History Exam Terms

Aggression and Appeasement

Warlike acts versus giving up and giving in to the demands of an aggressor just to maintain peace.

1954 (17 May)

What date was Brown v. Board of Education? (Year only required)

Cuban Missile Crisis

A terrifying revelation that Soviet scientists were building nuclear missiles on Cuban soil, which nearly sent the two countries into full-on nuclear warfare. This daring move by the Soviets was considered by Kennedy as a direct challenge to America and his authority. After weeks of consideration, a naval quarantine (not a blockade, which is an act of war) was set up around Cuba on October 24, and was first reached by Soviets on the 25, when an oil tanker was allowed to proceed but several other ships approached and abruptly reversed course, called back by the Union. This display of power led Khrushchev, the Soviet leader at the time, to give in and stop producing weapons, with a promise by America to remove its bombs in Turkey and remove the blockade around Cuba.

St. Louis

A vessel containing 900 refugee Jews that was denied enterance into Florida by FDR and was sent back to Europe.

NATO

An organization of democratic Western nations grouped together to defend themselves and other countries against the Soviet Union. While being controversial, as this would lead to enormous amounts of arms being developed from both nations, it was agreed to and in April 1949, the U.S. and Canada joined ten European nations in this treaty, saying that "an armed attack against one...shall be considered an attack against them all." This also set an American precedent of being actively involved in foreign affairs.

League of Nations

An organization of nations formed after World War I to promote cooperation and peace.

24th Amendment

Another law assisting African American voters that outlawed the poll tax, which prevented many blacks who were poor and forced to work in virtual poverty from voting. This effectively allowed all African Americans to vote, as almost all the exceptions that Southern states had been using were, by now, abolished.

Albert Sabin

Another medical scientist who adapted the polio vaccine into an oral-dosage form, which allowed many other people to receive the medication, especially children. (*Hint: children don't like needles! He prevented that!*)

victory gardens

Backyard gardens; Americans were encouraged to grow their own vegetables to support the war effort.

Dick Cheney

Bush's Vice President and a Wyoming representative who was attacked numerous times for his considerable power given to him by the President and his policy-making.

"We Shall Overcome"

Called the "national anthem" of the civil rights movement, this phrase was used as an overall message of purpose for all fighting for black equality during the movement. This phrase had its beginnings in black spiritual music and gospel, but, later on, began to be used by any group fighting for a worthy cause, and was picked up by activists across the country, including the supporters of civil rights. It symbolized the power that all the people together had and their determination to never give up.

"Four Freedoms"

Declared by President FDR; 1. Freedom of speech and expression; 2. Freedom of every person to worship in his own way; 3. Freedom from want; 4. Freedom from fear

Benito Mussolini

Fascist dictator of Italy. He led Italy to conquer Ethiopia and allied Italy with Germany in World War II.

Francisco Franco

Fascist leader of the Spanish revolution, helped by Hitler and Mussolini and who ruled as a dictator until his death.

Bolshevik Revolution

Followers of Vladimir Lenin overthrew the royal Russian government.

Munich Conference

France, Great Britain, Italy, and Germany met to discuss Hitler's demand for Sudetenland. After much discussion, Hitler received under one of the most disgraceful acts of appeasement up to WWII.

Adolf Hitler

German Nazi dictator during World War II.

1936 Olympics

Held in Berlin, this was an opportunity to showcase Nazi-Aryan propaganda.

Mein Kampf

Hitler's autobiography in which he outlined the Nazi philosophy his views of Germany;s problems and his plan for the nation.

Kitchen Debate

Impromptu debate (through interpreters) between then U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, on July 24, 1959. For the event, an entire house was built that the American exhibitors claimed anyone in America could afford (filled with labor saving and recreational devices meant to represent the fruits of the capitalist American consumer market).

Executive Order 8802

In 1941 FDR passed it which prohibited discriminatory employment practices by fed agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war related work. It established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy.

Axis Powers

In WW2, Germany, Italy, and Japan.

zoot suit riots

In the 1940's - Riots that occurred mostly in Los Angeles, CA, between white marines and young Mexican Americans. White marines thought that the dress of "zoot-suits" of the Mexican Americans was un-patriotic, although about 300,000 Mexican Americans were in the armed forces. Some Mexicans thought that they would be the next "Japanese" and be taken to camps.

ICBMs

Missiles developed by the Soviet Union to fire at the United States if an attack became necessary, able to travel several thousand miles to pinpoint target a location to bomb. The United States attempted to develop these missiles as well, but had little progress.

The Shah of Iran

Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the last monarch of Iran, took the throne in 1941

"code talkers"

Navajo Native Americans who transmitted messages in their native languages (which were known by very few) and were encoded within the language; the Germans and Japanese could not understand the Navajo language or decode it.

Southern Strategy

Nixon's plan to persuade conservative southern white voters away from the Democratic party

Three Mile Island

Nuclear Power Plant in Harrisburg, Penn. which failed, causing radiation to be emitted in the air.

58,000

Number of U.S. soldiers KIA

James Chaney

One of three civil rights workers that supported the drives in Mississippi, who were victims of attacks on supporters of anti-discrimination. They were kidnapped, killed, and buried underneath an earthen dam, which horrified many when the FBI found their bodies months later. This, however, was only one of several attacks on black supporters.

domino theory

One reason given to support the theory of containment, and predicted that if one government in Southeast Asia "fell" to Communism, the surrounding countries, as well as the entire region, would follow suit quickly. This was used as an excuse to interfere with the containment policies, notably in Vietnam. The idea of this theory was first stated by Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1954.

hawks vs. doves

Referring to people who supported the war and those who supported peace, respectively, this term centered around the debates between politicians with these opinions. Each side fought furiously for its side to become the victor, but war eventually won over peace.

Joseph Stalin

Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition. (1879-1953)

Liberty Ships

Ships built using mass production methods that carried goods and troops during WWII.

Vietminh

The League for the Independence of Vietnam by another name, this revolutionary movement or army attempted, and eventually succeeded, to overthrow the French control in Vietnam.

Henry Kissinger

The National Security Advisor under Nixon who, only days preceding the 1972 election, declared that a peace agreement had been reached. He was, however, lying to the public; no truce had been officially declared, and a settlement was reached only after Nixon's reelection and *another* round of bombings.

Third Reich

The Nazi dictatorship under Hitler. (1933-1945)

"Double V" campaign

The World War II-era effort of black Americans to gain "a Victory over racism at home as well as Victory abroad."

Elijah Muhammad

The founder of the NoI, who believed that Allah would unite the black people against the whites, and taught that all African Americans should come together and build each other up, not work out problems with the white man. His beliefs began to work against Malcolm X's, which lead the two to split, with X forming a new organization.

Branch Rickey

The general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers during the 40s and 50s, widely respected as the first man to introduce a black man to white baseball and break the "color barrier" with Robinson. His efforts were met with considerable success, with Jackie commanding fame and respect from many players and fans.

Totalitarian State

The government is a single-party dictatorship that controls every aspect of the lives of its citizens. Individual rights count for nothing.

Russell Means

The leader of the AIM who adopted the strategies of early black power organizations with more militant and aggressive behavior toward federal authorities and critics, and promoted the idea of Native American racial and cultural pride.

Khmer Rouge & Pol Pot

The victorious political group in Cambodia's civil war and its overzealous ruler, who was able to convert the country to Communism in the same month as N. Vietnam's victory. This effectively ended the war of 5 years and 500,000 civilian casualties, but a purge of "Western-tainted" people commenced soon after, with 1.5 million more Cambodians killed soon after—a quarter of the country's population.

1996 Election

Winner: Bill Clinton (D) Losers: Bob Dole (R) & Ross Perot (Ind.) This election seemed fairly close in the beginning stages, but later broadened out into a sizable win for Clinton. He was able to, during an election year, push several bills that were popular with citizens, such as a minimum wage increase, through Congress. This, as well as other factors, also bolstered the economy and kept it strong. These successes late in the term were most likely the cause for his capture of a second term, winning 49% of the popular vote and 379 electoral votes.

Bob Woodward & Carl Bernstein

investigative reporters for Washington Post helped uncover the Watergate scandal that led to U.S. President Richard Nixon's resignation

Gerald Ford

president 1974-77, Nixon's Vice president, only person not voted into the White House, appointed vice president by Nixon: became president after Nixon resigned

detente

relaxation of tensions between the United States and its two major Communist rivals, the Soviet Union and China

6 million

# of Jews killed in Holocaust

444

# of days held

52

# of hostages taken

67%

% of Europe's Jews killed in Holocaust

napalm

A chemical dropped from airplanes in canisters that, when released, would adhere to anything it made contact with and spontaneously combust, which allowed it to destroy buildings and kill thousands of civilians, who had their flesh seared off by the flames.

William Fullbright

A Democratic Senator who was one of the Vietnam peace movements and attacked the war's rapid expansion with numerous televised Senate hearings that picked apart and carefully examined U.S. policy and tactics in Vietnam.

Selective Training and Service Act

1940 law requiring all males aged 21 to 36 to register for military service

Poland (2.9 million) & the Soviet Union (1 million)

2 countries that lost the most Jews

Executive Order 9066

2/19/42; 112,000 Japanese-Americans forced into camps causing loss of homes & businesses, 600K more renounced citizenship; demonstrated fear of Japanese invasion

Tuskegee Airmen

332nd Fighter Group famous for shooting down over 200 enemy planes. African American pilots who trained at the Tuskegee flying school.

Newt Gingrich

A Georgian Representative (and a *past* (yay) 2012 presidential candidate) who created a bill called the Contract with America, which stated that the government would become smaller, eliminate regulations, cut taxes, and balance the federal budget. He, meeting with enthusiasm from the Republican-voting public, was elected Speaker of the House and set up several other bills that would eventually result with a catastrophic rivalry between a Democratic President and a Republican Congress.

