Exam 3

(VERY LONG) What are the 10 elements of an ideal Complete Streets Policy? Describe each

*1. Sets a vision*: inspire cmnty to follow through - in small town of Decatur, GA, their transport plan defines their vision as promoting health thru physical activity & active transportation. - in Chicago, the DOT focuses on creating streets safe for travel by even the most vulnerable - children, older adults, & those with disabilities. *2. Specifies all users* •Pedestrians, cyclists, elderly, kids, car users, etc. *3. Creates a network* •Should result in creation of a complete transportation ntwrk for all modes of travel, balance needs of all users. -create an interwoven array of streets that emphasize diff. modes & provide quality accessibility for everyone. •Important to provide basic safe access for all users regardless of design strategy & networks should not require some users to take long detours. *4. All agencies and all roads* •Policies should address how to work w/other agencies and jurisdictions. •Another common issue to resolve how to include elements of CS policy in subdivision regulations, which govern how private developers build new streets. *5. All projects* •View all transportation improvements as opportunities to create safer, more accessible streets for all users, inclg peds, cyclists, & public transportation passengers. •Under this approach, even small projects can be an opportunity to make meaningful improvements. •Integrate CS planning into all types of projects (construction, rehabilitation, repair, maintenance, etc) *6. Exceptions* •Fed Hwy Admin's guidance on accom bike & ped travel named 3 exceptions that have become commonly used: 1) accommodtn not necessary on corridors where non-motorized use is prohibited, such as interstate freeways 2) cost of accommodation is excessively disproportionate to the need or probable use; 3) a documented absence of current or future need. •Many communities have included their own exceptions, such as severe topological constraints. •Must also be a clear process for granting them, where senior-level dept head must approve them. -any exceptions kept on record and publicly available. *7. Design criteria* •Review design policies to ensure their ability to accom. all modes of travel, while still providing flexibility to allow designers to tailor the project to unique circum.s. - re-write or refer to existing design guides (AASHTO) *8. Community Context-sensitivity* •Narrow roads in quiet neighborhoods; •Not too much sidewalk coverage in rural areas •Strong stmnt about context can help align trnsprtn & land use planning goals: creating livable, strong nbrhds. *9. Performance measures* •Traditional measure has been vehicular level of service - measure of automobile congestion •CS cmnties can measure success in # of ways: - miles of on-street bicycle routes created - new linear feet of pedestrian accommodation - mode shifts to using public transit, biking, or walking - changes in the number of people - number of new street trees; - creation or adoption of a new multi-modal *10. Implementation* • 4 key steps for successful implementation: 1) Restructure procedures to accommodate all users on every project; 2) Develop new design policies and guides; 3) Offer workshops and other training opportunities to planners and engineers 4) Institute better ways to measure performance and collect data on how well the streets are serving all users

Public Transit component 1: regularly scheduled vehicle trips - what is transit provided by? - what extent of variation in this component is accepted? - what must transit service be at its core?

*1. regularly scheduled vehicle trips* •Transit is provided by a vehicle running on a regular schedule or pattern. •There is room for variation in routes and schedules. - demand-responsive services, for eg., may vary their routing accg to customer requests, within set limits. •At its core, transit service must be predictable so that diff ppl can plan around it w/o coordinating directly w/one another. - this feature is the crucial difference between transit and other ways of sharing a ride.

Future fuels?: - biodiesel - biomass - synthetic fuel

*Future fuels?* • Biodiesel produced from algae or nonfood products, • Cellulosic ethanol and fuels produced from gasification of biomass. • Synthetic fuel is a liquid fuel obtained from natural gas, coal, oil shale, and biomass sources

Disadvantages of natural gas: - fueling - performance - vehicle cost - driving range - fuel tanks - fuel properties - extraction

Disadvantages • NG refueling process is slow due to low-volumetric efficiency of engine & low energy density • low energy density results in low-engine performance. • NGVs cost > comparable gas/diesel models bc of low-production volumes & higher cost of fuel storage tanks. • compared to a volumetric gal. of gas/diesel fuel, there's less energy in an energy gal. equivalent of NG - TF, NGVs have lesser driving range - NGVs need pressurized fuel storage tanks; present storage capacity has a range of ~150 km (~93 mi.) • On-board NG fuel tanks are larger than comparable gas/diesel fuel tanks. • Inconsistent NG fuel properties around the world. • Often extracted via hydraulic fracturing, or fracking

In what 2 ways are frequency & span the "gold" of public transit?

Frequency & Span are *gold* to transit services •Valuable - essence of travel freedom - allows spontaneous trips & changes •Expensive - doubling frequency roughly doubles operating cost - each increase in the length of the service day is also a corresponding increase in operating cost

What's the problem with fuel taxes in the US?

Fuel taxes have not increased w/inflation and vehicle fuel efficiency, resulting in declining revenue per vehicle-mile

What is Travel Demand Management?

TDM: •The "flip side" of infrastructure •Understand how people make mobility decisions •Help people use infrastructure in place for ridesharing, walking, biking, and telework •Guide design towards better balanced systems where alternatives to driving are naturally encouraged •Pursues actions, policies, and plans that: - reduce travel demand, esp. from single occupancy vehicles - redistribute travel demand in space & time

What are the 6 steps of the rational planning model process? What is it used in? What is it central to?

