select two options from the list below. integumentary reproductive respiratory urinary muscular

Respiratory system Urinary system

Aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and the natriuretic peptides help maintain concentrations which of the following?

Sodium

Which ion is the most significant solute in determining total body water and the distribution of water among fluid compartments?

Sodium

Which ion is the principal cation of the ECF?

Sodium

Which solutes are reabsorbed from the nephron loop?

Sodium ions Potassium ions Chloride

Which statement is correct regarding the relative abundance of electrolytes in the ECF and ICF?

Sodium is more abundant in the ECF and potassium is more abundant in the ICF.

The great diversity in the specificity of antibody molecules is produced through which processes?

Somatic hypermutation Somatic recombination

The lungs of premature infants often develop respiratory distress syndrome. Why do these infants experience alveolar sac collapse?

Surfactant is not produced yet in adequate quantities.

Where is most carbon dioxide loaded into the blood?

Systemic capillary beds

______ lymphocytes originate in the red bone marrow, then finish maturation in the thymus.

T

Most lymphocytes circulating in blood are ______.

T cells

Cellular immunity is mediated mainly by ______ cells, while humoral immunity is mediated mainly by ______ cells.

T, B

What is the result of renal autoregulation?

The GFR is held steady regardless of changes in the mean arterial pressure.

What is the source of the salts that contribute to the high osmolarity of the medullary ECF?

The active transport of Na+, K+, and Cl- from the ascending limb of nephron loop

Explain the role of the afferent and efferent arterioles in maintaining the high hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus.

The afferent arteriole has larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.

Match each respiratory volume to its definition.

The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during quiet breathing = Tidal volume The amount of air that may be exhaled over the tidal volume = Expiratory Reserve Volume The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration = Residual Volume The amount of air that can be exhaled in a given time interval = Forced Expiratory Volume

The primary function of the nephron loop is to generate a medullary ECF osmotic gradient that allows for what?

The concentration of urine

Which best describes what happens during exhalation?

The diaphragm relaxes, intrapulmonary pressure increases, air flows out

Why are infants more vulnerable to dehydration than adults?

The have higher metabolic rates and produce toxic metabolites faster.

Which best describes the role of the kidneys in maintaining water balance during dehydration?

The kidneys can slow down the rate of water and electrolyte loss through changes in urine volume and composition.

Which statements are true?

The kidneys cannot compensate very well for inadequate fluid intake. The kidneys compensate very well for abnormally high fluid intake through diuresis.

What is tubular secretion?

The movement of water and solutes from the blood into the tubular fluid

Which features of skin offer immunoprotection?

The presence of defensins The presence of a continuous barrier to the external environment The presence of lactic acid

A blood pH of 7.1 would be called ______.

acidosis

Which term refers to an acid-base imbalance in which the blood pH is lower than 7.35?

acidosis

In natural _______ immunity, the body makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen.

active

When the body makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen, it is exhibiting what type of immunity?

active

The clumping of cells by antibodies is called ______.

agglutination

Angiotensin II stimulates the secretion of which hormone from the adrenal cortex?

aldosterone

The hormone _______ causes increased reabsorption of sodium (and the water that follows) and secretion of potassium from the later segments of the renal tubule.

aldosterone

The respiratory division of the respiratory system includes which of the following?

alveoli

Molecules that function to render antigens harmless by neutralization, complement fixation, agglutination and precipitation are called ______.

antibodies

Angiotensin II stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to secrete ______ hormone.

antidiuretic

Where does systemic gas exchange occur?

at the capillary networks of the tissues

Fever inhibits the production of ______.

bacteria

What are two cell types that secrete histamine, heparin, leukotrienes and kinins, thus inducing the inflammatory response?

basophils mast cells

Most carbon dioxide in the blood is transported in the form of ______ dissolved in the plasma.

bicarbonate

Which is a muscular sac on the floor of the pelvic cavity, inferior to the peritoneum and posterior to the pubic symphysis?

bladder

Where are the respiratory control centers located?

brainstem

Airway resistance in the lungs is usually controlled by changing the diameter of which of the following?

bronchioles

The renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus and a glomerular ______.

capsule

The enzyme found in erythrocytes that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid, which then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions, is______ anhydrase.

carbonic

Match each receptor to the type of stimulus it detects.

central chemoreceptors = pH of the CSF peripheral chemoreceptors = Oxygen level, carbon dioxide level, and pH of the blood stretch receptors = Inflation of the lungs irritant receptors = Smoke, dust, pollen, chemical fumes, cold air, excess mucus

The central ______ in the brainstem are neurons that sense changes in the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid.

