Exam 2 Study Guide

key informant

Articulate member of the particular community or group you are interested in studying Group members who either are highly articulate, or are especially helpful and wise, relative to other participants in that setting. Key informants provide information about the relationships, groups, and cultures you seek to interpret and/or evaluate and reform.

narrative analysis

Assumes that many persuasive messages function as narrative (i.e., stories, accounts, or tales) Narratives have implicit or explicit lessons Analyzes stories rhetors tell and evaluate how effective they are at shaping an audience's perception of reality

metaphoric criticism (warrants)

Assumes that we can never know reality directly Rhetors' language represents reality as a metaphor Identify and evaluate how rhetors use metaphors to help create a shared reality for the audience

ethical assurance (confidentiality, anonymity)

Assure confidentiality/anonymity and establish trust with participants.

empirical language requirement

Conversation analysts' agreement that interpretations of talk be grounded in the data on the page and/or the audio- or videotape. Compare with discourse analysts' use of their own cultural knowledge to make sense of talk.

conversation analysis transcripts

Conversational units of analysis, whether those units are utterances, sentences, a speaking turn, or some larger sequence of talk

deviant case sampling

Non-representative groups sampled to better understand representative group. Selecting people or messages (i.e., cases) that are extremely different from those al- ready included in an existing data sample.

inversion

The first part of deconstruction is inversion. Since two opposite terms are rarely equally valued, inversion is the attempt to "bring low what was high" The first move in performing deconstruction, in which researchers attempt to show how one half of a binary opposite has been privileged over the other half.

main warrants for ethnographic research

"Warrants for Research Arguments"-ideas about the standards for what counts as good interpretive and critical research. Researcher credibility, Plausibility of interpretations, and Transferable findings

macroethnography

A form of ethnographic research that involves years of field research, sometimes by numerous ethnographers; contrast with Microethnography.

dramatistic criticism

Analyzes texts according to Kenneth Burke's view of a dramatic event Pentadic analysis Act, purpose, agent, agency, scene Focus on ratios and what emerges with the most emphasis 1. Act: What happened? What is the action? What is going on? What action; what thoughts? 2. Scene: Where is the act happening? What is the background situation? 3. Agent: Who is involved in the action? What are their roles? 4. Agency: How do the agents act? By what means do they act? 5. Purpose: Why do the agents act? What do they want?

Coherent interpretations (Consistent, Intelligible, Logical)

Are supported by clear, logical links between the evidence you examined and your claim.

Lyotard and Foucault

Are the theorists most closely associated with the movement known as postmodern criticism. Lyotard (1984) first coined the term postmodern turn to refer to a general movement away from social structure as the explanatory means of domination toward ideology, representation, and discourse as the sites of struggle for social power. Foucault pointed out that, "the vision of each age is exclusive and incompatible with visions from other ages, making it impossible for people in one period to think like those of another" Foucault (1972) called such ways of knowing discursive formations, and he argued that power was an inherent part of all discourse.

adjacency pair

Are two-part conversational structures in which the first turn calls for, or invites, the second turn. The question-answer, compliment-response, greeting- return greeting, complaint-apology/justification, or invitation-accept/decline sequences are all adjacency pairs. Most basic unit of all sequence organization in conversations.

ideographs

Are words that operate as vectors of influence such as "liberty" and the "pursuit of happiness." For example, Dubriwny (2005) used the ideographs of "women and children" and "rights" to illustrate Laura Bush's strategic use of discourse associated with feminism, "ideals of women's rights to education, health, and independence" and "maternal feminism"

autoethnography

Bio about ourselves. Researchers examine their own life experiences and fieldwork. the analysis of a social setting or situation that connects "the personal to the cultural" Autoethnography relies on systematic gathering and analysis of field data from people involved in genuine life experiences, whether at the microethnographic or macroethnographic level. Autoethnography can be used in ways that fit the assumptions of the interpretive and/or critical paradigms.

parodic rhetoric

Broaden and enrich the tradition by introducing multiple and sometimes conflicting intentions and purposes into rhetorical texts

critical studies methodology

Claims describe the value and belief systems that most contribute to unequal power relations. Suggest how those values or beliefs might be reformed to distribute power more equally among all societal members. Intro- identify central claim and significance Message or text selection- explain selection of message and rationale or context for interpretation Theoretic- explanation of the theoretic framework used Findings- report of the findings or conclusions Theory development- discussion of the ways in which the study contributed to the rhetorical theory.

postmodern criticism

Criticism often refers to specific branches of postmodernism which may vary greatly such as postmodern philosophy, postmodern architecture and postmodern literature. It may also be limited to certain tendencies in postmodern thought such as post-structuralism, cultural relativism and "theory".