The rational planning model is the process of 1. realizing a problem, 2. establishing & evaluating planning criteria, 3. creating alternatives, 4. implementing alternatives, and 5. monitoring progress of the alternatives. 6. repeat when necessary • It is used in designing neighborhoods, cities, & regions. • The rational planning model is central in the dev't of modern urban planning and transportation planning.

* "It respects me" * What is civility in transit systems? What is it essential for?

*Civility* •Values unrelated to travel time or cost - comfort,cleanliness,courtesy,safety, security, amenities •Varies by culture •Essential for carrying diverse range of riders* - rob.s send signals that a transit system is uninterested in serving the whole community

What are 6 reasons for why to measure transportation costs comprehensively?

*1.Improved Vocabulary for Discussing Impacts*: avoid confusion over how various transport impacts are defined & categorized *2.Policy and Planning Evaluation*: policy & planning decisions often involve econ. analysis to determine whether a particular option is cost-effective, & which option provides the greatest overall benefits - conventional evaluation practices often exclude some impacts, which can result in solutions to one problem that exacerbate other problems. *3. Optimal Pricing*: cost analysis is important to help identify fair & efficient pricing, incl.g fuel taxes, road & parking fees, insurance pricing, vehicle fees & taxes, & road pricing - a general economic principle is that prices should reflect full marginal costs, where marginal cost is the incremental cost per additional unit of consumption. *4. TDM Evaluation*: includes various strategies that result in more efficient use of transport resources - requires more comprehensive analysis than normally used for transport planning bc it requires determining the economic impacts of various travel changes, incl.g changes in transport diversity & shifts in travel time, distance, destination & mode. *5. Equity Evaluation*: several types, each of which requires different types of benefit and cost info *6. Economic Development Impacts*: refers to progress toward a community's economic goals, including increases in economic productivity, employment, business activity & investment - various techniques can be used to measure the economic development impacts of a particular transport policy or project.

Describe the 7 advantages of VMT taxes/distance-based fees: 1. Increased fairness - what is more accurately reflected? - why is current pricing unfair? - what kind of tax would they be then? 2. Increased affordability - what decision are motorists given? - what might this allow some households to afford? 3. Increased economic efficiency - what is more accurately reflected, and thus what is then increased? 4. Consumer savings - how much is the average motorist predicted to save with distance-based insurance alone? - what do these savings represent? - what does this indicate about the type of savings consumers value? 5. Reduced vehicle travel - how much would vehicle travel be predicted to be reduced by distance-based fees? - what else would in turn be reduced? 6. Increased safety - how is crash reduction related to mileage reduction? - why would higher-risk motorists be incentivized to reduce their driving? - how many lives would be saved per year in the US? 7. Emission reduction - how would mileage reduction be predicted to reduce emissions

*1.Increased fairness*: distance-based fees can more accurately reflect the insurance, road, & pollution costs imposed by individual vehicles. - current pricing tends to overcharge motorists who drive <avg and undercharge those who drive >avg each year in a price category - regressive since lower-income motorists tend to <avg *2.Increased affordability*: converting to distance-based costs could make vehicle purchase, leasing, insurance, & registration more affordable by allowing motorists to decide how much driving they can afford, as they can w/most consumer goods. - allows households to afford extra, seldom driven vehicle, eg. old truck used for errands, or a rec.l vehicle. *3.Increased economic efficiency*: distance-based charges more accurately reflect motor vehicle costs than existing pricing, & so increase overall economic efficiency and productivity. *4.Consumer savings*: avg motorist is predicted to save $50-100/vehicle w/distance-based insurance, & more if other charges are distance-based. - savings rep. the reductions in insurance & roadway costs that result when motorists reduce their mileage - indicate that consumers value incremental financial savings more than incremental vehicle use - these are true cost savings, not just econ. transfers. *5.Reduced vehicle travel*: distance-based insurance & registration fees are predicted to reduce vehicle travel by 10-15%, making this one of the most effective TDM strategies currently proposed. - reduces traffic congestion, road & parking facility costs, accident risk, pollution emissions, consumer costs, & urban sprawl. *6.Increased safety*: vehicle crashes should decline even >mileage (10% mileage reduction is predicted to reduce crashes by 12-15%) bc higher-risk motorists (who currently pay high premiums/vehicle-yr) would pay higher per-mile fees, & would therefore have the greatest incentive to reduce their driving. - if implemented thru-out U.S., would save ~5,000 lives/yr, & prevent much larger # of disabilities & injuries. *7.Emission reduction*: distance-based fees would reduce energy consumption & pollution emissions. - mileage-based emission fees would provide particularly large tailpipe emission reductions: a fee that reduces mileage by 2% is predicted to reduce emissions by 4-16%.

4 types of TDM strategies (give examples of each): 1. Operational 2. Physical 3. Financial and pricing 4. Organizational

*1.Operational*: enhanced choices & traveler info about those choices - (e.g., dynamic route information, trip planning apps) *2.Physical*: restricted car use in certain areas/times; strategic improvements to transport network to enhance system efficiency or provide new capacity for public transport or HOVs - (e.g., auto restrictions in city centers, HOV lanes) *3.Financial and pricing*: incentives and more inclusive pricing of driving - (e.g., congestion pricing, commuter incentives, parking rates) *4.Organizational*: new partnerships, planning processes (e.g., sustainable travel planning)

Define each of the 6 diff.t methods of implementing VMT taxes: 1. Pay-as-you-Drive Insurance - what are the many benefits of this? 2. Mileage-Based Registration Fees - what other fees can also be made variable? 3. Mileage-Based Vehicle Purchase Taxes - how much when based on avg vehicle lifetime? how much if paid over 1st 4 years operated? 4. Mileage-Based Vehicle Lease Fees - what % of new vehicle acquisitions in US acct.d for by leases? - how does this improve upon current mile-limits set on leases? 5. Weight-Distance Fees - how much for automobiles? combination trucks? - why/how more equitable than fuel taxes? 6. Mileage-Based Emission Fees - how does it incentivize motorists?