chemoreceptors

COPDs are almost always caused by ______.

cigarette smoke

Which complement pathway is antibody-mediated?

classical pathway

The ______ zone of the respiratory system serves only for airflow. It is incapable of gas exchange between the air and the circulatory system.

conducting

Irritants in the lower respiratory system may stimulate which of the following?

coughing

In clinical practice, glomerular filtration rate is estimated by measuring excretion of the compound ______.

creatanine

A bluish color of the skin and mucous membranes due to ischemia or hypoxemia is called .

cyanosis

What class of chemical agents do interleukins and interferons belong to?

cytokines

Which T cells carry out attacks on foreign cells?

cytotoxic

Production of angiotensin II is important in the response to a(n) ______ in the mean arterial blood pressure.

decrease

Plasma angiotensin II levels would be higher when mean arterial blood pressure is ______.

decreased

Hemoglobin that is not bound to oxygen is called ______.

deoxyhemoglobin

Leukocytes crawl through gaps between endothelial cells into the tissue fluid by means of a process called _______.

diapedesis

Which muscle (or muscle group) is the prime mover of respiration, producing about two-thirds of pulmonary airflow?

diaphragm

A chemical that increases urine volume is called a .

diuretic

The ______ respiratory group receives input from chemoreceptors and adjusts the respiratory rate accordingly.

dorsal

Which is a degenerative lung disease characterized by a breakdown of alveoli and diminishing surface area available for gas exchange?

emphysema

Self proteins, such as interferon and interleukins, that induce fever are called ______ pyrogens.

endogenous

Name the leukocyte that would help a patient combat a parasitic tapeworm infection.

eosinophil

An elevated eosinophil count is called ______.

eosinophilia

An individual with a parasitic infection would likely have which of the following?

eosinophilia

The region of the antigen which stimulates an immune response is the _______ .

epitope

The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after exhalation of the tidal volume is the ______ reserve volume.

expiratory

What does the first line of defense against pathogens consist of?

external barriers

Transcellular fluid is a type of ______ fluid.

extracellular

True or false: All fevers are detrimental and should be treated immediately with an antipyretic.

false

True or false: Intrapleural pressure is always greater than atmospheric pressure.

false

True or false: Most of the water (65%) is found in the extracellular compartment.

false (this would be correct for intracellular fluid)

The process by which water and some solutes in the blood plasma pass from the glomerular capillaries into the capsular space is called glomerular _______.

filtration

Which line of defense consists of external barriers?

first

What type of macrophage moves into a specific tissue, then remains within that tissue waiting to phagocytize pathogens?

fixed

Pulmonary and cerebral edema are among the most serious effects of which of the following?

fluid excess

Basophils and mast cells release ________ , which increases blood flow and speeds the delivery of leukocytes to an area.

histamine

Which type of immunity is mediated by B cells and the antibodies they secrete?

humoral

B cells are the primary cell of ______ immunity and T cells are the primary cell of ______ immunity.

humoral, cell-mediated

The connective tissue of skin and mucous membranes produces ______ acid, a viscous gel that inhibits the migration of microbes.

hyaluronic

Net filtration pressure (NFP) takes into account both blood _______ pressure and colloid osmotic pressure of the capsular fluid and capillary blood.

hydrostatic

The term________ describes a condition where there is an excess of CO2 in arterial blood (PCO2 greater than 43 mm Hg).

hypercapnia

Which term refers to an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood?

hypercapnia

B cells or T cells that are mature and are capable of recognizing antigens presented by APCs are described as ________ .

immunocompetent

A diuretic ______ urine output.

increases

The sum of the tidal and inspiratory reserve volumes is a measure of the ______ capacity.

inspiratory

The sum of the tidal and inspiratory reserve volumes is a measure of the capacity.

inspiratory

Which protein inhibits the viral infection of neighboring cells?

interferon

What is required for activation of a B cell?

it must bind an antigen on several surface receptors it must bind a helper T cell

The tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism of GFR regulation relies on the monitoring of tubular fluid by a renal structure called the ________ apparatus.

juxtaglomerular

Match each component of the juxtaglomerular apparatus with its proposed role in renal autoregulation.

juxtaglomerular cells = Dilate/constrict arterioles; release renin mesangial cells = Dilate/constrict glomerular capillaries macula densa = Monitor tubular fluid

What is the tough protein of skin that few pathogens can penetrate?

keratin

The organic acid that may be excreted in sweat and inhibits microbial growth is ______ acid.

lactic

More than half of the body's blood platelets are made by megakaryocytes in the ______.

lungs

Which leukocytes are responsible for adaptive immunity?