Danzig

A German city in Poland; Hitler used this as an excuse to go invade.

Timothy McVeigh

A Gulf War veteran who was arrested and charged with the Oklahoma City bombing. A jury convicted him of mass murder and terrorism, and he was executed in June 2001.

Birmingham

A city in Alabama that was called "the most segregated city in America," even though 40% of the population was black. It experienced an onslaught of forceful (but nonviolent) demonstrations and boycotts that crippled the city and caused many African Americans to be sent to jail.

Einsatzgruppen

A "mobile killing squad" group of forces designed to take out radical or powerful Communists and Jews in Germany quickly and efficiently. These squads would commonly round up their victims, drive them to pits, and shoot them.

Freedom Summer

A 1964 black voter registration drive led by civil rights groups in Mississippi that called for as many blacks and people who supported civil rights to register to vote as soon as possible, and many committees were set up to promote these drives. Obviously, this was met with resistance, especially with white supremacist groups like the KKK.

Berlin Wall

A 7.5 mile wall separating East and West Berlin, composed of several anti-tank and anti-personnel barriers and deterrents, not the least of which was several feet-thick steel and concrete barriers. This series of walls was constructed by the Soviet Union to symbolize their determination to keep their citizens from escaping, and symbolized the depressing theme of the Cold War.

Mao Zedong

A Chinese Communist leader who had fought against the Japanese before and during WWII, but after the war had fought to place China under Communist control. This was resisted by Jiang Jieshi, but was eventually decided as being hopeless, and he occupied most of China by 1947, eventually finishing the job in early 1949, when Beijing fell and the People's Republic of China was created.

Moral Majority & Jerry Falwell

A Christian political group considered to be one of the major members of the New Right Coalition. They wished to impose upon the government traditional Christian values. This was based upon a conviction that the country had excelled in economic matters and prospered when the Biblical values, as well as conservative beliefs, were utilized as a road map for the government. This society, as well as many other religious political groups, accrued a majority of its popularity through television broadcasts, and came to be known as televangelism.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

A Congressional proclamation reacting to allegations that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had attacked U.S. ships in the body of water the document is named for. While the event did not actually occur, it served its purpose to push for more American involvement in Vietnam, eventually culminating in a statement by Congress allowing President Johnson to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." This proclamation, simply put, gave LBJ almost unlimited power to combat Vietnamese troops and no longer required a declaration of war to enact his policies.

Fidel Castro

A Cuban dictator who succeeded in overthrowing a U.S. backed dictator in 1959, and had a rule that was highly controversial, with points from some Cubans for and against him. His government controlled many property owned by private domestic and foreign corporations, and led to the eventual break of diplomatic relations with the country by the U.S., who refused to recognize him as a legitimate leader.

Margaret Chase Smith

A Maine Republican Senator who accused McCarthy of destroying American values in her Declaration of Conscience to the Senate, speaking about his deplorable actions and his campaign to destroy basic American principles like the "right to criticize; the right to hold unpopular beliefs; the right to protest; the right of independent thought." She slandered him for working through "congressional immunity" to reduce the government to a forum of hatred and secret, where one man would kill another's reputation just to save himself.

Mercury program

A NASA-funded space program that planned to orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth, and initially recruited seven test pilots to train as astronauts. However, this program was struck down quickly when a Kennedy-appointed committee suggested that NASA focus on unmanned missions more. However, the idea continued after the Soviets' sending Yuri Gagarin into space.

Mikhail Gorbachev

A Soviet leader who took power in 1985 in an era when the Soviet Union was failing economically, and was charged with a duty to restructure the economy and solve the numerous problems. He was able to initiate programs of open-policy and open-economy strategies, which helped to foster better relations between the Americans and the Soviets.

Sandra Day O'Connor

A Supreme Court Justice that attended Stanford University at 16 to study law and graduated third in her class in 1952. However, she had difficulty finding private work, and had to find work in a government law office. Meeting with success, she later married and opened her own practice. She went on to serve in several more positions in government, including assistant attorney general, state senator, and court judge. After being appointed to the state appeals court, Reagan gave her a position in the Supreme Court in 1981.

Bush v. Gore

A Supreme Court case called to decide on the recounting process taking in place in Florida for the past *36 days*. After a long interim and numerous debates, it was eventually decided with a vote of five to four to halt all recounting in Florida. This resulted in Bush winning the presidency.

Ho Chi Minh

A Vietnamese Communist revolutionary who attempted to lead movements against French rule pre- and post-WWII, by leading the League for the Independence of Vietnam. He was able to awaken a movement in Vietnam that required the French to take action, primarily by creating the Republic of Vietnam, led by a puppet emperor, Bao Dai. However, his forces were able to defeat the French in 1954, when they sieged a fortress in Dien Bien Phu.

Ngo Dinh Diem

A Vietnamese official who was exiled and sought refuge in the United States; however, he was returned after conflict ended and instated as the president of South Vietnam in Saigon.

Joseph McCarthy

A Wisconsin Senator who, in an attempt to gain political awareness and influence, enacted a campaign to accuse 205 men in the State Department as Communists and certain conspirators with the Soviets. He would push his beliefs with baseless accusations and other seemingly ineffective charges, which, nonetheless, worked; mass hysteria resulted from the influence. In the end, he was reelected easily, and continued to destroy the lives of hundreds more of senators and other government workers.

McCarthyism

A belief that the government had been deeply infiltrated by Communists and that many more than what people realized were actively working to overthrow the government, and could succeed. This idea had taken over many people in America during the '50s, with a second Red Scare resulting not soon afterward.

H. Ross Perot

A billionaire Texas businessman that became frustrated with government's crude, ineffective, and controversial policies intended to bolster the economy and balance the budget. He, to gain popularity, avoided the practices he deemed as corrupt and ineffective plainly visible in most political candidates, notably including an alliance to one or more special interest lobbying groups. This, as well as his allegiance to the people, allowed him to have a great deal of impact in the election, even though he lost.

Rosa Parks

A black seamstress and the Montgomery NAACP's secretary who became famous for her refusal to stand on a bus when a white man wished to sit, and was subsequently arrested. This began a city-wide boycott of the bus system, which was highly detrimental to those companies and set a movement in place to remove transportation segregation as well.

Nation of Islam/Black Muslims

A black supremacist group founded in 1930 by Elijah Muhammad, who believed that Allah would create a Black Nation of people unified against the white man. This group convinced itself that there was no purpose to work with the white man, and it is important to build the black people up and become economically self-sufficient, but exemplifying the importance of not interacting with white people whenever possible and becoming a believer in black nationalism.

Operation Rolling Thunder

A bombing campaign began in 1965 and authorized by President Johnson. This tactical movement relentlessly bombed Viet Cong-occupied land, decimating the landscape of hundreds of miles of land. However, the intricate and enormously large network of tunnels the guerrilla soldiers had built were largely unharmed, and it failed to stop the Viet Cong from continuing to press on.

Rachel Carson & *Silent Spring*

A book written in 1962 that began the environmentalist movement and was written by one of the most prominent naturalists of the era. Her book describes the effects of irresponsible and harmful practices on the environment, and the need for the government to reform its practices and be accountable for its actions. The book started a movement that would soon grow to a culture of care for the planet and to put the environment before the people.

Department of Homeland Security

A cabinet division created in 2001 after 9/11 to combat terrorism and foreign immigration. Soon after its creation, Tom Ridge, its leader, had to deal with a serious problem. This incident was a report of anthrax letters being mailed to government officials and the media, resulting in 18 infections and 5 deaths. The department was quickly created soon after this (it was a Cabinet office beforehand) and began to institute several regulations in travel, border control, and imports/exports to combat the danger of terrorism and to promote security, especially at airports across the country, where it was easiest before these changes to transport terrorists and dangerous weapons quickly.

Dien Bien Phu

A city in Vietnam that was the center of French control there, and housed a fortress holding the emperor Bao Dai, the ruler of Vietnam (French Indochina at the time). This city was pivotal to control over the entire country, and French power was overthrown with its capture.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

A city-wide boycott in Alabama of the bus system, where 50,000 African Americans sought other sources of transportation instead of buses for an entire year, which encouraged support for desegregation and set several movements into place to gather the support of others. However, this boycott rather failed, since the bus system never gave in to the demands until the Supreme Court was forced to make a ruling. Nevertheless, it set the idea in place, and would influence many more similar statements of opinion about this issue.

Medgar Evers

A civil rights leader and a secretary for the NAACP, who was assassinated outside his home only hours after Kennedy's speech promoting civil rights and his support for integration. This man's murder created enormous amounts of controversy, with the government taking immediate action for anti-discrimination principles soon after, with this attack serving as the reasoning.

SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)

A civil rights organization created by Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1957 to fight against discrimination. They believed in peaceful protest and the belief that pacifism and a simple belief in the cause could triumph. They became very effective in their movements with their refusal to fight, even in self-defense, and brought the battle for civil rights to the Deep South.

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

A civil rights party set up by members of the SNCC in 1964 to promote black freedom, which gained large support from newly registered black voters in Mississippi. They even went so far as to send representatives to the Democratic National Convention in '64, arguing that their desegregated party was the rightful representation of the Democratic Party. While being rejected, it also gained large awareness for their cause.

Dunkirk

A coastal city, there, over a 9 day period one of the greatest rescues in history of warfare took place. Marks a retreat for the British, and saved British and some French forces from almost certain capture by the Germans.

Warren Commission

A committee created to investigate the JFK assassination, determine its cause, whether other parties were involved in the murder, and whether a conspiracy had taken place. Months of investigation resulted in a conclusion that Oswald had acted alone and that Ruby was not involved in a conspiracy with him or other parties. However, many questions were never answered as well.

