Exam 3

The id

in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.

Mary Ainsworth

- Bowlby's colleague - extended his theory in important ways and brought the concept of the primary caregiver as a secure base to the fore. 1. the extent to which an infant is able to use his or her primary caregiver as a secure base 2. how the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with, the caregiver

Theories of social cognition

- Have to do with children's ability to think and reason about their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors. Children are active processors of social information and they pay attention to what other people do and say and they are constantly drawing inferences, forming interpretations, constructing explanations or making attributions regarding what they observe. - SELF SOCIALIZATION; children shape their own development

Watson

- He believed that children's development is determined by their social environment and that learning through conditioning is the primary mechanism of development. - He believed that psychologists should focus on behavior not the mind. Watson is famous for classical conditioning. Watson placed responsibility of guiding the children's development squarely on the shoulders of their parents. - systematic desensitization which is a type of therapy based on classical conditioning, which positive responses are gradually conditioned to stimuli that initially elicited a highly negative response.

Watson Experiment ex) Little Albert

- He put Albert, a baby, in a room with a white rat and initially Albert reacted well to the rat but then Watson paired the presentation of the rat with a loud noise which frightened Albert. After round after round of this Albert became afraid of the rat itself.

Skinner

- He says that behavior is under environmental control - known for his theory of operant conditioning, that being that people will repeat behaviors that have favorable outcomes (reinforcement) and will suppress those that end in unfavorable outcomes (Punishment).

Smudge test

- Sense of self becomes more apparent when children can look in a mirror and realize they are looking at themselves (age 18-20 months) • Smudge test 1 - 17.5 months old) A smudged face makes it impossible for the baby to recognize themselves in the mirror - they think the smudged reflection is a new person • Smudge test 2 - (19 months) baby realizes that it is themselves in the mirror with a smudge on their face o Exhibit shame and embarrassment and try to determine their own activities and goals independent of their parents (2 years) o Children also being using language that identifies them as an individual o As children progress though childhood, their conception of themselves becomes increasingly complex o Susan harter: studied children's typical self-descriptive statements at different ages

Marshmallow experiment

- Series of studies down my Walter Mischel in 1960s & 70s that focused on Delayed Gratification in children. - Later follow up studies showed that the children who displayed delayed gratification had better life outcomes (higher SAT scores, educational achievement, BMI, et)

When do infants first show negative emotions? What is the timeline for their development of the expression of negative emotions? (sadness/anger, fear/distress)

- The first negative emotion a child shows is a piercing cry and a tight pinched facial expression. In early development anger, sadness, pain, and distress are likely to not be able to be differentiated. - By two months of age anger and sadness are differentiated from each other as well and distress/pain based upon facial expression. The infants emotional expressions become more discernible between 5-12 months of age. - By four months of age children are wary of unfamiliar objects and events. By 6-7 months initial signs of fear begin to appear. In general fear of strangers lasts until age 2.

Selman's stage theory

- focused on the concept of role taking - This is the ability to adopt the perspective of another person and to think of something from their point of view - By doing this one can understand the persons thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In this understanding children will go through four stages.

Brofenbrunner's levels of systems

- micro, meso, exo, macro, chrono - His bio-ecological model conceptualizes the environment as a "set of nested structures, each inside the next, like a set of Russian dolls." Each structure has a different level of influence on development.

Freud

- psychosexual theory - he thought very young children had a sexual nature that motivates behavior and influences their relationships with other people.

Erikson

- psychosocial theory - He accepted basic elements of Freud's theory but incorporated social factors, like cultural influence - He created 8 stages that span infancy to old age. Each stage is attributed to a certain crisis or set of developmental issues that a person must resolve.

Bandura

- social learning theory - This theory emphasizes observation and imitation, rather than reinforcement. - They argue that human learning is social in nature and based on the observation of other people and those people's behavior and then in turn imitating them.

Dodge's Information-Processing Theory

- this emphasizes the crucial role of the cognitive processes in social behavior. This approach is exemplified by Dodge's analysis of children's use of aggression as a problem solving strategy.