lymphocytes

______________ is an enzyme found in tears, saliva, and mucus that destroys bacteria by digesting their cell walls.

lysozome

Filling of the bladder stimulates stretch receptors that, in turn, trigger which reflex?

micturition

Input from stretch receptors in the bladder wall ascend the spinal cord to which center in the pons?

micturition

The process of urination, or voiding urine is called ______.

micturition

A(n) __________ migrates into the tissues where it transforms into a macrophage.

monocyte

Contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle when it is stretched allows adjustment of afferent arteriolar diameter with changes in blood pressure. This is the basis for the ______ mechanism of renal autoregulation.

myogenic

A T cell which has undergone positive and negative selection but has not become activated by an antigen is said to be ______ .

naive

What is a mature T-cell that has not been activated by an antigen called?

naive

Long-term thirst satiation depends on which of the following?

Absorption of water from the small intestine

Respiratory compensation involves correcting a pH imbalance by which of the following mechanisms?

Changing pulmonary ventilation rate

You place an empty, sealed plastic bottle in the freezer. When you remove the bottle 4 hours later it has collapsed. This is an example of which gas law?

Charles's Law

______ are granulocytes with a multi-lobed nucleus that destroy bacteria by means of phagocytosis, intracellular digestion, and secretion of bactericidal chemicals.

Neutrophils

Which gas has the greatest partial pressure in inspired air?

Nitrogen

What are the mechanisms of peritubular capillary absorption?

Osmosis and solvent drag

The simplest cause of dehydration is a lack of drinking water. Which of the following can also cause dehydration? Select all that apply.

Overuse of diuretics Diabetes mellitus Profuse sweating Cold or hot weather Reason: Recall that ADH hyposecretion is a cause of dehydration.

The osmolarity of the ECF deep in the renal medulla is ______ than that of the ECF of the renal cortex.

higher

Plasma concentrations of calcium less than 4.5 mEq/L are known as .

hypocalcemia

If the glomerular filtration rate is too ______, fluid flows through the renal tubules too slowly, urine output will decrease, and azotemia may occur.

low

Alveolar macrophages are found in the ______.

lungs

Blood hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid ______ the blood and ______ the capsular space.

out of, into

Clinically, cyanosis is very important because it indicates which underlying physiological problem?

oxygen deficiency

Which is often increased in individuals with pulmonary disease?

physiological dead space

If the body has retained too much sodium and water, but the ECF remains isotonic, the person has which of the following?

volume excess

Which can result from aldosterone hypersecretion or renal failure?

volume excess Reason: Recall that aldosterone hypersecretion or renal failure causes water retention, not dehydration.

Which can pass through the glomerular filtration membrane?

water electrolytes glucose fatty acids amino acids nitrogenous wastes vitamins (almost any molecule smaller than 3 nm)

The most important buffer system in the blood is the bicarbonate buffer, which is a solution of ______ acid and bicarbonate ions.

weak

In the bicarbonate buffer system, H2CO3- acts as a ______ by releasing H+ and lowering pH, while HCO3- acts as a ______ by binding H+, removing the ions from solution, and raising pH.

weak acid, weak base

The typical American diet contains 3 to 7 g of sodium per day. How much sodium per day does a typical adult need?

0.5 g

Order the events during neutralization of hydrogen ions in the kidney from the moment H2CO3 forms until HCO3- returns to blood. Begin with the formation of H2CO3 in the blood at the top.

1. H+ in blood reacts with HCO3- to form H2CO3 2. H2CO3 decomposes into H2O and CO2, which enter the tubule cell 3. tubule cells obtain CO2 from blood, and tubular fluid 4. CAH combines H2O and CO2 to re-form H2CO3 5. H2CO3 ionizes to form HCO3- (which returns to the blood) and H+

Place in order, from the blood side to the capsular space, the structures through which any filtered substance must pass in glomerular filtration. Instructions

1. fenestrated endothelium 2. basement membrane 3. filtration slit

Rank the following electrolyte imbalances in terms of how dangerous they are. Start with the most dangerous.

1. potassium imbalances 2. calcium imbalances 3. phosphate imbalances

Rank the following routes of normal water loss from largest volume to smallest volume.

1. urine 2. cutaneous transpiration 3. expired breath 4. feces 5. sweat (at an ambient temp of 20 C)

What is the normal systemic arterial blood gas value for PO2?

95 mm Hg

Which areas of an antibody determine specificity? (figure 21.19)

A

To function properly, T cells must have which two traits?

A lack of reactivity to self peptide fragments The ability to recognize self MHC proteins

Why do cells maintain a very low intracellular calcium concentration?