Phyllis Schlafly

A conservative political activist that opposed radification of the ERA, and said that it would become a detriment to women rather than an asset, which was supported widely by many women who did not feel that change was necessary; they were happy in their roles in the home and felt that the offenses of the activists were a threat to their lifestyles.

James Meredith & "Ole Miss"

A controversy in the early 1960s about whether an African American (who is named in the answer) should be allowed to attend a white Deep South college (also in the answer). The school initially rejected him, but the NAACP sent in a legal team that began a series of lawsuits accusing the college of discrimination. He was eventually admitted, but many students (and even some policemen) tried to attack the building he was sleeping in to force him to leave. The Army had to send troops in to suppress the uprising, but had much difficulty in doing so.

Cambodia

A country bordering South Vietnam to the west, and was a stronghold for Viet Cong troops to build up and then penetrate S. Vietnam borders with ease. Consequently, Nixon proceeded to enact a military procedure to eradicate Communist troop bases and villages in this country. While he believed that this plan would allow him to end the war quickly and decisively, it only succeeded in igniting a civil war in this country and a new procession of protests in America.

Julius & Ethel Rosenberg

A couple who were members of the Communist Party and were convicted of espionage by stealing atomic secrets and passing them on to the Soviets during WWII. In 1953 after a highly debated and partly suspicious trial, they were convicted and executed.

Earth Day

A day of discussion and awareness about the environment proposed by Senator Gaylord Nelson in 1969, who wanted to increase awareness and respect for the environment through a national day. This day, mentioned in the answer, was first celebrated the next year, on April 22, 1970.

Bay of Pigs invasion

A disastrous military operation designed to overthrow the Cuban government. On April 7, 1961, six B-26 bombers and 1,500 U.S.- and CIA-backed invaders landed in Cuba, attempting to land airstrikes and defeat the Cuban troops. However, both operations were a complete failure, and became a diplomatic relations nightmare for the country, with Latin America outraged at the breaking of a non-interference policy, which sent European countries into worry about the U.S.'s future decisions.

Yalta (Conference)

A meeting between Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill to determine the eventual fate of Germany and Poland. Germany was determined to be divided into four separate war occupation zones, with one portion each going to Britain, France, the United States, and the U.S.S.R. However, when Stalin also demanded that $20 billion in reparations be paid by Germany, Churchill and Roosevelt refused. Finally, Russia ceded control of Poland to an extent, but would not allow it to have completely free, democratic elections.

Iran-Contra Affair

A disastrous operation to overthrow the Marxist government in Nicaragua that used the CIA as a training group for the Contras, who wished to take back the government. When Congress discovered this violation of anti-interventionist policies, it pulled funding from the Contra operation. The Reagan administration, however, had some members that believed that aid to the Contras needed to be continued. Profits from secret arms sales to Iran intended to encourage the release of American hostages in Lebanon were diverted to assistance for the Contra forces. However, these illegal activities soon became public, and massive blame was heaped upon Reagan for these actions, even as he denied knowledge or involvement.

Alan Freed

A disc jockey who began playing a unique style of music at the time called "rhythm-and-blues" on a Cleveland radio show, who gained a wide following from black and white teenagers due to his on-air attitude and style, gaining a wide following for this new genre that evolved into rock-and-roll.

Southern Manifesto

A document stating the views of over 90 Southern Congressmen about the forced desegregation of public schooling. They believed that the federal government had overstepped its bounds and used its power to control laws that were restricted to states' rights. This horrified many of the signers, who believed that desegregation could lead to race warfare.

Fall of Saigon

A dramatic conclusion of a N. Vietnamese campaign to capture several S. Vietnam cities of power. The mentioned city was surrounded on April 29, 1975 by Communist forces, and American troops evacuated 1,000 Americans and 6,000 Vietnamese from the city. One day later, the city was captured and the government surrendered. Vietnam was now one country again under a Communist government.

Hollywood 10

A famous case by HUAC where many of the top Hollywood writers, directors, and actors, were called to court to testify as being aligned with the Communist Party and its beliefs or not. These celebrities had, commonly, little resources to defend themselves with, and the cases commonly ended with the famous quote, "Are you now or have you ever been a member of the Communist Party?"

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

A federal committee instituted by President Nixon in 1970 to combat air and water pollution with other agencies already dedicated to the effort, who would soon be amalgamated into the organization. They would pass many regulatory laws through Congress, such as the Clean Air and the Clean Water Acts, which regulated commercial emissions and the exhaust from cars, and also regulated the dumping of municipal water and other chemicals as well as sewage-treatment.

National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders & Otto Kerner

A federally created department given the purpose to investigate the rapidly escalating disorder in cities across the country, punctuated by riots and violent demonstrations. This commission was led by (in the answer), who released a report on his and his commission's analysis of the riots and tension, saying that these riots were a release of the strain building up in the inner-city ghettos, instigated by an event angering the black populations. The report warned that the nation was quickly moving to two groups, black and white, with enormous disparity and separation.

Ray Kroc

A food service machinist who, when observing two clients that started a restaurant with fast service and assembly-line production, bought the idea and the name to the restaurant, and set up many locations around the country in a franchise-operated business model. The brand was called McDonald's.

Lee Harvey Oswald

A former marine and advocate of Fidel Castro, who was accused of murdering John F. Kennedy with a rifle from an upper floor of a commercial building. He was tight-lipped in the initial investigation, and as he was being transferred two days later to another jail, he was shot multiple times and killed.

Douglas MacArthur

A general during WWII and the Korean War, first commanding troops in the Pacific to take Japan and organizing the "island-hopping" campaign. He also, after the war, led US occupation forces in South Korea and organized troops as the commanding general in the Korean War for UN forces. However, his overzealous tactics during the war caused Truman to fire him for insubordination, which, nonetheless, still allowed him to receive a hero's welcome when returning to America.

William Westmoreland

A general in command of U.S. troops in South Vietnam who requested marines to be sent in to Vietnam to assist the troops already there and to protect an American airfield. This set a precedent for injection of further battalions, up to the point where the number of troops had increased seven-fold in a single year from 25 to 184 thousand.

War Refugee Board

A government agency in America created by FDR in 1944 against the will of the State Department to assist people threatened by the Nazis, and eventually was able to save 200,000 people, as well as give money to other countries to free Jews.

Federal Building in Oklahoma City

A government commercial building that was a victim of a bombing on April 19, 1995. 168 casualties were recorded, inciting outrage and fury at this believed terrorism. Investigators, reviewing the evidence, discovered that the attack was not foreign in origin, but carried out by a Gulf War veteran named Timothy McVeigh, who was convicted and executed in June 2001. This was only one of several terrorist attacks during the '90s, however, but this is the incident most commonly discussed.

Peace Corps

A government program that would send volunteers for one or two years abroad to developing countries with poverty and war to educate the populations, treat the sick and speed the adoption of technology. Many college students and civil rights activists supported this organization, and worked tirelessly to improve the lives of the less fortunate.

George Wallace

A governor of Alabama who widely and openly opposed integration of public schools, and has been famously quoted as saying, "I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny and I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."

Strom Thurmond

A governor of South Carolina that the Dixiecrat Party nominated for the presidency in the 1948 election. While losing to George Dewey, his presence was an important symbol that not all Americans had the same ideas as the Republican and Democratic parties.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

A group formed in 1966 that pushed for female equality, deeming that the current pace of change was too slow and that organizations were unwilling to push for more aggressive legislation and to take "women's grievances" with more care. They also supported equal pay for women, with a balance in responsibilities between men and women in the household and an attack on sexist slogans and photographs in advertising. It found considerable success; it gained 15,000 members in only 5 years. However, some found their militant strategies and middle-class focus as detrimental to other women, such as blacks, immigrants, and the poor.

"silent majority"

A group of Americans described by Nixon as the true opinion of the nation that could not voice its opinion as loudly as the protestors, yet contained many more voices. This sect was mainly defined as supporting the war in Vietnam, expressing distrust for the protestors and their values, and not accepting their controversial actions. In one of Nixon's speeches, he expressed support for these people, saying that a "vocal minority" cannot prevail in dictating a nation, for it would be lost if that ever occurred.

Beatniks

A group of people who called themselves the "Beat Generation" and promoted spontaneous action and a lack of dependency on money and property, focusing more on religion and spiritual action. These people also challenged the traditional American values with use of illicit drugs and sexual behaviors. These people began to gain a wide youth following, and are considered some of the first to change the American moral trend to this extent.

Fred Shuttlesworth

A head preacher in the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, who convinced Martin Luther King, Jr. and his SCLC to visit Birmingham. With King's help, he was able to plan boycotts and demonstrations to rid "the most segregated city in America" of its hate and prejudice.

"Dewey Defeats Truman"

A headline on the Chicago Daily Tribune that was printed well before the 1948 national election had concluded due to the paper's definite certainty that Dewey would win. However, embarrassment resulted when Truman won an unexpected last-minute upset to win reelection.

Roe v. Wade

A highly significant Supreme Court case that legalized abortion for women in all states, as in most states the access to abortion for women was either severely restricted or impossible. Termination of a pregnancy was legalized within the first three months, but allowed states to continue to regulate during the last two trimesters.

Levittown(s)

A large grouping of "pre-fabricated" residences for people returning from service and being able to afford mortgages, produced quickly and efficiently by using mass-production techniques in large plots of suburban land which allowed people to build homes in weeks instead of months. These houses all looked virtually identical due to the production techniques (a popular source of criticism) and commonly were in groups upwards of 10,000.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

A law allowing federal officials to receive the authority to allow someone to vote if that person was rejected by local officials, especially applying to African Americans. This broke down many barriers that Southern states had set in place, and 400,000 AAs registered a year later.

Mohandas Gandhi

A leader of India's fight for independence against Britain who believed in nonviolence as the most effective form of victory and the only way that triumph was possible. His idea was widely based around civil disobedience, which would set a precedent for others to follow while not hurting anyone. He became a role model for MLK, Jr., who modeled his own efforts on this man's.