Thomas and Chess Babies' temperament

1. Easy babies- adjusted quickly to new situations, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, and generally were in a cheerful mood and easy to calm. 2. Difficult babies- were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions. 3. Slow-to-warm-up babies- were somewhat difficult at first but became easier overtime as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations.

What are six types of child temperament that have been refined and build upon Thomas and Chess's original list?

1. Fearful distress/ inhibition- distress and withdrawal, and their duration, in new situations 2. Irritable distress- fussiness anger and frustration, especially if the child is not allowed to do what the child wants to do 3. Attention span and persistence- duration of orienting toward objects or events of interest 4. Activity level- how much an infant moves (ex; waving arms, kicking, crawling) 5. Positive affect/ approach- smiling and laughing, approach to people, degree of cooperativeness and manageability 6. Rhythmicity- the regularity and predictability of the child's bodily functions such as eating and sleeping

Types of identity statuses according to James Marcia

1. Identity-diffusion status: The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward developing them. 2. Foreclosure status: the individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others. 3. Moratorium status: the individual is exploring various occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them.

four components of emotional self-regulation

1. Internal feeling states (the subjective experience of emotions) 2. Emotion related cognitions (ex; thoughts about one's desires or goals; one's interpretation of an evocative situation; self monitoring of one's emotional states) 3. Emotion related physiological processes (ex; heart rate and hormonal or other physiological reactions, including neutral activation, that can change as a function of regulating one's feeling states and thoughts) 4. Emotion related behavior ( ex; actions of facial expressions related to ones feelings)

hostile attribution bias

A hostile attribution bias is a tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent. ex) Lets say that a child is working hard to complete a puzzle but another student walks by and hits into the table, scattering the puzzle pieces, and they merely say "oops." Of the children who participated in this study some interpreted the other child knocking into the table as an accident and said that they would simply ignore the event. Others said that the peer hit the table on purpose and they reported they would find a way to get even. (ex; punching them)

secure base

A secure base is the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment.

Skinner example

An example of this theory is the little boy in preschool who spent too much of his time in solitary activites. The boy's teachers unintentionally reinforced his withdrawn behavior: they talked to him and comforted him when he was alone but tended to ignore him when he played with other children. The boy's withdrawal was modified by reversing the reinforcement contingencies: the teachers began paying attention to the boy whenever he joined a group but ignored him when he was alone.

Bowlby's phases of attachment: 2

Attachment in the making- (6 weeks to 6-8 months) infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people.

When can infants recognize themselves in photos?

By age two.

How does child maltreatment fit with an ecological model?

Child maltreatment is intentional abuse or neglect that endangers the well being of anyone under the age of 18. Consistent with the bioecological model, a variety of factors, including characteristics of the child, the parents, and the community, have been shown in the causes and consequences of child abuse. At the level of the microsystem certain characteristics of parents increase the risk for maltreatment. Among these are low self esteem, strong negative reactions to stress and poor impulse control. Parental alcohol and drug abuse can also lead to maltreatment.

Bowlby's phases of attachment: 3

Clear-cut attachment- (between 6-8 months and 1- 1.5 years) infants actively seek out contact with their regular caregivers. they happily greet their mother when she appears and feel distress or separation anxiety when she leaves. The mother most often serves as a secure base.

Discrete emotions theory

Differential or discrete emotions theory is a theory about emotions held by Tompkins, Izard and others which says emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very early in life, and each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions.

Ainsworth's attachment category 5

Disorganized/disoriented attachment- insecure attachment where the infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory and they often appear dazed and disoriented.

When do infants first show positive emotions? What is the timeline for their development of the expression of positive emotions?

During the first month the infant will show smiles in their sleep. Between the third and 8th week they begin to smile in reaction to external stimuli. By the third month of life, and sometimes between 6-7 weeks of age, the infant will begin to exhibit social smiles. This is smiles directed toward people. When infants are at least two months in age they show happiness in both social and nonsocial contexts. at about 7 months infants smile at primarily familiar people and not just people in general. After about 3 or 4 months of age children begin to laugh. By the second year of life the child begins to clown around themselves and they are happy when they can make others laugh.