*1.Pay-As-You-Drive Insurance*: simple & effective way to make distance-based vehicle insurance by prorating existing premiums by mileage, incorporating all existing rating factors; reflects fact that the chances of having a crash increase w/mileage •Provides several benefits: - more accurate insurance pricing, increased insurance affordability, a reduction in total vehicle mileage; - reduction in vehicle crashes & insurance claims (particularly effective at reducing crashes, gives highest risk motorists greatest incentive to reduce mileage); - consumer cost savings (motorists are predicted to save annually in net insurance costs); - significant reductions in traffic congestion, road & parking facility costs, and pollution. *2.Mileage-based Registration Fees*: vehicle licensing & registration fees prorated by vehicle mileage; - similarly, other purchase and ownership fees can be converted into variable fees. *3.Mileage-based Vehicle Purchase Taxes* converted to distance-based taxes, which converts to ~1¢/mi if paid over an avg vehicle lifetime, or 3¢/mi if paid over the 1st four years of a vehicle's operating life *4.Mileage-Based Vehicle Lease Fees*: leases (acct. for ~30% of new vehicle acquisitions in U.S.) & rentals can be restructured to be more mileage-based. - altho most leases & rentals include mileage rates for "excessive driving," they're usually set so high they only affect a minority of leased vehicle mileage. *5.Weight-Distance Fees*: mileage-based road use charge that increases with vehicle weight. - range from ~3.5¢/mi for automobiles up to 20¢/mi for combination trucks; more equitable way to fund roads than fuel taxes, more accurately represents the roadway costs imposed by individual vehicles. *6.Mileage-Based Emission Fees*: reflect each vehicle's emission rate, giving motorists w/higher polluting vehicles a greater incentive to reduce their mileage, & conversely, motorists who must drive high mileage an incentive to choose less polluting vehicles

Disadvantages of VMT taxes: 1. Privacy - how can privacy concerns be mitigated by adjusting GPS systems? - how would GPS data be stored, aggregated, and ultimately used effectively, non-invasively, and in line w/precedent? 2. Equity - why may poor, disadvantaged, and rural people be disproportionately charged?

*1.Privacy*: govt-installed tracking mech.s in every car! - privacy concerns are understandable, but not totally warranted; GPS systems can be rigged to only collect location info and not transmit it. - that data would be stored in your car's system, then aggregated at the end of the month, w/mileage totals organized by road type, time of day, & proximity to any pertinent landmarks. - that total would ping your account, which would dispense the dollars—this is how multi-agency toll networks like E-ZPass work. *2.Equity*: poor, disadvtgd, & rural ppl tend to commute farther than the affluent, & drive less efficient cars. - gas tax already charges them disproportionately -- a straightforward VMT would too - (it seems this disproportionate cost could be acct.d for elsewhere though?)

What are 6 reasons given for imposing fuel taxes? 1. Road use fees 2. Finance transportation programs 3. Encourage energy conservation 4. Travel demand management strategy 5. Revenue-neutral tax shift 6. Internalize fuel production and consumption external costs

*1.Road user fees*: meant to cover total roadway cost, although fail to in many jurisdictions, particularly if include traffic services such as planning & policing - although US fuel taxes cover most state hwys & hwy patrol costs, local roads & traffic services are funded mostly through general taxes. *2.Finance transportation programs*: can be increased to help finance transportation programs, inclg alternative modes & TDM programs. - critics argue that congestion pricing is more efficient & equitable (more accurately reflect the costs imposed by a particular trip) & reliable (increased fuel efficiency & shifts to alternative modes may reduce future fuel tax revenues per vehicle-mile);may be true in long-term, but compared w/commonly-used transportation financing options, such as property and sales taxes, fuel taxes are relatively efficient and reliable. *3.Encourage energy conservation*: increases are an efficient & effective way to encourage energy conservation & emission reductions, which are also justified to minimize climate change emissions - can be implemented as a carbon tax on the C content of fuels, or effectively a tax on the fuel's CO2 emissions. *4.TDM strategy*: fuel is largest & most visible motor vehicle operating expense, & incr.g vehicle operating costs tends to reduce vehicle travel. - as such, fuel tax increases are sometimes proposed to reduce driving & increase transport system efficiency. *5.A revenue-neutral tax shift*: increasing taxes on resources such as fuel to fund reductions in more economically harmful taxes, such as those on income and investments - such tax shifts can provide overall economic, environmental and social benefits. *6.Internalize fuel production and consumption external costs*: price the externalities of fuel, including its envtl damages, tax subsidies, micro-economic and security costs of petroleum imports (est. avg of $0.30-1.00/gal.)

Public Transit component 2: open to all paying passengers - what does the "public" in public transit mean? what confusion does this sometimes cause however? - in the developed world, how is transit usually treated financially? what misunderstanding can arise? what requirement applies universally to all transit services?