Malcolm X

A leader of the Nation of Islam and a black supremacist until 1964 (he was assassinated from several machine pistol bullets and shotgun slugs only 9 months after his departure from the NoI), this man grew up oppressed, with both of his parents dead or insane before he was thirteen and several relatives lynched. He, upon being arrested and convicted for breaking and entering at the age of twenty, learned of this "Black Muslim" group and quickly became its leader soon after his release from jail. His point of view exemplified violent and aggressive action, with a belief that integration was not a true goal, but that the black man must have his own property and resources that were just as good as the white man's, and separate himself from the "other color."

Stokely Carmichael

A leader of the SNCC who arrived in the US in 1952 at the age of 11, becoming involved in protests quickly after his arrival, and was one of the civil rights leaders who was influenced by Malcolm X. This lead him to encourage SNCC members to carry weapons whenever possible, and called for a transition to black-only member restrictions. Finally, his last call for change was to change the idea of freedom to one of black power, when the black man could become more powerful than the white.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

A letter sent by Martin Luther King, Jr. to his critics that said his demonstrations were unwise and ill-timed. He refuted these statements by saying that there was no time to wait; if they waited and waited, the demands to continue would keep coming without end, and that encouragement would never come.

38th Parallel

A line of latitude separating what is now North and South Korea, decided upon after the war ended in 1945, with the northern Soviet troops surrendering to the Allies, and the Soviets accepting the Japanese and American surrender as well. While never intended to be permanent, this divide lasted for many years.

"axis of evil"

A list of three countries (Iraq, Iran, and North Korea) declared to be the most dangerous enemies of America during this time and a reference to WWII. These countries were declared dangerous due to their potential and intent to develop WMDs and use them against the United States.

Alger Hiss

A man accused of being a Communist spy by Whittaker Chambers—a former Communist and Time Magazine editor—and was taken to court in the '40s for espionage. However, they could only convict him for perjury, and went to prison for four years. Even though there was no true conviction, people were worried that the Communist influence had spread across the country and even deeper.

Maginot Line

A massive string of fortifications along France's border with Germany, provided housing for troops, recreational ares, and even air conditioning.

Fannie Lou Hamer

A member of the MFDP (if you don't know what this is, think political party) that was one of the delegates sent to the Democratic National Convention by this party. She was a farmer on a cotton plantation who was fired when attempting to vote, and was chosen for her storytelling ability, which was exemplified in her tale of her experiences in voter drives and the abuses she experienced.

Black Panthers

A militant political party formed by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton that demanded action taken to rectify the listed errors and attacks on the American people, such as a rebuilding of ghettos to solve the neglect, a disbanding of all police brutality to blacks, and an ability for black people to create their own communities without restriction.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

A military defense project initiated by Reagan in 1983, referred to as "Star Wars" after the 1977 film. This plan involved the assembly and fabrication of a satellite shield to be placed in space to locate, intercept, and destroy Soviet ICBMs with the intent to strike the United States. Reagan believed that more technologically innovative methods were required to defend America against the Soviets than had been originally implemented, and this was one of his plans to accomplish this.

Martin Luther King, Jr.

A minister of an Alabama Baptist church who took advantage of the Montgomery Boycott to lead a movement against segregation as the official leader and spokesperson of this movement. This was the first event that allowed him to gain influence in the public eye as a strong-willed leader against discrimination and the horribly unequal treatment of blacks.

JFK's assassination

A murder that took place as the man in question rode through Dallas, Texas in a parade motorcade for support in reelection. As the motorcade turned in front of the Texas School Book Depository, multiple shots were fired, striking this president and fatally wounding him. He was rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, but doctors had no success in reviving him. To date, suspicion about Lee Harvey Oswald, the accused killer who was shot only days after the assassination by Jack Ruby in a crowd of reporters, and the possible cover-ups and conspiracies surrounding this still leave many questions unanswered.

Checkers Speech

A nationally televised broadcast in September 1952 that featured Richard Nixon denying the accusations his critics forced upon him, more specifically his alleged acceptance of political gifts in return for favors. (Lobbying) He gave a detailed account of his personal finances and expostulated on how he did not "live above his means," mentioning he and his wife's fairly humble attire and stature. The most famous moment of this speech for which it is named is when he admitted the only gift he had ever received politically, which was a cocker spaniel that his children had fallen in love with, and said, "And you know the kids love that dog and I just want to say this right now, that regardless of what they say about it, we're going to keep it." An outpouring of emotion came from his supporters and changed critics, pleading that he stay on the ballot after he asked them to give their opinions on him after the program.

Truman Doctrine

A new policy for foreign relations created in March 1947 when Britain was unable to protect Greece and Turkey from U.S.S.R. involvement any longer. This policy stated that the United States must help the minor countries decide for themselves what government should be, defending them against the Soviet power. This set a precedent for foreign involvement overseas in far greater volume; indeed, the U.S. set up military bases in Greece and Turkey only a few months later.

deterrence

A new practice set up by Eisenhower in 1954 after the Soviet Union had tested its first thermonuclear device, calling for plans to make the United States' power so immense that no country would dare to attack it "for fear of retaliation." This led to 19 hydrogen bomb tests between '54 and '58, and make the U.S. more powerful than ever.

Walter Cronkite

A news anchor and reporter who issued one of the leading opinions of dissent about the Vietnam War, saying, "It now seems more certain than ever that the bloody experience in Vietnam is to end in stalemate." This opinion, bolstered with his objective history of opinion-making and reliability, only served to decrease public support for the war. Even President Johnson began to accept that public support had been virtually lost for most of the population.

Cesar Chavez & United Farm Workers (UFW)

A past migrant farm worker who supported the idea of a collective union to better the lifestyles of these workers and help them gain economic prosperity and power in America. As a result, he organized Mexican farmers into (mentioned in the answer). They became powerful quickly, with 1,700 members in five years. They supported equal rights and better working conditions for farmers, and were not afraid to boycott when necessary. They used their power to reject the purchase of produce and other crops across the country, which was met with opposition. However, California and several other states expressed their support, and laws were passed requiring negotiation with the farm unions.

Geneva Accords

A peace settlement after the internal struggle of the Vietminh and French powers between representatives of several countries in French Indochina, Ho Chi Minh and Bao Dai, the U.S., the U.S.S.R., China, and Britain. They drew up a settlement in (in answer), Switzerland, dividing Vietnam into two sections approximately at the 17th parallel. However, conflicts soon resulted after Ho Chi Minh and Ngo Dinh Diem were given control on North and South Vietnam, respectively. Elections in the two countries scheduled for 1956 to unify the two nations were canceled due to suspicions by the South about unfair Communist North Vietnam elections.

Camp David Accords

A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt where Egypt agreed to recognize the nation state of Israel.

Dr. (Benjamin) Spock

A pediatrician who gave advice to newlywed mothers that needed help learning what their roles were in the household and how to raise their children. He published a book called The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, which detailed many behaviors that mothers took to heart, highly influencing most of the country's choices when raising a child.

Iron Curtain

A phrase coined by Winston Churchill describing the wall of separation between moderate capitalist and communist countries, rapidly spreading after reaching the borders of West Germany and Austria, seeking to oppress all of Europe at one point.

West Germany

A portion of Germany consisting of the militarily occupied territories owned by Britain, France, and the United States. Notably, they also had territory inside the U.S.S.R.'s, called West Berlin. The countries agreed to join their territories together to make a statement against the Soviets that they disagreed with their views. The territory was officially called the Federal Republic of Germany.

Dixiecrat Party

A portion of the Democratic Party that took it upon itself to adhere to values of states' rights, and decided to nominate J. Strom Thurmond for president. This party, while not very effective, signified the crumbling support for Truman and the idea that a new set of ideas to govern the country was coming sooner than later.

Loyalty Program

A process enacted by President Truman to make sure that federal employees were trustworthy and did not have hopes to overthrow the government. Several million background checks were done, and the people who did not pass commonly had no chance to clear their names in court or otherwise.

Rosie the Riveter

A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part.

Marshall Plan

A proposal by the current U.S. Secretary of State (whose name is in the answer) to the nations of Europe calling for them to craft a plan to assist themselves and facilitate economic recovery, which the United States would then fund to make sure that they were able to begin producing goods and keep themselves from falling into Communist hands. Overall, this proposal ended with over $13 billion in aid spent over seventeen nations.

March on Washington

A protest in (the city named in the answer) where over 200,000 people came from various places around the country to fight for civil rights. The official slogan was "jobs and freedom," and was directed by A. Philip Randolph. This was also very popular with music artists and writers, who widely supported the movement and would perform at it. The peak of the event was capped with Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech, which rallied millions to support the desegregation cause and equality.

Selma March

A protest in Alabama from the city in the answer to Montgomery, the capital of the state over 50 miles away. It initially was met with violence from state troopers, who attacked the protestors with whips, clubs, and tear gas. President Johnson was forced to place the Alabama National Guard under federal control, and sent troops in to protect the people in the protests. The march had also been broadcast over national TV, and people who were outraged at treatment by the officers or supporters of the movement joined in, swelling the ranks to over 25,000 by the end.

Election of 1952

A race between Adlai Stevenson, a governor of Illinois, and Dwight Eisenhower, a popular general who served as Allied commander during WWII and instilled calm confidence in the American people with his traditions of diplomacy and security. Controversy resulted pre-election when people began accusing Nixon of receiving gifts from political supporters and a fund being set up in secret. Nixon fought back against these allegations where he detailed his personal finances and, in a climax of the speech, told the audience about his only gift, a cocker spaniel named Checkers, which prompted many to demand him to stay on the ticket and rallied enormous support, guaranteeing Eisenhower victory.