Derrida

Derrida reasoned that textual meaning is only apparently stable because it "privileges" (makes present) one term over the other"

artifacts

Ethnographers examine the actual objects used by participants in the settings they study, in order to understand participants' communication rules, meanings, or behaviors. Sample artifacts could include the participants' costumes and dress; items used in routine activities like eating, cooking, bathing, meetings, or interacting with other participants, and so on. As we just mentioned, artifacts typically support other kinds of ethnographic evidence.

critical ethnographers

Ethnography designed to promote emancipation and reduce oppression Give voice to mistreated people or those struggling for social change Ex: Conquer good's research on gang communication

major premise of ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology is a sociological tradition that aims to explain and interpret how members engaged in social situations go about making sense of their own and other people's behaviors. "The peoples' practices" Ethnomethodology relies on three principles: (1) People assume things are as they appear to be unless there is a good reason to believe otherwise; (2) people's knowledge is incomplete (3) people assume others see things as they do

Key Informants

Gatekeepers- control access, sponsors- interest in project Sponsor: Someone that vogues for you.

emic view

In group members' understandings of a social situation are privileged over an outside observer's understandings of the same situation. An emic view holds that the participants' understanding of what they are doing in the situation is the most useful or important.

The hermeneutic circle.

Interpretive claims are found in ethnographic studies, conversational and discourse analyses, and some forms of rhetorical criticism. They function to reveal the meaning of communication in a variety of social con- texts, communities, groups, or texts. Interpretive re- searchers move back and forth between what they are observing and their descriptions and interpretations, changing these as they attempt to uncover emerging patterns of communication.

ethnographic transcripts

Interviewing with a set of questions to collect data

interviews

Interviews with key informants are interactions between you, the researcher, and informed, articulate members of the culture or group that you want to understand. If any of the key informants are the researchers, then the work is at least partially auto ethnographic. The ethnographic interview is "the most informal, conversational, and spontaneous form of interview" Ethnographic interviews take the forms of conversations and storytelling between participants and researchers.

canons of rhetoric

Invention- speakers major ideas, lines of argument, or content LOGOS- logic, ETHOS- moral character, intelligence PATHOS- emotional appeal. Organization- structure Style- language Delivery- mode of presentation/ verbal and non-verbal memory-devices speakers use to help them remember significant ideas.

dialectical analysis

Is a principal way to probe a thinker. The goal of dialectical analysis is to go beyond a summary to probe the ideas and values, their significance, and their limitations. It does not matter what your final conclusion is, as long as you show good dialectical analysis in getting there

deconstruction.

Is the critical studies term associated with unpacking, or taking apart, the meaning of a Text. Aims to show how texts have hidden dualisms and inner contradictions, or repressed meanings. "always proceeds in an irreducible double gesture"

deconstruction

Is the critical studies term associated with unpacking, or taking apart, the meaning of a text. Deconstruction aims to show how texts have hidden dualisms and inner contradictions, or repressed meanings. Used as a general strategy for conducting cultural evaluation and critique. Deconstruction can help you evaluate dominant meanings and propose alternative interpretations that will better serve the interests of formerly marginalized groups.

participant observation

Is the process of watching and learning about the setting and people while you are participating in the daily realities you are studying

Foucault (discursive formations)

It is also impossible to separate what we know from the language forms we use to think about and express that knowledge. Foucault (1972) called such ways of knowing discursive formations, and he argued that power was an inherent part of all discourse. For example, a sense of formality (or social distance) is created discursively by using certain terms address ("sir" or "Professor"), formal grammar, politeness behaviors, and so on.