*2. open to all paying passengers* •"Public" transit means "open to the entire public." - can be confusing in debates about whether transit should be operated by the govt or private sector. •In developed world, where wage costs are high, transit is usually subsidized by govt but it may still be operated either by govt or by private companies. - in those convos, public transit can be misunderstood as meaning "transit operated by the public sector—that is, govt—rather than by private companies. - however, even privately operated transport services are expected to welcome all paying customers; in fact, the failure to do so can become a civil rights issue.

What are the the advantages of biodiesel fuels? - adaptability to diesel - oxygen and sulfur content - engine life - what's left unaffected in terms of engine performance? - how can be used - carbon and sulfur emissions - hydrocarbons from combustion - particulates and CO - NOx emissions - handling and transportability - production

*Advantages of biodiesel fuels* • can be used to operate any conventional, unmodified diesel engine; can be stored anywhere diesel fuel is • has about 11% oxygen by weight & no sulfur • can extend life of diesel engines bc more lubricating than petroleum diesel fuel • fuel consumption, auto ignition, power output, & engine torque relatively unaffected by biodiesel • can be used alone or mixed in any ratio w/petroleum diesel fuel in diesel engines. • life cycle production & use of biodiesel produces ~80% less CO2 emissions, & ~100% less SO2 than diesel. • combustion of biodiesel alone provides >90% reduction in total unburned HCs & 75-90% reduction in aromatic HCs. • provides significant reductions in particulates & CO compared to petroleum diesel fuel • provides a slight increase or decrease in NOx emissions depending on engine family & testing procedures. • safe to handle & transport bc is biodegradable as sugar, 10x less toxic than table salt, & high flashpoint (~110°C) compared to petroleum diesel (45-55°C). • can be made from domestically produced, renewable oil seed crops such as soybeans, jatropha, cottonseed, rubber seed, and mustard seed.

What are the advantages of sharrows? - what does it encourage bicyclists to do? - who and what does it alert? - what does it indicate for bicyclists? - what do they advertise? - what do they provide? - what do they demonstrate in relation to parked cars? - what do they require? - what things do they reduce? What are the disadvantages of sharrows? - how are they rather disingenuous? - what counterproductive impact could they be having on cyclists?

*Advantages of sharrows* • encourages bicyclists to position selves safely in lanes too narrow for a motor vehicle & a bicycle to cmfortably travel side by side w/in the same traffic lane. • alerts motor vehicle drivers to the potential presence of bicyclists. • alerts road users of the lateral position bicyclists are expected to occupy within the travel lane. • indicates a proper path for bicyclists thru difficult or potentially hazardous situations, such as railroad tracks. • advertises the presence of bikeway routes to all users. • provides a wayfinding element along bike routes. • demonstrated to increase the distance b/t bicyclists & parked cars, keeping bicyclists out of the "door zone." • encourages safe passing by motorists. • requires no additional street space. • reduces the incidence of sidewalk riding. • reduces the incidence of wrong-way bicycling. *Disadvantages* • the least-loved nod to cycling, a low-cost way for cities to say they're doing something about safety and street design without really doing much at all. • but far from giving cyclists a safer ride, or even doing nothing at all, sharrows might actually be doing some harm by tugging bikes into moving traffic. - some research has found they do reduce dooring (when the door of a parked car hits a cyclist). - but only one study to date looked at whether or not sharrows had any impact on overall car-bike collisions—& that study found they could be incrsg the risk of injury.

7 Advantages of vegetable oil fuels? 7 disadvantages?

*Advantages of vegetable oil fuels* 1. can be used as substitute fuel for diesel engine app.n 2. reduces the import of costly petroleum & improves the econ. of agricultural countries. 3. biodegradable and nontoxic. 4. low aromatics & low sulfur content & hence reduced particulate matter emissions. 5. environmentally friendly fuels. 6. good lubricity: no major engine modification required 7. improves personal safety (flash point is >100ºC). *Disadvantages* 1. price is dependent on the seed price & market-based. 2. questionable feed stock homogeneity, consistency, & reliability; durability & emission testing can vary w/feed stocks. 3. prod.n of VO derived biofuels are @optimum cost. 4. studies are needed on oxidation stability & long storage of vegetable oils. 5. need dev't of additives for improving cold flow properties, material compatibility, & prevention of oxidation in storage, etc. 6. competition w/food production 7. demand could lead to deforestation - especially soybeans & oil palms!

Advantages of natural gas: - regulated pollutants - C:H ratio, pollution - unregulated air toxics and GHGs - energy security - operating cost - distribution efficiency/safety - flexibility - transition to hydrogen

*Advantages* • CNG vehicles produce far less of all regulated pollutants compared to gas/diesel vehicles, incl.g NOx & particulate matter. • low C:H ratio, hence lower CO & HC emissions - due to proper combustion of gas-air mixtures, reduced unburned HC emissions will reduce the envtl pollution of visible photochemical smoke • CNG vehicles produce far less unregulated air toxics and GHGs. • reduces consumption of non-domestic gas & diesel • cheaper at the pump than gasoline and diesel fuel. • higher ignition temperature than gasoline or diesel. - lighter than air & hence disperses quickly in the event of leakage of fuel - safest & most efficient energy distribution system - explosive limit of NG-air mixtures > diesel-air mixtures. - for continuous flame propagation, NG requires a min of 5% by volume as compared to ~ merely 2% for propane & 1% for gas vapor; thus safer than other fuels. • CNG vehicles can be produced as dedicated & bi-fuel versions - dedicated vehicles most apropo where vehicles tend to operate in an area where NG fueling is available. - bi-fuel vehicles have both NG & gas storage tanks on board, can operate on either fuel at the flip of a switch; most apropo when driver may need to travel to areas not currently served by NG stations • econmcl & env.tly friendly compared to other fuels • hydrogen-powered vehicles will require changes in a # of areas, incl.g bldg codes & standards, mechanic/ inspector/user training. - NGVs require many of the same changes, TF a growing NGV market today is smoothing the path for a hydrogen vehicle market tomorrow.