What is emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to a set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains These abilities include being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration, control impulses, and delay gratification, identify and understand ones own and others' feelings, regulate one's moods, regulate the expression of emotion in social interactions, and empathize with others' emotions.

Ecological Theories of Development

Ethological and evolutionary theories view children as inheritors of genetically based abilities and predispositions. The focus of these theories is largely on aspects of behavior that serve, or once served, an adaptive function.

Learning theories of social development

Experience is the primary factor in social and personality development. Focuses on the importance of cognitive development. Focuses on the themes of continuity/discontinuity, mechanisms of change, and research and children's welfare.

Basic emotions

Fear, distress, anger, sadness, happiness

similarities and differences between Erikson and Freud

Freud and Erikson both created stages and goals for children. However Erikson is focused on the more social aspect of development while Freud is about the sexual identity.

Goodness of fit

Goodness of fit is the degree to which an individuals temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her environment. It depends on both temperament and the environment that the child is in and if the parents are helpful and attentive to the childs temperament it will be congruous.

self-conscious emotions

Guilt, shame, embarrassment and pride

John Bowlby

He thought of the "competence-motivated infant" He gave the idea that the primary caregiver is a safe haven

Ainsworth's attachment category 2

Insecure attachment- a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be classified as insecure/resistant (ambivalent, insecure/avoidant, or disorganized/ disoriented.

Ainsworth's attachment category 4

Insecure/avoidant attachment- the children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. in this experiment they were indifferent toward the caregiver when the caregiver was both in the room and not. If the infant is upset when alone they are easily comforted by the stranger as they are with the parent.

Ainsworth's attachment category 3

Insecure/resistant(ambivalent) attachment- a type of insecure attachment where the child is clingy and stays close to the caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the experiment these types of children tend to get very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When the caregiver returns they are not easily soothed and seek both comfort and resist the caregivers attempts at comfort.

What factors impact how "secure" and infant's attachment is to their parent/caregiver?

Parents attachment status and their working models of relationships are related to the quality of their attachment to their infants. There appears to be some continuity in attachment from childhood to adulthood, unless hardships like divorce, illness, child maltreatment, or maternal depression occur between childhood and adulthood.

Bowlby's phases of attachment: 1

Reattachment- (birth to 6 weeks) the infant produces innate signals, mostly by crying, that summon the caregivers attention and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction.

Bowlby's phases of attachment: 4

Reciprocal Relationship- (from 1.5 or 2 years on) toddlers increase their cognitive and language abilities which allow them to understand their parents' feelings, goals, and motives and to use this understanding to organize their efforts to be near their parents. Separation distress declines and a working relationship forms.

Ainsworth's attachment category 1

Secure attachment- a pattern of attachment where infants or young children have a high quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with their attachment figure. In the strange situation experiment a securely attached infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see them when they return, recovering quickly from any distress. They use caregivers as a base for exploration.

Temperament

Temperament is the constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time.

display rules

a social groups informational norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions

Freud's stage 4

The Latency stage - Lasts from age 6-12 where sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities

Freud's stage 2

The anal stage - Lasts from 1-3 years of age in which the primary source of pleasure comes from defecation

Imaginary audience

The belief stemming from adolescent egocentrism that everyone is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behavior.

Bandura example

The children watched adults hit, kick, yell and throw things at the bobo doll and this resulted in the children doing similar actions when it was their turn to interact with the doll. However when the adult was nice to the doll and said kind things the children interacted similarly in a kind manner.

Dweck's Theory of Self-Attribution

The example of the school children and their motivations or lack thereof in learning and rising to the challenge after failing. The differences in their motivation is due to their achievement motivation- this is whether children are motivated by learning goals, seeking to improve their competence and master new material, or by performance goals, seeking to receive positive assessments of their competence or to avoid negative assessments.

Freud's stage 5

The genital stage - The final stage which begins in adolescence, sexual maturation is complete and sexual intercourse becomes a major goal.

Freud's stage 1

The oral stage - during the infants first year of life where their fixation with oral pleasure and gratification. For example sucking and eating, breast feeding is the primary source of gratification.