Taliban

A radical Muslim fundamentalist terrorism group that captured the Afghan capital of Kabul in a demonstration of their desire for an Islamic state ruled by a fundamentalist theocracy, which would ban technology such as television and music. They also provided a "safe house" for Osama bin Laden and helped him to train terrorists. When Bush demanded that bin Laden be released to the United States and the camps closed, the Taliban refused quickly.

Betty Friedan & *The Feminine Mystique*

A radical book outlining a radical (for the time) outlook on the female's role in society. She described the women who were given what society said they ought to have, and how it was frowned upon for them to disagree. However, most women were *not* happy with their roles, and the ones who argued that they were were criticized and degraded in the book. She said that women did not have to simply accept their given roles in society, and that it would be possible to have something larger and more significant than being a simple subordinate.

Poor People's Campaign

A rally and movement led by Martin Luther King, who believed that a new focus on attacking economic issues, which he believed would lead to militant movements, was crucially important to solving the discrimination. He led this, as well as a march with the same name, to unify not only blacks, but poor white people, who had much more in common with most of the black population than they did with the middle and upper classes of whites.

26th Amendment

A reduction in the voting age from 21 to 18, this amendment was met with vehement controversy and frustration, with many looking to student protests and worrying about people of that age voting. However, it was eventually passed due to the argument that most of the people serving overseas weren't even old enough to vote, but had to go fight in a war.

Alliance for Progress

A revolutionary and welfare effort proposed by Kennedy to the populations of the Western Hemisphere to build governments in countries with unstable ruling or no rulers at all. These countries would also be benefited with an effort to satisfy basic needs of these peoples. However, Latin Americans saw controversy in this program, with a belief that this was only acted upon to stop communism.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

A revolutionary court case recognized by many as the ultimate achievement against discrimination. This case, as well as three others in a set, all made it to the Supreme Court, where, after much debate, were all ruled in favor of the plaintiff (an auspicious outcome) and made it illegal to segregate public schools. This, indirectly, also destroyed the separate but equal doctrine, making it effectively illegal to segregate anywhere. However, this was, at the moment, restricted to schooling, but it was the first and most important step.

filibuster

A right given to political opponents of a law to call for extended periods of continuous debate, which would, effectively, prevent a vote from every being called. This is commonly used on laws with overwhelming support that some politicians do not wish to see passed.

Yalu River

A river drawing the border between North Korea and China, which Chinese troops crossed when MacArthur attempted to push the Northerns across it and decisively end the war.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

A route that allowed North Vietnamese soldiers to transport troops and supplies to necessary locations in South Vietnam. Running through Laos and Cambodia, this route cut into Vietnam in several areas for transport of goods. This allowed the Viet Cong to rapidly increase its standing in South Vietnamese land and populations.

Little Rock (AK) & Central High School

A school where Orval Faubus, an Arkansas Governor, decided to oppose forced integration and posted National Guard troops at this school to prevent them from attending school that year here. Many protestors against the blacks also appeared, many demanding a lynching of the nine African Americans. As a result, President Eisenhower was forced to take action against this blatant violation of the Constitution and took National Guard troops under federal control and protected the students.

Watts

A section of Downtown Los Angeles that, on August 11, 1965, was occupied by a riot lasting six days that began with a 21-year old black man's arrest for drunk driving. A crowd had formed, and, initially, there was no violence or danger to anyone. This all changed when a police officer panicked, and the audience was outraged by this showing of violence against a peaceful group. After the ensuing week, when the National Guard regained control, 34 had died, thousands had been injured, and an attitude soon spread to other cities that riots could bring success, and the cry, "Burn, baby, burn" was the representation of this feeling.

North Korea

A section of Korea separated by the 38th Parallel controlled by Soviet Union troops, who withdrew in '48 and '49. The military government was later changed to a Communist dictatorship after the military left.

Tet Offensive

A series of attacks by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops that come together as one large offensive movement. They tirelessly launched surprise attacks on U.S. military bases, government buildings, and the U.S. embassy. Saigon became the main target of many of these attacks, and fighting continued on in the war for months there. This movement is also notable for Communist brutality, when troops would slaughter any suspected enemy without hesitation, and engaged mass executions.

Korean War

A series of battles between North Korean Communist troops and Americans, South Koreans, and UN peacekeeping troops. The conflict resulted when Northerns attempted to regain South Korea by force, and America rapidly gained permission to retaliate from the UN. General MacArthur was able to push North Koreans back to China, which prompted Chinese retaliation, eventually shifting the line back to the 38th Parallel again, where a truce line was drawn.

Pentagon Papers

A set of documents published by the New York Times in June 1971 that detailed a top secret government investigation of American roles in the Vietnam War. Within the papers were several examples of the President and other government officials lying to Congress, as well as the American public, about the war and the true involvement of the government in the war. Sparking further dissent, these documents served the purpose to convince citizens to distrust their government even more, and consider other possible illegal or covered-up operations.

blacklist

A set of names after the Hollywood Ten case disseminated to all media employers directing them to not hire the people listed. These names gradually grew as people spoke out against it or were even suspected of Communist activity.

Nuremberg Trials

A set of trials against Nazi leaders presided over by the Allies, where they charged each defendant with crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The jury was called the International Military Tribunal, and was composed of members chosen by the US, Britain, the U.S.S.R., and France. 12 out of the 24 received the death sentence, and a precedent was set the individuals must be responsible for their own actions, and following orders is not a valid excuse.

"It's the economy, stupid!"

A slogan Clinton used during his presidential campaign to show that he would be able to connect with the people and solve the economic problems, and also augmenting his attitude as the "comeback kid" and a charismatic candidate.

transistor

A small circuit placed in electrical equipment that amplifies signals and regulates their output. This small device was able to surpass the vacuum tube, which was much larger and did, essentially, the same job.

Students for a Democratic Society

A small group of students at the University of Michigan that fought for civil rights, social welfare, departing Vietnam, as well as other points. While initially starting out small, this group eventually exploded into popularity and helped form the political movement called the New Left.

Jackie Robinson

A star baseball player for the Brooklyn Dodgers during the late 40s as the first player to break the "color barrier" and participate in the MLB with whites, not restricted to the Negro Leagues. He was chosen for his stellar education, his service in WWII, and his respect for others. Even when insults and even death threats were hurled at him, he took them with dignity and became one of baseball's most revered and valuable players.

Whitewater affair

An accusation of Clinton having, as governor before his presidency, participated in fraud and illegal land deals and loans, covering up the conspirators with his considerable authority. Attorney General Janet Reno, hearing about these charges, appointed a special prosecutor to investigate. Several past and present business partners of Clinton were arrested as a result, but no evidence incriminating the President were found.

Warsaw Pact

An alliance similar to NATO with the satellite Communist nations of Europe joined together with the Soviet Union to defend against the Western powers.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

An amemdment nearly added to the Constitution in 1972 that outlawed discrimination based on sex, allowing women to pursue equal employment. It was quickly approved and thirty states radified it easily, but it stalled from there and never gained more than 35 states until its deadline in 1982.

Potsdam Conference

Truman's first meeting with Stalin, where concerns over war reparations and free Polish elections were renewed with vigor, and the two groups got little done. Even the confirmation by Truman of the nuclear bomb's successful test failed to shake Stalin.

SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)

A student civil rights organization that began in 1960 in North Carolina and was made mainly up of students from southern and northern states alike. They would fight for integration in public schooling and in other youth-oriented environments, so that their voices could be heard as well. This group grew quickly, and eventually split apart from the SCLC and the CORE as an independent organization. This allowed them to better focus their individual efforts, and fought vigorously for youth rights.

New Frontier

A term introduced during Kennedy's inaugural speech referring to his many proposals to boost the nation's economy, assist the poor populations of America, and spur on the space program. His term for this new life for America and its bright future he promised stuck, and many began to refer to his proposals as such.

The Evil Empire

A term invented by Reagan to describe the Soviet Union, which he believed necessitated aggressive foreign policy in the form of expansive defense spending with nuclear warheads and conventional military forces.

Glasnost

A term meaning "political openness" and referred to Gorbachev's reforms in the Communist system and allowing more policies comparable to free enterprise and freer and more citizen-based government, as well as better relations with non-Communist governments.

Perestroika

A term meaning "restructuring" and referred to economic changes by the Soviets that allowed limited free enterprise to test a possibility to heal the economy and begin growth once again. This was met with enthusiasm by the United States, who believed that the Soviet Union was on its way to becoming a more capitalist—or at least less communist—nation as a whole.

military-industrial complex

A term referring to the massive integration of the military business being merged with scientific groups and businesses, causing supply integration, a million troops stationed overseas, and millions more training and producing goods for the troops.

Feminism

A theory describing the possibility of equality for women in politics, social circumstances, and financial matters. While it had begun in the late 1800s, in the late 1960s, with the Vietnam War and counterculture, the fights for equality exploded, and feminists rapidly began to try to bring about radical change as quickly as possible. This was the first real occurrence of feminism actually succeeding in its ideas and gaining substantial change for its supporters, as before the 1960s there was little to no success with most people still opposed or hostile to change comparable to this.

Kent State

A university in Ohio that was home to a violent protest against American invasion of Cambodia. Students broke windows in the business district of the university, as well as burning the Reserve Officers Training Corps, which had earned a symbol of fervent antipathy as the war dragged on. The National Guard was quickly organized and dispatched to the university, where they threw tear gas and, when the students refused to give up, retreated to a tactical position and began firing on the crowd, killing four students and wounding nine others. This event served, as most do, to disconcert Americans deeply, sparking further demonstrations.