Burke (Burkean dramatism)

Kenneth Burke developed a critical technique called dramatism1. The foundation of dramatism is the concept of motive: the reasons why people do the things they do. Burke believed that all of life was drama (in the sense of fiction), and we may discover the motives of actors (people) by looking for their particular type of motivation in action and discourse. He set up a "pentad," which are five questions to ask of any discourse to begin teasing out the motive. You may recognize these questions as similar to the six news reporter's questions: who, what, when, where, why, and how. Of dramatism, Burke said: "If action, then drama; if drama, then conflict; if conflict, then victimage. Pentad: Act, Scene, Agent, Agency, and Purpose Redemptive Cycle: Order, Pollution, Guilt, Purification, Redemption

ethnographic research and IRB

Most anthropology protocols involve ethnographic research (including observation, participant observation, interviews, group discussions, audio-visual records, etc.) and require IRB approval. Ethnographic research, also called fieldwork, involves observation of and interaction with the persons or groups being studied in the group's own environment, often for long periods of time. If you aren't sure whether this applies, talk to your Faculty Sponsor or contact Human Research Protections (aka 'the IRB'). If IRB approval is required, you must have it before beginning research.

ethnomethodology (accounts)

One of the key points of the theory is that ethnomethods or social facts are reflexively accountable. Accounts are the ways members describe or explain specific situations. Accounting is the process of describing or explaining social situations or how members make sense of their everyday world.

poststructural criticism

Poststructural critics reject the idea of social structures as objectively real, and instead, attribute power imbalances to the ways that language is used in a social setting or group. Both structural and poststructural critics make claims of evaluation and reform. Poststructural critics, because they believe that all social structures are created and maintained through language, instead aim to evaluate and reform discourse processes, the way we talk about social structures and use language, in order to equalize power resources and opportunities for all participants.

speech act analysis

Structure and topics of messages being delivered

Language and Social Interaction (LSI) research

Studies of speech, language, and gesture in human communication; studies of discourse processes, face-to-face interaction, communication competence, and cognitive processing; conversation analytic, ethnographic, microethnographic, ethnomethodological, and sociolinguistic work; dialect and attitude studies, speech act theory, and pragmatics. Emphasizes the study of everyday social situations and participants' common sense, or taken-for-granted, realities

ethos

The second form of artistic proof is called ethos. It refers to three basic components: moral character, intelligence, and goodwill. Moral character refers to the speaker's perceived integrity or honesty; the intelligence of the speaker "has more to do with practical wisdom and shared values" than it does with intellectual training or knowledge. The speaker's goodwill rests in the perception that the speaker regards the audience positively and will act in their best interests.

characteristics of a transcript

The transcription below represents several seconds of talk taken from an interview Merrigan conducted with three first-year college students in 1989. The two students represented here were first introduced to each other in a similar interview two weeks earlier. I = Interviewer M = Male F = Female 01 I: (softly) hh okay (.) were there OTHER things that you expected that werrre pretty 02 much the way (softly) you thought they would be? 03 M: No cheating (sound of 7or 8 soft taps) 04 I: // (on sixth tap) hmm mmm ] (laughing) 05 M: // I mean]uh in HIGHschool I-ya-know-I I indulged in a little (.) trade paper paper 06 trade. Sometimes (softly) ya know and uh (small click) mean it wasn't just because in 07 highschool you almost got into (.) set of uh ((trailing off)) mindset that-tuh ((I)) mean 08 you cheat so you make it easier. Not because you don't know it (.4) you just cheat so 09 you can 10 I: //-hhh] (interrupting over "can") whatEVER would be // handy] 11 M: //get it done.] Yeah //I mean-] 12 F: //Ittt's ] alright // (laughter)] 13 M: //I mean] 14 F: that (still laughing) was, that was my (no longer laughing) whole senior year // 15 (inaudible)] 16 M: //and] you just cheat so you can get it over with quickly (softly) end the test. You 17 just get it over with quickly because you //don't really feel like doing] it. 18 F: //that's okay (inaudible)] 19 I: yeah 20 M: And uh (.) pt here= 21 F: =I thought I was the only // (laughter) one so I forgot or something