Freud's stage 3

The phallic stage - Lasts from age 3 to age 6, where sexual pleasure is focused on genitalia

The ego

The second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem- solving component of personality.

Attachment theory

The theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their survival

Functionalist approach to emotions

They propose that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal in a given context. Emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment.

How might this impact how we teach children?

This would impact the way teachers teach students that using the Incremental/ mastery method and praising them for good effort (you worked really hard on that or I like the way you kept at it) and criticizing them for inadequate effort (Next time you need to put in more work or I think you can do better if you work harder) would be more helpful than the entity/ helpless method of (you are very smart at these problems I am so proud of you or you just cant do math. I am disappointed in you.) Some kinds of praise and comfort are good while others will undermine the child's learning all together.

personal fable

a form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one's own feelings and thoughts

Skinner's behavior modification

a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior.

Entity/helpless orientation

is a general tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and give up in the face of failure.

exosystem

is the environmental settings that the person does not directly experience but can affect the person indirectly. For example the parents workplace.

Incremental/mastery orientation

is the general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure.

microsystem

is the immediate environment that an individual personally experiences. These are the activities, roles, and relationships in which the child directly participates over time. The child's family is crucial in this time. This system becomes more complex as the child grows older

mesosystem

is the interconnections among immediate, or microsystem, settings. For example families peers and schools, interconnectedness between these can benefit the child.

macrosystem

is the larger cultural or social context within which the other systems are embedded. For example the general cultural, subcultural or social class groups to which the child belongs.

Ainsworth's strange situation experiment

it conducted a situation that was unfamiliar to the child and was likely to heighten the child's need for their parent. The infant is placed in a laboratory equipped with interesting toys. After the experimenter introduces the parent and child to the room the child is exposed to seven episodes, including two separations from and reunions with the parent, as well as two interactions with a stranger- one when the parent is present and one when they aren't. each episode lasts three minutes unless the child becomes overly upset. Observers watch everything that the child does in all instances. through this experiment she came up with four attachment categories.

Bio-ecological model

stresses the effect of context on development but it also emphasizes the child's active role in selecting and influencing these contexts. Children's personal characteristics- temperament, intellectual ability, athletic skill, and so on- lead them to choose certain environments over others and also influence environments around them

chronosystem

the historical changes that influence the other systems. For example in any given society, beliefs, values, customs, technologies, and social circumstances change over time, with consequences for the child's development.

The superego

the third personality structure consisting of internalized moral standards. (Conscience)

social referencing

the use of a parent's or other adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibly threatening situation

separation anxiety

this is feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers experience when they are separated or expect to be separated from individuals from whom they are emotionally attached

internal working model of attachment

this is the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and others at infancy and other ages.

Erikson's Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescence- early adulthood)

• Adolescence to early adulthood • Adolescence as a core time to form identity • They must solve the question of who they are or live in confusion about what role they should play as adults

Erikson's Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (ages 1-3 & a half)

• 1-3 ½ • designed to achieve a strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to increasing social demands • if parents allow children to achieve self-control without loss of self-esteem, the child will gain a sense of autonomy • If children are subjected to severe punishment or ridicule, they may come to doubt their abilities or to feel a general sense of shame

Erikson's Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (6- Puberty)

• Age 6-Puberty • Crucial for ego development • Children master cognitive and social skills that are important in their culture and they learn to work industriously and to cooperate with peers • Successful experiences = child sense of competence • Failure = excessive feelings of inadequacy or inferiority

Erikson's Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (ages 4-6)

• Ages 4-6 • Period during which children identify with and learn from their parents • Development of the conscience is crucial in this phase - the internalization of the parents' rules and standards, and the experiencing of guilt when failing to uphold them • If parents are not highly controlling or punitive, children can develop high standards and the initiative to meet them without being crushed by worry about not being able to measure up

Erikson Stage 1 ( Basic Trust and Mistrust )

• Infant must learn to develop a sense of trust - developed through parenting and care giving • Erikson believes that if the infant does not develop the ability to trust others, the person will have difficulty forming intimate relationships later in life