My Lai

A village in South Vietnam, this small group of houses was reported to be housing Viet Cong troops approximately numbering around 250. This was met with U.S. infantry entering the area in March 1968 to search for the soldiers, but instead found women, children, and the elderly. In a harsh example of brutality, Lieutenant William L. Calley, Jr., ordered all the people gathered up and executed by the troops. Over 400 have been reported killed in the massacre, but would have measured far higher had a helicopter crew not landed between the soldiers and the prisoners, with Hugh Thompson, the pilot of the helicopter, famously ordering his 18-year-old gunner Lawrence Colburn to shoot at the Americans if they continued. This event shocked many with the revelation that American troops had been slaughtering people just as harshly as the Viet Cong.

Vietnamization

A war policy in Vietnam initiated by Nixon in June of 1969. This strategy called for dramatic reduction of U.S. troops followed by an increased injection of S. Vietnamese troops in their place. A considerable success, this plan allowed for a drop in troops to 24,000 by 1972. However, with this reduction in troops came increased bombing raids hidden from the Americans, due to Nixon's fear that he would be discovered in his attempts to cover up his continued battle to win the war.

22nd Amendment

An amendment to the Constitution stating that no president can be elected to said office more than twice, and no person who inherits the presidency due to death can be elected more than once. This amendment had little, if any, awareness published about it, as people had little concern for it and weren't very involved.

Jesse Owens

United States athlete and Black American whose success in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin outraged Hitler.

Spiro Agnew

VP under Nixon, resigned for extortion and bribery charges

Gloria Steinem & Ms.

A woman dedicated to promoting feminism by starting a magazine (named in answer) in 1972, which promoted decidedly controversial and unusual views on a woman's role in the household. Widely popular, 200,000 subscribers joined within the first year.

Iran Hostage Crisis

A, group of Iranians overran the American embassy in Iran's capital of Tehran and took hostages.

Battle of the Bulge

After recapturing France, the Allied advance became stalled along the German border. In the winter of 1944, Germany staged a massive counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg which pushed a 30 mile "bulge" into the Allied lines. The Allies stopped the German advance and threw them back across the Rhine with heavy losses.

Interstate Highway Act

Also called the 1956 Federal-Aid Highway Act, this $25 billion government subsidy allowed for a 40K+ mile network of roads to be built around the country, which allowed more cars to undertake interstate travel and also allowed (theoretically) cities to be evacuated in the event of a USSR nuclear attack.

GI Bill of Rights

Also called the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, this law allowed for war veterans to obtain low-interest mortgages and federal assistance for college easily and quickly, causing an increase in the economy and an increase in middle-class populations as well.

AIDS

Also known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, this disease was mainly unknown to the American public, as were most sexually-transmitted diseases, until the 1980s, when the numbers afflicted began to grow. As the main sufferers of this disease were homosexuals and intravenous drug users, the issue was mainly avoided and ignored. However, Reagan instituted research to investigate this new disease, and a search for a cure began. However, many Americans were averse to this style of attack, and believed that abstinence was the best choice for people who wished to avoid contraction. While the disease was in an issue alone, the larger controversy of rights for homosexuals was the main difficulty that needed to be overcome in the general public.

A. Philip Randolph

America's leading black labor leader who called for a march on Washington D.C. to protest factories' refusals to hire African Americans, which eventually led to President Roosevelt issuing an order to end all discrimination in the defense industries.

George Patton

American military commander who led the North Africa campaign, the Sicily campaign, and was instrumental at Normandy, also was at the Battle of the Bulge, where he helped defeat German forces. Led American armor to victories in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Germany, but he was temporarily removed from command after slapping an enlisted soldier.

George Kennan

An American diplomat who studied the Communist behaviors and made predictions as to the group's eventual goals. He wrote that the Soviet Union sought to have communism dominate the world and that there was little chance to defeat them with small victories, so there was no chance for a quick strike to stop the U.S.S.R's movements.

Billy Graham

An Evangelist fundamentalism preacher who gained a wide following in the 1950s with his appearances across the country and overseas during and after the war. He would commonly appear at religious rallies and allowed people to connect with and appreciate religion even more, causing thousands to attend his sermons. His prominence was so large that in 1996, he was also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.

Saddam Hussein

An Iraqi dictator who oppressed his people and the nations surrounding him and was reported to have been developing WMDs by Bush. The UN, when it requested to monitor shutdown of all weapons programs in Iraq, was refused by this man and received threats of force by America. He consented to an investigation in 2002 by UN inspectors, who found no evidence of nuclear weapons, but was attacked anyway (wow) by Bush, who believed that support was still there and called it a "coalition of the willing." After "Operation Iraqi Freedom" concluded, he had been removed from power by US forces.

Freedom Rides

An anti-discrimination project created by CORE and assisted with the help of the SNCC, which was designed to test the effectiveness of the Supreme Court's ruling on anti-discrimination laws for public interstate transportation. While at first there were only minor complications in early stages of the demonstration, the buses began to head farther and farther south, where they were attacked violently by numerous armed mobs, several of which caused severe damage to the bus. In one case, they even attempted to set the entire bus on fire, nearly trapping the riders inside.

Ralph Nader & *Unsafe at Any Speed*

An attorney who spearheaded the 1960s and 70s consumerism movement, with a belief that more regulation of businesses was necessary to benefit the American citizen and protect his safety. His most famous book, mentioned in the answer, unveiled many of the issues and dangers about automobiles in that age, and the refusal to fix them by the manufacturers. He drew large amounts of attention with his several appearances and said very successful book, causing an outrage at the practices of automobile manufacturers. Congress passes the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act the same year, marking an achievement for his work.

Jack Kerouac

An author that many considered the father and leader of the beat generation, who held many meetings in San Francisco to discuss life events and stories. He started many unconventional styles of writing and behaviors, commonly writing spontaneously with no changes until the entire length was finished. He promoted an open approach to life and a style of living that was very fluid, with no preordained path. Also wrote On the Road, a book written during his travels without much revision or planning, and mainly consists of his ideas and thoughts in a single book, written in the same style as his philosophies.

Contract with America

An economic plan supported and initialized by Newt Gingrich that, supposedly, promised downsizing of the government, a tax cut, lesser regulations, and a balanced budget. These promises sounded promising to Republican *and* Democratic voters, leading them to oust the Democratic-controlled Congress in favor of conservatism. (For now.)

baby boom

An enormous increase in birth rates post-WWII, eventually escalating from 19 births/1,000 people during the 30s to more than 25 after the war. This was a result of the men returning home from service and the large amounts of savings that people had built up from a time of self-sacrifice during the war by not buying goods that could help the soldiers.

Wounded Knee (1973)

An event directed by the AIM wherein the area named was occupied by the organization, and refused to leave until an investigation was made into the numerous counts of poverty and tragic living conditions, as well as a review of 300+ treaties delegating behaviors between the U.S. and Native American tribes. Native American leaders supported the movement as well. However, the village was sieged by federal marshals and the FBI, who arrested 300 people and killed two AIM members in the struggle lasting for three months.

protest at Alcatraz

An event when 75 Native Americans landed at (in the answer), claiming it under the Fort Laramie Treaty, which allowed male NAs to claim U.S. land as homestead. Many joined up with the movement, planning to change the prison into a cultural center. While it failed soon after a year, the point was made, and more people realized the plight of the natives.

Agent Orange

An experimental herbicide used against Vietnamese civilians and dense jungles in areas where it was suspected of allies with the Viet Cong resided. This herbicide was extremely effective at annihilating jungles and killing all plants contacted allowing U.S. troops to identify Viet Cong hideouts. Collateral damage was a highly controversial part of this tactic, however; many children were born with birth defects and health issues, as well as the destruction of crops.

containment

An idea created through Kennan's studies saying that Eastern Europe had no chance against the communists, and it would be better for "nature to take its course" and leave it alone. Instead, it would be more auspicious if they attempted to stop Soviet movements in other regions of the world, creating communism in those areas.

Black Power

An idea promoted by Carmichael that told the black populations to stop pleading with the white man and take action with unity, independence, and unique organizations. The idea called for a cast-off of the restrictions that the white man had been using, and abandoning the other population completely in order to weaken them.

Sudetenland

An industrial region of western Czechoslovakia with a heavily German population and many fortifications crucial to Czechoslovakia's defense, which Hitler demanded.

United Nations

An international peacekeeping organization that, unlike the League of Nations, was effective from its inception because the US got congressional support. 50 nations met in April 1945 to discuss a charter for the group, and three groups of nations were created, being presided over by the U.S.S.R., the US, Britain, France, and China.

Taiwan

An island nation containing the Republic of China, a small government led by the defeated Jiang Jieshi and his supporters, claiming to be the true government of the Chinese nation.

Berlin Airlift

An operation carried out by U.S. and British troops to provide supplies to the 2.5 million people in West Berlin now that Stalin had closed the supply routes. This kept the Western powers from being forced to abandon the city in Communist hands. For 15 months, food, fuel, and other supplies were continually delivered, and the Soviets opened their blockade in mid-1949.

HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee)

An organization created by Congress to investigate what the effects of communism were on business and in politics. Most famously, during one of the probes they attacked Hollywood, jailing many Communist actors and directors, as well as banning films supporting the Soviet Union and the people who made them.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

An organization dedicated to bettering the lives of Native Americans. Led by Dennis Banks, this group fought for better protection of NAs living in cities or towns, with more patrols and police support. They also fought to increase Indian cultural pride for young members, and also wanted independence for reservations, better regulation of their natural resources, and the restoration and beautification of land normally taken from the Native Americans.

NAACP (The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

An organization dedicated to passing legislation and defending blacks in court against discrimination. One of their most famous achievements was their eventual destruction of Plessy v. Ferguson, breaking it away piece by piece and finally striking the killing blow with their legal team's win in Brown v. Board of Education. They fought against the idea that separate but equal reasoning was credible enough to legalize discrimination, and believed that it was a blatant violation of the Constitution.