Hydrogen advantages: - environmentally - production - flexibility - burns... - efficiency Hydrogen disadvantages - volumetric energy - storage - cost - emissions - distribution

*Advantages* • Envt.ly clean automobile fuel suitable for ICEs. - fuel leakage to atmosphere is not a pollutant. • Can be produced from abundant raw material: water. • High burning rates make it robust for diff.t engine designs • Burns quickly and easily • High efficiency *Disadvantages* • Very low energy density • Storage of hydrogen in vehicles • Higher fuel cost • Higher NOx emissions bc of its higher flame temp • Little current infrastructure for distribution network

What are bikeshare's equity problems? What obstacles block bike equity (in general)? What are the possible solutions for bikeshare's equity problems?

*Bikeshare's equity problem*: • sharp divisions along race and class lines • high-income whites 3X as many bikeshare trips as low-income POC • only 9% of low-income POC, 18% of high-income POC, 13% of low-income whites, 29% of high-income whites have ridden bikeshare in their cities (PSU study) *Obstacles that block bicycle equity (in general)*: • lack of separated bike lanes, • lack of access to quality bikes, repair facilities, & safety classes. • need for digital access & for credit, as well as the high cost of replacing a lost bike ($1,200 in CoGo system). *Possible solutions*: • Discounted passes to low income • Cash only for unbanked • Bicycle ambassador programs • Close digital divide for smartphones

Advantages of electric vehicles: - emissions - efficiency - noise - fossil fuel dependency Disadvantages of electric vehicles: - cost - charging - range - seating space - customer acceptance

*Advantages* •EVs don't emit GHGs & toxic exhaust gases - they're zero emissions if the energy required to operate the vehicle (i.e., charging of battery) is prod.d from renewable energy sources or onboard H fuel cells. •Elec. motor much more efficient than convent.l ICEs •EVs are noiseless. •EVs reduce the dependency on fossil fuels if they run on alt. fuels. *Disadvantages* •EV costs high compared to current gas & diesel cars. •Recharging time of batteries is high & rsrch needed to reduce the recharge time - takes hours to recharge the batteries, more than the refueling time of gas and diesel vehicles. •Driving range of EVs depends on power of the batteries, to date limited to 150-300 mi in 1 recharging. •Limited seating space availability as increase in the space will increase load of the pssgrs affecting the driving range as increased load puts stress on the battery performance & life. •Less cx acceptance (so far), marketing challenge: will be a difficult task to change cx perception w/so many limitations of EVs & when other options that are far better than EVs are available in the market.

What are the advantages of contra-flow bike lanes? - what do they provide? - what do they reduce? - what things do they decrease? - what do they influence? - what do they allow bicyclists to use? What are their typical applications? - on what type of streets? - on what 3 types of corridors? - where in terms of connections? - where do they work best?

*Advantages* •provides connectivity & access to bicyclists traveling in both directions. •reduces dangerous wrong-way riding. •decreases sidewalk riding. •decreases trip distance, # of intersections encountered, & travel times for bicyclists by eliminating out-of direction travel. •influences motorist choice of routes w/o limiting bike traffic. •allows bicyclists to use safer, less trafficked streets. *Typical applications* •on streets where large #s of bicyclists are already riding the wrong way. •on corridors where alternate routes require excessive out-of-direction travel. •on corridors where alternate routes include unsafe or uncomfortable streets w/high traffic volumes and/or no bicycle facilities. •on corridors where the contra-flow lane provides direct access to destinations on the street under consideration. •where two-way connections between bicycle facilities are needed along one-way streets. •works best on low-speed, low volume streets, unless buffer separation or physical protection is provided.

Alcohols: - substitute/additive for what? - methanol - ethanol

*Alcohols (methanol and ethanol)* • substitute or additive for gasoline w/high octane • methanol: used in 1930s for high‐performance engines, now competitive as fuel to derive H for fuel cell vehicles • ethanol: by‐product of production of sugar - 1st internal combustion engine was designed to run on ethanol; suitable alt.fuel for diesel engines

How do alternative fuels reduce the energy dependence? - how reduce crude oil import bill? - most can be produced from what? - where can electricity be produced from? - what can hydrogen be produced from? - what does all this mean about potential impacts of alternative fuels on crude oil imports?

*Alternative fuels are mostly produced from domestic resources that reduce the energy dependence.* • use of locally available resources for fuel purposes can reduce crude oil import bill. • most of the alternative fuels, (eg. alcohols), biodiesel can be produced from biomass resources & agri-wastes • electricity for battery operated vehicles can be produced from solar & fuel cells. • hydrogen can be produced from biomass gasification or electrolysis of water. • hence, even a small % substitution of diff. alternative fuels reduces the crude oil import significantly.

How do alternative fuels reduce vehicle exhaust emission and improve envtl air quality? - what are they capable of compared to oil? - how is their carbon-to-hydrogen makeup advantageous? - what about hydrogen is advantageous? - how can they change emission sources advantageously?