Calcium phosphate crystals would precipitate in the cytoplasm if levels were high.

The collecting duct receives fluid from which of the following?

Distal convoluted tubule

Which renal tubule segment runs from the nephron loop to the collecting duct?

Distal convoluted tubule

What is the fluid in the glomerular capsule formed by filtration called?

Filtrate

Which term refers to a plasma concentration of chloride greater than 105 mEq/L?

Hyperchloremia

Which may be caused by alkalosis?

Hyperchloremia Hypokalemia Hypercalcemia

Which term refers to a plasma magnesium concentration above 2.0 mEq/L?

Hypermagnesemia

The bicarbonate buffer system would not work very well in the human body if not for the action of the lungs and the kidneys doing which of the following?

Removing CO2 produced by the buffer system

A nephron consists of what two parts?

Renal corpuscle and renal tubule

Aldosterone stimulates which of the following?

Renal reabsorption of sodium Renal secretion of potassium

Renal clearance is the net effect of which of the following?

Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion Glomerular filtration

Which term refers to an acid-base imbalance in which the blood pH is higher than 7.45?

alkalosis

The volume of blood plasma from which a particular waste is completely removed in one minute is called renal _______.

clearance

The process called ______ selection results in the formation of a clone of identical T cells programmed against the same epitope.

clonal

Identical cells produced by mitosis from a single parent cell are called ______.

clones

Hormones can alter the amount of water reabsorbed during urine production, allowing the production of either concentrated or dilute urine. This is the role of the _____________ duct.

collecting

The ______ receives fluid draining from several nephrons, and carries it through the medulla to the papilla.

collecting duct

What activates the renin-angiotensin mechanism?

decreased blood pressure

A decreased GFR results in a(n) ______ urine volume and ______ blood volume.

decreased, increased

Sympathetic innervation of the renal blood vessels ______ glomerular filtration rate.

decreases

When a neutrophil discharges its enzymes into the tissue fluid, they are said to ______.

degranulate

What is the exocytosis of lysosomal contents by neutrophils called?

degranulation

Antidiuretic hormone is secreted in response to _____.

dehydration

The ______ carries blood out of a glomerulus.

efferent arteriole

Blood vessels of the vasa recta arise from ______.

efferent arterioles

Long term inhalation of cigarette smoke often leads to _________ , a COPD that is characterized by a loss of alveolar surface area.

emphysema

Hyperglycemia in diabetes results in glucose in the urine, a condition called ______ .

glycosuria

NK cells induce apoptosis in virally infected cells by secreting which protein-degrading enzymes?

granzymes

Platelets and endothelial cells secrete platelet-derived ________ factor, which stimulates the synthesis of collagen and multiplication of fibroblasts.

growth

An incomplete antigen is also known as a ______.

hapten

Which is too small to be antigenic by itself, but can induce an immune response when bound to a larger molecule?

hapten

Usually, a B cell requires costimulation from a _________ T cell to begin the process of clonal selection.

helper

_______T cells perform a central coordinating role in both humoral and cellular immunity.

helper

_________ T cells perform a central coordinating role in both humoral and cellular immunity.

helper

The following electrolyte imbalances may all be caused by alkalosis. Match each type of imbalance to the explanation of how it may be caused by alkalosis.

hypokalemia - H+ diffuses from ICF to ECF. more K+ remains in the ICF to compensate for the H+ loss, causing a drop in ECF K+ concentration hyperchloremia - More Cl- is reabsorbed from the renal tubules, so ingested Cl- accumulates in the ECF rather than being excreted hypercalcemia - alkalosis causes more Ca2+ to dissociate from plasma protein and citrate ions, raising the concentration of free Ca2+

The ______, part of the brain, regulates and maintains body temperature. Its set point is elevated during a fever.

hypothalamus

Where is body temperature regulated?

hypothalamus

Which substance induces the production of antiviral proteins?

interferon

Cytokines known as _______ inhibit the viral infection of neighboring cells as well as activate NK cells and macrophages.

interferons

Within the renal corpuscle, colloid osmotic pressure (COP) forces fluid ______ the glomerular capillaries.

into

Which byproduct of fermentation is excreted in the sweat where it inhibits microbial growth?

lactic acid

Which are components of the upper respiratory tract?

larynx, pharynx, nasal cavity

Where are complement proteins synthesized?

liver

During the inflammatory response, leukocytes traveling through the blood adhere to the blood vessel walls by which process?

margination

_____T cells are descended from the cytotoxic T cells and are responsible for memory in cellular immunity.

memory

Match each component of the juxtaglomerular apparatus with its description.

mesangial cells = Cells between the arterioles and amongst the glomerular capillaries juxtaglomerular cells = Smooth muscle cells within wall of afferent arteriole macula densa cells = Epithelial cells at the end of the nephron loop

Which is a fixed macrophage in the central nervous system?

microglia

Match each type of immunity with the correct example.

natural active immunity = A person develops resistance to a virus picked up from a drinking fountain. artificial active immunity = A person is given an attenuated smallpox virus and develops resistance. natural passive immunity = A baby acquires resistance to a virus through antibodies obtained through breast milk. artificial passive immunity = An antibody is injected into a person who has been bitten by a snake. The antibody infers resistance.