Henry David Thoreau

Another of MLK, Jr.'s role models, this man was an advocate of civil disobedience in the mid-1800s, and was most famous for his opposition to the Mexican-American war of 1846, halting his pay of taxes as a result. He was, therefore, jailed, and while there began to write about his experiences and how his model could help others achieve their various goals.

RAF

Britain's Royal Air Force.

Winston Churchill

Britain's new prime minister during WWII who pleaded for US aid.

American Embassy, Tehran, Iran

Building held in & location of the Iran Hostage Crisis

Viet Cong

Communist North Vietnamese guerrilla forces who attempted to gain influence in the South and earn the loyalty of more and more of the population, giving them territory and strengthening the North. They created a public political side to their group called the National Liberation Front, which was advocated and supported by the North Vietnamese and Ho Chi Minh.

Bolsheviks

Vladimir Lenin's revolutionary followers who took the Russian word for 'majority' as their name even though they were a minority in the country.

DE JURE vs. DE FACTO segregation

DE JURE segregation was the main challenge to be overcome by civil rights leaders in the South, as they attempted to repeal laws promoting segregation or pass new ones banning it and forcing integration. DE FACTO segregation was more difficult to prevent or repeal, as it did not focus on the laws; the discrimination was from a prejudice and overall hate of blacks, whether it be from bad black-neighborhood schools, employment discrimination, and collective shut-outs of blacks in suburban housing. This resulted in a different tactic commonly being used: rioting. Many of these sprung up in number and intensity all across the nation, and was seen as the only was to solve the "lawful" segregation.

Rape of Nanjing

During Japan's invasion, Japanese soldiers brutalized or killed at least 100,000 civilians, including women and children, in the former capital of China.

Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact

Eliminated the danger of the Soviet Union invasion from the east, was signed by Hitler.

Haile Selassie

Emperor of Ethiopia (r. 1930-1974) and symbol of African independence. He fought the Italian invasion of his country in 1935 and regained his throne during World War II, when British forces expelled the Italians.

Allies

Eventually the US and the Soviet Union, but at the time Great Britain and France stood alone.

Blitzkrieg

German for "lightning war," this new military tactic included a fast, concentrated air and land attack that took the enemy's army by surprise.

Albert Einstein

German-born Swiss-American physicist. One of the greatest scientists of all time, he is known for many discoveries including the Theory of Relativity, an explanation of Brownian motion, and the photoelectric effect (1921 Nobel Prize in physics). A Jew, he left Germany during Hitler's rise to power and stayed in the US. A pacifist, he urged F.D.R. to investigate the possibilities of an atomic bomb because of the danger that Germany might have such a weapon. After the war, he worked hard to prevent nuclear proliferation. In 1940 he became an American citizen, and held a post at Princeton from 1933 until his death.

Manchuria

Japan took control of and gained considerable influence over this nothern Chinese province.

Nuremberg Laws

Laws prejudiced against Jews in Nazi-occupied locations that caused them to lose their German citizenship, outlawed marriage between Jews and non-Jews, and made many lose their jobs and places of business.

Ayatollah Khomeini

Leader of Iranian revolution

Dallas, Texas (Downtown, Texas School Book Repository)

Location of JFK's assassination

Braceros

Mexican workers that were brought to America to work when so many men and women were gone from home during World War II that there weren't enough workers.

Fascism

Militant political movement that emphasized loyalty to the state and obedience to the leader.

Anschluss

Political union with Germany that Hitler pushed Austria for.

54,000

Number of US troops killed in the Korean War

East Germany

Officially called the German Democratic Republic, this territory of Germany was owned by the Soviet Union. Notably, Berlin, while being inside the U.S.S.R.'s territory, was split into two parts, with Britain, France, and the U.S. owning a second portion.

Thurgood Marshall

One of the NAACP's most famous lawyers that led their legal team. Nicknamed "Mr. Civil Rights," this man fought endlessly against segregation in the courts, winning many battles and pushing discrimination farther and farther back. He is also known for his leading role in Brown v. Board.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

One of the first "blanket laws" governing discrimination and beginning the process of forcing people to integrate blacks and accept their equality. This act called for equality in voting (Constitutional right), prohibited discrimination in public places (Constitutional right), allowed and promoted withdraw from federal programs supporting discrimination, and prevented businesses and unions from discriminating based on sex, race, religion, or ethnicity when reviewing employment.

INF Treaty

One of the first nuclear reduction treaties in history that provided for the destruction of approximately 2,500 Soviet and American warheads located in Europe, and was one of the catalysts for improved relations between the two nations stated publicly.

Jonas Salk

One of the two medical scientists who created a successful vaccine to protect against poliomyelitis, a disease that could kill up to 20K people in the US before the drug's inception. This started a revolution of disease prevention, when many other "killers" began to be fought and eliminated.

Edward R. Murrow

One of the very few media spokespersons who accused McCarthy of cruelly slandering the government and dangerously stepping over "[t]he line between investigating and persecuting..." He urged people to speak out against the Wisconsin Senator, and make sure that he is repressed. Sadly, few took his advice.

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; international cartel that inflates price of oil by limiting supply; Venezuela, Saudi Arabia and UAE are prominent members

satellite nations

Outlying countries bordering the U.S.S.R. that would be used as a buffer against attacks, and would be virtually controlled by the Soviet Union and other Communist leaders.

Paris Peace Talks

Peace negotiations between U.S. and S. Vietnam troops and N. Vietnam, these meetings were initiated in an attempt to settle the war between the two nations but was an abject failure, with no progress made whatsoever. Nixon's support dropped during the talks, as citizens realized he had no foolproof plan to stop the war like he had promised during the election, which helped him win the presidential office.

Robert McNamara

President John F. Kennedy's Secretary of Defense who played a large role in regulating the Vietnam War and advising JFK on it. He was one of the president's closest advisors and shaped the army in new ways by modernizing it, making it more flexible, and pushing for new reforms in tactics against other countries during wartime. His role was a very significant one as he is largely credited with keeping the war going.

Reaganomics

President Ronald Reagan's economic proposal that he believed would begin a new period of massive growth for businesses across the country, initializing a chain reaction of economic benefits for all citizens across the country. This was based off the supply-side economic concept, contrasting with Keynesian-style economics, which argued that providing welfare and other benefits to the people would allow them to purchase more goods, benefiting the businesses and allowing them to provide more for their workers. Supply-side economics, however, focuses on providing benefits for businesses, such as tax cuts and subsidies. This would allow the businesses to hire more workers and generally expand, causing more goods to be produced that could be bought by the newly employed workers.

Fair Deal

President Truman's extension of the New Deal, this continuation of the belief that the American people needed government assistance manifested itself in the form of economic "justice" for American citizens with 21 separate points of reform that included unemployment compensation, housing assistance, and higher minimum wage. This group of laws met with considerable resistance from conservative Democrats and Republicans, gradually lowering Truman's power until he reached a virtual stalemate with Congress for the last two years of his presidency. As a result, few of these laws passed, although some did make it through.

Port Huron Statement

The SDS's declaration of purposes and goals to regulate the organization, mainly written by Tom Hayden, a student at the University of Michigan, in 1962. This document is considered one of the best summations of reasoning behind student-led movements across the country, both in reasoning and actions.

Blitz

The bombing of London, which would continue off and on until May 1941.

Guernica

Spanish town that Germans bombed into ruins, & Pablo Picasso's painting to convey the horrors of the Spanish civil war to a world audience.

Korematsu vs. US

Supreme Court ruled that internment of Japanese Americans was justified as the country's need for protection against espionage outweighed individual rights

Kristallnacht

The "Night of Broken Glass," an event where Nazi police and common Germans looted, razed, and destroyed Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues. Nearly every synagogue was destroyed, and thousands of Jews were sent to concentration camps. The Jews left behind were forced to pay for the damages.

Earl Warren

The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court at the time of Brown v. Board, who submitted the unanimous ruling rejecting segregation in public schools. In his speech, he said that there is no true separate but equal idea in the U.S., and that upholding this suppresses the black race and teaches them that they are inferior. He was widely denounced in the South after this ruling.

Luftwaffe

The German air force.

Challenger

The catastrophic failure and explosion of the named space shuttle on 28 January 1986. The shuttle exploded in midair two minutes after takeoff, and was a major controversy for NASA and its space shuttle program, especially considering that one of the members on the shuttle was a New Hampshire teacher named Christa McAuliffe, that took on a decision to teach a class form space that was widely promoted. While this led to a massive restructuring of NASA's procedures and communications, the shuttle program continued nonetheless.

November 22, 1963

The date of JFK's assassination

Battle of Britain

The defense of the British Isles by the Royal Air Force (RAF) of Britain against the Luftwaffe during the Summer and Fall of 1940. The RAF refused to lose and eventually defeated the Luftwaffe despite repeated bombing and heavy losses on both sides.

Alan Shepard

The first American ever sent into space, this man made a 15 minute flight 115 miles above the earth's surface, and was a resounding success. While he did not orbit the earth, this astronaut's achievement sped up America's efforts to send a man even farther out.

John Glenn

The first American ever to orbit the Earth, he orbited it three times on February 20, 1962, and set a precedent for American scientific achievement and success with this event. His success led to continuation of the space program and relentless efforts to send a man to the moon.

Los Angeles Olympics of 1984

The first Summer Olympics held in America in over fifty years, millions of viewers watched the game's open ceremonies and the deeply ingrained patriotic themes within. This helped Americans to regain confidence in their belief of success and achievement. However, the Games were boycotted by several Communist countries including the Soviet Union and East Germany, in retaliation of a 1980 boycott of the Games in Moscow for the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan. While being a strong statement, the United States won a large amount of medals due to these events.

Sputnik

The first artificial satellite ever developed, this machine was launched in 1957 by the Soviets using an ICBM, in order to make a statement of their power and ability to bomb the U.S. This terrified Americans with the fear that a bomb could travel with apparent ease to them.