*Alternative fuels generally reduce the vehicle exhaust emission & hence improve the environmental air quality* • alternative fuels are capable of reducing the engine emissions as compared to petroleum products. • some alternative fuels have a low C:H ratio & therefore generate less hydrocarbon emissions on combustion. • hydrogen is the clean fuel & generates no hydrocarbon emissions. • emissions released from a centralized plant can be more easily controlled than vehicular emissions.

PUBLIC TRANSIT: What are the benefits of ridership orientation (4)? What are the benefits of coverage orientation (4)?

*BENEFITS OF RIDERSHIP ORIENTATION* • Reducing envt.l impact thru lower VMT • Achieving low public subsidy per rider, thru serving more riders w/the same resources, & thru fares collected from more passengers. • Allowing continued urban dev't, even @higher densities, w/o being constrained by traffic congestion. • Reducing the cost for cities to build & maintain road & bridges by replacing car trips w/transit trips, - & by enabling car-free living for some people living near dense, walkable transit corridors *BENEFITS OF COVERAGE ORIENTATION* • Ensuring that everyone has access to some transit service, no matter where they live. • Providing lifeline access to critical services for those who cannot drive. • Providing access for people who are transportation disadvantaged. • Providing a sense of political equity, by providing service to every municipality or electoral district.

What are the benefits of bike lanes? - what 3 things do they increase? - what do they create? - what do they visually remind? What are their typical applications? - on what streets are they most helpful, in terms of traffic, speed, and transit volume? For streets that don't meet those of the typical applications, how should the bike lanes be implemented differently?

*Benefits* •increases bicyclist comfort & confidence on busy st.s. •increases predictability of bicyclist and motorist positioning and interaction. •increases total capacities of streets carrying mixed bicycle and motor vehicle traffic. •creates separation between bicyclists and automobiles. •visually reminds motorists of bicyclists' right to the st. *Typical applications* •most helpful on streets w/ ≥ 3,000 motor vehicle average daily traffic (ADT). •most helpful on streets w/a posted speed ≥ 25 mph. •on streets with high transit vehicle volume •Streets w/high traffic volume, regular truck traffic, high parking turnover, or speed limit >35 mph should have more protected bike lanes, such as buffered bike lanes

Describe CAV heaven vs CAV hell

*CAV heaven* - supports public transit - compact cities - better access for all - walkable + bikeable neighborhoods *CAV hell* - more congestion - more sprawl - higher inequity - segregated roadways

What is the classic version of the trolley problem? What is the Utilitarian view regarding it? What is the Morality view? What's another interpretation of that view?

*Classic version*: you're the driver of a runaway trolley that's hurtling toward 5 unsuspecting rail workers. To the left is a track where 1 rail worker is standing. If you do nothing, the 5 workers will die. If you steer to the left, 1 worker will die. *Utilitarian view*: asserts that it is obligatory to steer to the track with one man on it. • accg to classical utilitarianism, such a decision would be not only permissible, but, morally speaking, the better option (the other option being no action at all). *Morality view*: an alternate viewpt. is that since moral wrongs are already in place in the situation, moving to another track constitutes a participation in the moral wrong, making one partially responsible for the death when otherwise no one would be responsible. - an opponent of action may also point to the incommensurability of human lives. • under some interpretations of moral obligation, simply being present in this situation & being able to influence its outcome constitutes an obligation to participate. - if this is the case, then deciding to do nothing would be considered an immoral act if one values 5 lives > 1.

*Connectivity*: •What are the connectivity choices for one line? - what 3 outcomes come from specializing it? - what 3 outcomes come from circulating it? •What are the 2 connectivity choices for multiple lines? What do each offer as a benefit, and take as a cost? *NOTE*: good pics on p.25-27 of 3.5 summarize this visually

*Connectivity choices for one line* • Specialize - serve only some locations - transit is fast - ridership goal • Circuitous - serve all locations - slower service - coverage goal *Connectivity choices for multiple lines* • Direct service: direct line b/t each pair of locations • Connected service: fewer lines but require transfers

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following 4 land use factors behind transportation: - Connectivity - Roadway design & management - Walking & Cycling conditions - Transit quality & accessibility

*Connectivity* •Degree that walkways and roads are connected and allow direct travel between destinations. •Improved roadway connectivity can reduce vehicle mileage, & improved walkway connectivity tends to increase walking & cycling. *Roadway design and management* •Scale, design and management of streets. •More multi-modal street design and management increases use of alternative modes. •Traffic calming tends to reduce vehicle travel and increase walking and cycling. *Walking and Cycling conditions* •Quantity and quality of sidewalks, crosswalks, paths and bike lanes, and the level of pedestrian security. •Imprvd walking & cycling cndtns increases non-mtrzed trvl & can reduce car travel, prtclry if implmntd w/land use mix, transit imprvmnts, & incntves to reduce driving. *Transit quality and accessibility* •Quality of transit service and degree to which destinations are transit accessible. •Improved transit service quality increases transit ridrshp & can reduce car trips, particularly for urban commuting

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following 4 land use factors behind transportation: - Density - Mix - Regional Accessibility - Centeredness

*Density* •Ppl or jobs per unit of land area (acre or hectare). •Increased density tends to reduce per capita vehicle travel - each 10% increase in urban densities typically reduces per capita VMT by 2-3%. *Mix* •Degree that related land uses (hsg, commercial, institutional) are mixed •Increased land use mix tends to reduce per capita vehicle travel, & increases use of alternative modes, particularly walking for errands. - nbrhds w/good land use mix typically have 5-15% lower vehicle-miles. *Regional Accessibility* •Location of dev't relative to regional urban center. •Improved access. reduces per capita vehicle mileage. - residents of more central nbrhds typically drive 10-30% fewer vehicle-miles than residents of more dispersed, urban fringe locations. *Centeredness* •Portion of commercial, employment, and other activities in major activity centers. •Increased centeredness increases use of alternative commute modes. - typically 20-50% of commuters to major commercial centers drive alone, compared w/80-90% of commuters to dispersed locations.