The ______ loop of the nephron acts as a countercurrent multiplier.

nephron

What do a renal corpuscle and an attached renal tubule form?

nephron

An elevated neutrophil count is called ______.

neutrophilia

Which leukocyte destroys bacteria by means of phagocytosis, intracellular digestion, and the secretion of bactericidal chemicals?

neutrophils

If a local imbalance between the intracellular and extracellular fluid occurs, water movement called ______ restores the balance. This depends on the relative concentration of solutes in each compartment.

osmosis

If the osmolarity of the tissue fluid rises, water moves ______ the cells.

out of

Parathyroid hormone acts on the proximal convoluted tubule to inhibit ______ reabsorption and on the distal convoluted tubule to increase ______ reabsorption.

phosphate, calcium

A ______ buffer is a system (for example the respiratory or urinary system) that stabilizes pH by controlling the body's output of acids, bases, or CO2.

physiological

Which includes all of the regions of the airway incapable of gas exchange, including both conducting zones and respiratory zones that have been damaged by disease?

physiological dead space

Which cells produce antibodies?

plasma cells

Which is secreted by platelets and endothelial cells and stimulates the synthesis of collagen and multiplication of fibroblasts?

platelet derived growth factor

Fluid intake, diabetes, and some medications can increase urine output, a condition called diuresis or ________.

polyuria

The ______ respiratory group adjusts the respiratory rate based on stimuli from the limbic system or cerebral cortex.

pontine

Water intake totals about 2500 mL/day. The combination of water from food (about 700 mL) and drink (about 1600 mL) is known as _______ water.

preformed

Water intake totals about 2500 mL/day. The combination of water from food (about 700 mL) and drink (about 1600 mL) is known as ________water.

preformed

The _________ buffer system accounts for about three-quarters of all chemical buffering in the body fluids, especially in the ICF.

protein

The T cell ______ response allows memory cells to mount a faster response upon exposure to the same pathogen later.

recall

Hyperemia is the basis for which cardinal inflammatory signs?

redness heat

What are the cardinal signs of inflammation? Select all that apply.

redness swelling heat pain

Loop diuretics act on the nephron loop and inhibit the sodium/potassium/chloride symport. This ______ the osmotic gradient in the renal medulla and the collecting duct absorbs less water.

reduces Reason: If the osmotic gradient in the medulla was increased, the collecting duct would absorb more water.

Dehydration ______ blood volume and ______ blood osmolarity.

reduces, raises

The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water is called its _______ gravity.

specific

When a person is thirsty, the osmoreceptor response leads to ______ output from the hypothalamus that inhibits salivation.

sympathetic

Sodium is transported into the cells of the PCT by a protein that simultaneously moves it and another solute in the same direction. This type of transport protein is called a(n) ______.

symport

Which term refers to the exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) that occurs in the capillary networks between the blood and the body's cells?

systemic gas exchange

The external barrier that is coated with antimicrobial chemicals such as lactic acid, dermicidin, and defensins is ______.

the skin

Bacteria and viruses are examples of pathogens.

true

True or false: A newborn baby's weight is as much as 75% water, whereas obese and elderly people's weight is as little as 45% water.

true

True or false: The primary effects of chloride imbalances are disturbances in acid-base balance, but acid-base imbalances can cause chloride imbalances as well.

True

True or false: The primary effects of chloride imbalances are disturbances in acid-base balance, but acid-base imbalances can cause chloride imbalances as well.

True Reason: The primary effects of chloride imbalances are disturbances in acid-base balance, but this works both ways; a pH imbalance arising from some other cause can also produce a chloride imbalance.

Which processes occur in the kidney during the neutralization of acid?

Tubular cells form ammonia, which acts as a base and reacts with H+ and Cl- to form ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) For every HCO3- that enters the peritubular capillaries, a sodium ion does too The glomerular filtrate contains Na2HPO4 (dibasic sodium phosphate), which reacts with some of the H+