Shirley Chisholm

The first black woman ever elected to Congress, earning this honor after her win in the 1968 election for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Her focus was mainly for welfare on the poor and young, furiously advocating legislation involving this. Her beliefs, as well as her situation, gave her national recognition, and would go on to win the next six elections, losing her spot in 1983.

Neil Armstrong

The first man to walk on the moon, this man took his first step on July 20, 1969. This success sparked an immense national pride and feeling of success, especially as the Soviet Union had initially sent a man to orbit the Earth first, which terrified Americans at the thought that the U.S.S.R. was progressing faster than them.

Limited Test Ban Treaty

The first nuclear treaty ever produced, this agreement banned nuclear testing above the ground to prevent nuclear radiation fallout from affecting surrounding populations or ecosystems. However, underground testing was still permitted, and used extensively.

Memphis, TN

The location of MLK, Jr.'s assassination.

Los Angeles, CA

The location of Robert F. Kennedy's assassination.

Spanish Civil War

The military began a rebellion against newly elected government. Italy helped the rebels (Nationalists), and Soviet Union helped Republicans. Nationalist army eventually took control.

Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination

The murder of (in the answer) as he stood on the balcony of his hotel in Tennessee, the day after he spoke about the numerous death threats against him and said that he was not worried about the threats, as he believed that he had accomplished the purpose given to him by God, which was to plant the seeds of a movement to equality and unity. His assassination set off hundreds of riots in over 120 cities, leaving 50 dead and thousands wounded. His death destroyed the idea for many that nonviolent change could be successful, as it had gotten him killed.

Robert F. Kennedy's assassination

The murder of (in the answer) in a Southern California hotel after giving a speech following a victory in CA's presidential primary. He had been a prominent frontrunner in the elections, with support and sympathy for many hated and discriminated groups who were angry at their treatment. His major belief was that the Vietnam War was unneeded and hurt, rather than bolstered, the country, and that money could be better spent helping the poor and neglected Americans in their own country.

Jack Ruby

The murderer of Lee Harvey Oswald, this man was a Dallas nightclub owner who walked through multiple crowds of reporters and observers, shooting him point-blank in front of tens, if not hundreds, of people.

Nisei

The name given to U.S. citizens who were Japanese and born in the U.S. All West Coast Japanese were held in internment camps during the war.

Eugene "Bull" Connor

The police commissioner of Birmingham, Alabama, who refused to back down to the calls for equality, arresting hundreds of people and was quoted as saying, "I got plenty of room in the jail."

Geraldine Ferraro

The proposed vice president for Walter Mondale and a New York Representative. She was the first vice presidential candidate of a major party who was female, and made history as a result of her position. While she was not on the winning side, this new idea was very important for the progression of changes in ideas about diversity in elections.

South Korea

The section of Korea separated by the 38th Parallel that was controlled by an American military government and protected by American troops; it was later changed to a democracy. The troops withdrew in '48 and '49.

Kenneth Starr

The special prosecutor appointed by Janet Reno to look into accusations of fraud by Bill Clinton who, when looking into Whitewater, found rumors of an immoral relationship between the President and a White House intern. Clinton denied these charges both in civil and grand judicial court under oath, but later confessed to his relationship. This gave the prosecutor sufficient cause to submit several articles of impeachment to Congress, who, when considering them, sparked a partisan debate both in the government and across the country, with most Republicans deeply criticizing Clinton and Democrats opposing impeachment. The House, regardless of the public's opinion that Clinton should not be impeached, voted otherwise on December 19, 1998. The Senate trial to follow was based around the seriousness of the crimes. It was debated whether the relationship qualified as a "high crime or misdemeanor," a requirement to convict a President. On a vote on February 12, 1999, the Senate acquitted the President.

Polish Corridor

The strip of Poland that the Germans wanted to take, specifically Danzig.

Camelot

The term used to describe the attitude of the Kennedy White House, this word described the feeling visitor would have upon entry, with the royal feeling, cultured performances, and feeling of history. Jacqueline Kennedy was the woman who exemplified this the most, with her intelligence and beauty, eye for detail and history, and regal air. Finally, the Kennedys' children only added to the upbeat and enthusiastic atmosphere.

October 7, 2001

The year (optional date included) of United States invasion of Afghanistan

March 19, 2003

The year (optional date included) of United States invasion of Iraq (boy, do we love invading!)

1968 (April 4)

The year of MLK, Jr.'s assassination.

1968 (June 4)

The year of Robert F. Kennedy's assassination.

1962

The year of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

1963 (August)

The year of the March on Washington.

CORE (the Congress Of Racial Equality)

This organization, founded in 1942, played a leading role in the civil rights movement with their massive protests and peaceful demonstrations in cities like Chicago, Detroit and Denver; they believed that enough people (white and black) working together could bring change, and their enormous membership growth during the 50s served its role to turn this group into a national force.

"Ich bin ein Berliner"

Translated as "I am a Berliner," this famous quote was given at JFK's speech in West Berlin to reassure the population that America would not give up on them and would use whatever resources possible to ensure that their safety was protected at all times. Cheering erupted from the crowds at this inspiring conclusion, and quickly became a highly significant phrase.

1992 Election

Winner: Bill Clinton (D) Losers: George H. W. Bush (R) and H. Ross Perot (Ind.) One of the only true three-way presidential races since 1912, this election mainly revolved around economic problems in the early 1990s, with Clinton placing the most emphasis on the economy and his strategies to solve this crisis. Bush had the backing of the Republicans in his plan to rectify what he said was a radical change from traditional family values and praised him for his leadership when ending the Cold War and winning the Gulf War. Perot, however, was radically different from both candidates in the fact that he stated he had no allegiance to political groups, corporations, or other special interest groups and promised to listen to the views of the people as a whole. While Perot and Bush harshly criticized Clinton for his suspicious practice of "saying anything necessary to win," he still won with 370 electoral votes. However, in the popular vote he only had 43% of the votes, due to Perot bringing in just under 20%, one of the strongest showings for an independent in political history.

2000 Election

Winner: George W. Bush (R) Loser: Al Gore (D) One of the closest elections in political history, this race stands out because polls pre-election showed that enthusiasm for either candidate was lacking considerably, with the government strategy for the budget surplus ranking highly in debates. Bush said that a tax cut would be best to give back the money to the people, but Democrats wanted it to be used to pay off the national debt and benefit Social Security. On election day, the voting was ridden with controversy. Most states were split completely down the middle; neither candidate had 270 electoral votes by the end of the day. Florida, one of the only states yet to finish its counting and a swing state, would decide the winner with its votes. As a result, a recount was called and numerous charges began, including charges of the vote counting being illegal or rigged from both sides. After a Supreme Court battle, George W. Bush was declared the winner with 271 electoral votes but a lower number of popular votes.

Election of 1960

Winner: John F. Kennedy Loser: Richard Nixon Kennedy won the election by a very slim margin, due to his powerful statements on how the movement to solve the battle of civil rights and to promote equality to wait, and that the President must be the leader and the sponsor of this movement. This allowed him to gain an eventual majority of votes, which was helped even more by his efforts to release Martin Luther King, Jr. from Birmingham jail with his brother's (Attorney General Robert Kennedy) assistance.

Election of 1960

Winner: John F. Kennedy Loser: Richard Nixon This election is considered one of the closest in history, with JFK winning only by 100,000 votes. His position was one that was unprecedented, as he was the youngest ever to be ELECTED (not serving), was a Catholic, and had little experience in politics compared to Nixon. During the first ever televised debate between the two, Nixon showed his power with experience and thought, but JFK's attitude and personality won him most of the television audience.

Election of 1968

Winner: Richard M. Nixon (R) Losers: Hubert H. Humphrey (D) & George C. Wallace (American Independent) One of the most controversy-ridden elections in American history, Robert Kennedy, a late runner for the Democratic nomination, was assassinated soon after winning the California primary, fracturing many supporting groups and the Democratic party as a whole. Hubert Humphrey, the proposed nominee, was met with hatred by many student-led organizations for his defense of the Vietnam War. At the Democratic National Convention, several skirmishes broke out between police and protest rally members, with the law enforcement clubbing anyone on the street outside the Convention. With the famous chant "The whole world is watching," many viewers and reporters were horrified by police brutality, with some even denouncing them as using "Gestapo tactics on the streets of Chicago." This deep-ridden tear in the Democratic party allowed Nixon, who had been nominated months earlier, to sweep the polls and win by a large amount of delegates in the election; however, he notably only won the popular vote by ~500,000.

Election of 1984

Winner: Ronald Reagan (R) — 58.8% popular, 525 electoral Loser: Walter Mondale (D) — 40.6% popular, 13 electoral Reagan was able to secure a decisive victory in the election due to his massive support from the people. Voters were highly satisfied with his economic policies and the growth he had achieved. Many believed his promises of future growth and a economically strong America, only bolstered by his optimism and belief that the country could continue to grow exponentially. Mondale was crushed by Reagan due to his popularity with the people and the success of Reaganomics, and lost in the second largest political landslide in history.

1973

Year Nixon resigned

1973

Year U.S. troops withdrew from Vietnam

1975

Year of the Fall of Saigon

Robert Oppenheimer

an American theoretical physicist, best known for his role as the director of the Manhattan Project, the World War II effort to develop the first nuclear weapons, at the secret Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico. Known as "the father of the atomic bomb," at the Trinity test, he said, quoting from the Bhagavad Gita, "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one. Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds."

CRP (Committee to Reelect the President)

an organization formed to run Nixon's 1972 reelection campaign, which was linked to the Watergate scandal.

the Plumbers

group of people to plug and secure security leaks formed by Nixon and Ehrlichman after info on the Vietnam War (Pentagon Papers) was leaked

442nd Regiment

the most decorated american unit in the nations history composed of Japanese Americans