What are the disadvantages of biodiesel fuel? - emissions - cost - energy density - possible competition

*Disadvantages* • biodiesel-fueled vehicles increase NOx emissions. • significantly more expensive than diesel fuel & hence govt incentives needed to promote it. • bc there is less energy in a gal of biodiesel than in a gal of petroleum diesel, the driving range of vehicles operating on biodiesel blends is less. • possible competition with food production

Electric/fuel cell/hybrid vehicles: - how can electric vehicles be zero emission? - limitation of current pure electric vehicles? - what do hybrid EVs functionally combine? - what are fuel cells?

*Electric/fuel cell/hybrid vehicles* • electricity normally generated from coal, natural, solar, fuel cell, on board diesel engine, gas, & nuclear - if produced from non-fossil fuel, then electric vehicles become zero emission vehicles. • pure electric vehicles currently don't have adequate range when powered by batteries alone, & hence can't be used for driving long distances; require recharging • Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) combine the alternative energy source (engine/fuel cell) to run the vehicle & charge the battery. • fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a rxn directly into electrical energy.

Gaseous fuels: - why is natural gas supply advantageous? - why is hydrogen a clean fuel? - what potential does hydrogen have? - how can hydrogen power cars in multiple ways? - how is hydrogen manufactured? - what is the major barrier to hydrogen as an energy source? what does its solution implie?

*Gaseous fuels* • natural gas reserves are evenly distributed on a global basis & therefore provide better security of supply. • hydrogen is one of the clean fuels in the world, as it does not contain carbon compounds. - clean & efficient energy carrier w/potential to replace liquid & gaseous fossil fuels. - can be combusted directly in IC engines or can be used in the fuel cell to produce electricity - manufactured from water using energy from either fossil or non-fossil fuel sources. - low‐density gas, so storage of hydrogen in a compact & efficient manner is a major technological challenge - storage implies the reduction of an enormous volume of hydrogen gas.

What are bike paths? What are greenways? What often are they? What are these used more often for?

•Bike paths have their own dedicated right of way independent of the street network •Greenways are bike paths surrounded by a park space - they're often abandoned rail corridors - these are also known as rail-trails •Since they are independent of the st ntwk, & (in the case of greenways) isolated from the st ntwk, bike paths are often used more for recreation than utilitarian riding. - but there are exceptions, such as the Olentangy Trail.

Smart Columbus projects enabled by the SCOS: • Enabling technologies: - connected Vehicle Environment • Enhanced human services: - multimodal trip planning app w/common payment system - mobility assistance for people w/cognitive disabilities - prenatal trip assistance - smart mobility hubs - event parking management • Emerging technologies - connected electric autonomous vehicles - truck platooning

*Enabling Technologies* • Connected Vehicle Env't: seek to enhance safety & mobility thru-out city's transprtn system utilizing Connected Vehicle (CV) tech.s & app.s, w/an emphasis on congested & high-crash intersxns & corridors. *Enhanced Human Services* • Multimodal Trip Planning App w/Common Payment System: make multimodal options universally accessible by providing a robust set of transit & alternative transprtn options incl.g routes, schedules, & dispatching possibilities, while facilitating payment for multiple transprtn systems in one common platform. • Mobility Assistance for Ppl w/Cognitive Disabilities: allow travelers to request & view multiple trip itineraries & make reservations for shared-use trnsprtn options (eg. bikeshare, trnsprtn network companies and carshare) • Prenatal Trip Assistance: help reduce Cbus' high infant mortality rate by helping expectant mothers get to prenatal care • Smart Mobility Hubs: someone getting on or off a COTA bus can easily access the next leg of their trip. • Event Parking Management: integrate parking info from multiple providers into a single availability & reservation services solution. *Emerging Technologies* • Connected Electric Autonomous Vehicles: connect COTA riders to opportunities in the Easton area. • Truck Platooning: help ensure the efficient & safe movement of logistics related vehicles through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems.

What is excludability? What is rivalry? Accg to excludability and rivalry, define private goods, clubs, common pool resources, and public goods. What are the arguments for and against public transport being considered a public good? What do Levinson & King argue public transit is in terms of excludability and rivalry?

*Excludability* •Good's provider can prevent a user from obtaining it w/o charge •National defense for instance is non-excludable, America's nuclear weapons protect anyone in the country, whether or not they want it. •Sale of anything in a store is excludable: owner can prevent a cx from obtaining a good unless the cx pays *Rivalry* •One person's consumption of a particular good prevents another individual from consuming it. •National defense again is non-rivalrous: one person's protection doesn't prevent another's protection. •Shoes are rivalrous, only 1 person can wear a pair @ a time. •*Private good*: excludable & rivalrous •*Club*: excludable & non-rivalrous •*Common pool resource*: non-excludable & rivalrous •*Public good*: non-excludable & non-rivalrous *Is public transit a public good?* •On 1 hand, has many pos externalities & is consequently underpriced & underfunded, like many public goods. •Alternatively, public transport is both excludable (at the cost of validating payment), and rivalrous (when congested); satisfies the definition of a private good. •However, sometimes it is operated non-excludably, such as connector services (eg, Cbus in Columbus) •Also, it can be non-rivalrous during off-peak •Levinson & King argue that that it is excludable but not rivalrous, like a club: - systems should pay their own op.ns & maintenance - users should be incentivized to buy passes - land value capture should pay for infrastructure - the public should subsidize public transit for the disadvantaged

* "It is a good use of my money" * What are 3 major schemes of fare structuring? What are other considerations? What are the advantages of smartcards for fares?