poststructural criticism

Three types: Postmodern Criticism, Cultural Criticism, Semiotic Criticism Postmodern: For the postmodern critic, there is no one rational or correct view of the world, so ". . . power is not merely a top-down, repressive structural phenomenon, but an ever-present, relational, and productive social force negotiated between various orders of social discourse" The assumption that power is negotiated ongoingly makes postmodern critics interested in studying both how power is enacted and how it is resisted. Postmodernists view "all rationality as relative, or as a product of a given set of historically situated institutional practices" Cultural: Cultural criticism is used to investigate the ways cultures are produced through struggles among more-or-less dominant ideologies. Cultural critics explicitly aim to evaluate, and in some cases, reform cultural meanings and practices. Cultural critics acknowledge that meanings are contested rather than fully shared by all members. Thus, cultural critics try to change society by identifying internal contradictions and by providing descriptions that will people see why change is needed. Semiotic: Semiotic criticism directly at- tacks our deeply entrenched "notion that language is the medium of representation and communication" In the 1970s, semiotic studies explored "a range of issues, including the semantics, rhetoric, style, ideological presuppositions, and the mythological nature of advertising"

areas of Conversation Analysis (breaching, repair, action sequences)

Turns- turns at talk. Grammar and vocal intonation help speakers figure out when to talk. When it is someone else's turn to talk. Mostly sublte. When you look at turn taking, you figure out how this organizes conversation Adjacency pairs- two-part conversational sequences. Question-answer, compliment-response, greeting-return greeting. A lot of research on the pairs. Preferred responses-how you want someone to respond. Repair- how we resolve conversational trouble Action sequences- can be verbal or non-verbal. Expand upon the two-turn sequences.

critical studies

Two types of critical studies have emerged in communication studies: ideological critiques and empirical studies of communicative action based on ideological critique. Both types of critical studies rely on the emancipatory values. Critical empirical studies of communicative action use some form of empirical data collected from participant observations, self-reports and other-reports, and textual evidence to describe and evaluate communication, and sometimes to suggest what reforms are needed in a particular context (Deetz, 2005). Thus, critical empirical studies employ a combination of warrants from the interpretive paradigm (i.e., researcher credibility, plausible interpretations, transferability) and the critical paradigm (i.e., coherence, researcher positionality, impact). Of course, readers of either type of critical study are free to disagree with the researcher's interpretations and evaluations.

define metatheoretic discourse

Which are intellectual traditions or paradigms that scholars use to think about and talk about a phenomenon of interest. These discourses are points of view that help us to understand and appreciate the different approaches to asking questions about interpersonal communication, to choose research methods to answer these questions, and to provide the criteria by which to evaluate research findings and conclusions

communication code

Within a particular speech community, the communication code is a set of rules for speaking and interpreting others' speech. SPEAKING framework is one way to articulate the elements of a communication code.

genre analysis

a process of looking at several samples of a particular genre to analyze their similarities and differences in terms of their purposes, macrostructure and language choice.

speech community

are groups that share values and attitudes about language use, varieties and practices. These communities develop through prolonged interaction among those who operate within these shared and recognized beliefs and value systems regarding forms and styles of communication.

grounded theory approach

gathering and analyzing field data "evolves during actual research, and it does this through continuous interplay between analysis and data collection". grounded theory begins with observed evidence, whereas other kinds of theories begin with researchers' ideas about how communication happens, ideas that may be tested in subsequent data collection and analysis or through logical argument and reasoning.

ethnography of speaking (EOS).

is a specific method for describing and explaining culturally distinct communication patterns and practices using the sociolinguist Dell Hymes's (1962) SPEAKING acronym as a theoretic framework. EOS of the television series Friends suggests that the SPEAKING framework can be used to improve intercultural teaching, by helping teachers and students to focus on the specific norms, genres, and speech events of another culture group. Scene and setting, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key (tone), Instrumentalities (channel, jargon, dialects), Norms of interaction, Genre (categories)

codeswitching

mixing the rules of one speech community with the rules of another, also can be studied with ethnographic methods. Studies of codeswitching are especially relevant for intercultural communication research. To study codeswitching, you'll need to be fluent in both (or all) of the codes you want to study. We will say more about your degree of membership as a re- searcher in the warrants section of this chapter.

contextual constraints

the law pertaining to the issue constraints audience's decisions about actions that might be taken