*Fare structure* •3 major schemes: 1. Flat fare 2. Zone-based pricing 3. Distance-based pricing •Other considerations: - extra for connections - frequent rider discounts - off-peak discounts *Smartcards* •Reduce hassle •Allow elaborate fare structures

CAVs: Public policy issues - how might a state-by-state approach be disadvantageous? - what has the NHTSA released and proposed in this regard? - in terms of licensure? - in terms of testing & regulations? - how is the adoption of the autonomous elevator analogous to the issue of steering wheels in AVs? - what's Google's plan for stg wheels? - what have some states regulated regarding stg wheels, and what questions does this raise?

*Federal vs. State*: which one will create AV testing standards & regulation •There's some danger in a state-by-state approach, where piecemeal regulation could make testing & approval of AVs prohibitively expensive. •The NHTSA released updated guidance on CAVs that gave OEM some guidance on safe design & deploymnt, & provided non-binding model state policy - propose states continue w/previous roles: vehicle licensing & registration, traffic laws & enforcement, & motor vehicle insurance & liability regimes. *License* •Will use of CAVs in the future require driving training or the possession of a license? *Testing & Regulations* •To what extent will OEMs be required to test CAVs? •In what settings are AVs expected to perform? *Steering Wheels* •When the automated elevator was first developed, people rejected it out of fear. - took ~50 yrs for the automated elevator to become standard, even though it was much safer. •Elevator designers had to design features of the elevator so they reassured skittish riders. •Google is hoping to remove the stg wheel completely from its CAVs, so what are the design features they will have to include to make drivers more comfortable w/it? •Some states have also regulated where and when CAVs w/o steering wheels can be tested. - is this standing in the way of progress? - same as requiring an attendant in a modern elevator?

What is the footbridge version of the trolley problem? What is different from the classic version in terms of the usual response? What is different in terms of the intimacy?

*Footbridge version*: standing on a ftbridge above RR tracks, w/a train heading twd 5 ppl on the tracks. One way to avoid these 5 deaths is to push a man, standing nearby, down onto the tracks. Thus, 1 man will die, but 5 will be saved. Alt.vly, the respondent can choose not to actively push the man off, & the 5 people will be hit. • Diff w/the classic version is many ppl who would pull the switch in the classic version would not push the person off the bridge. • 1 clear distinction is that in the classic version, one doesn't intend harm twds anyone - harming the 1 is just a side effect of switching the trolley away from the 5. - however, in the footbridge case, harming the one is an integral part of the plan to save the five.

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "comfortable walk"? Describe each

*STEP 7: Shape the Spaces* •Ppl enjoy open spaces & the great outdoors - but ppl also enjoy/need a sense of enclosure to feel comfortable as pedestrians •Public spaces are only as good as their edges •Too much gray or green (parking or parks) can cause a would-be-walker to stay home *STEP 8: Plant Trees* •Like transit, most cities know that trees are good, but few are willing to pay properly for them •There's a need to communicate the full value of trees & justify the greater investment they deserve

Summarize the following: - hybrid electric vehicles - plug-in hybrid electric vehicles - all-electric vehicles

*Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)* • powered by an ICE & by an electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery, which is charged thru regenerative braking & by the ICE; no plug-in charging *Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)* • powered by an ICE & an electric motor that uses energy stored in a battery; can be plugged in to an electric power source to charge the battery. - some can travel nearly 100 mi. on electricity alone, & all can operate solely on gas (similar to HEVs) *All-Electric Vehicles (EVs)* • use a battery to store the electric energy that powers the motor; EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle in to an electric power source.

What are the potential disadvantages of CAVs in terms of - increasing VMT (and the addl. prob.s off-shooting from this) - inequity (in terms of congestion & employment) - street-sharing

*Increasing VMT* •AVs may cause people to commute more, leading to - more energy consumption, - greater congestion, - more urban sprawl, and - less green spaces. •Ease of use of AVs may contribute a lot more pollution than they help solve. *Inequity* •If AVs lead to more congestion, could end up hurting those who cannot afford the technology. •Could also lead to huge levels of unemployment in the transportation sector - ~3% of the entire US labor force works in transportation and warehousing (~4.5 million jobs) *Street-sharing* •CAVs sometimes require special tech to operate safely. - if peds & bicyclists interfere sufficiently w/this tech, car-makers may push them off the road entirely - could spell end of "complete streets," leading to ugly and depressing roads

What is "jerk by proxy" relating CAVs? What are 3 examples that could occur?

*Jerk by Proxy*: owners of a self-driving car might order it to behave in ways that benefit themselves but harm everyone else; 3 examples: *(1)* Person jumps out of their car to run in & pick up an order, leaves it not in legal parking spot but blocking others, knowing that the car will take care of getting out of the way if some other car needs to get by. - may well work, but only by slowing everything down for other ppl. And perhaps the owners will be able to set the tolerance on how uncomfortable things have to get before the cars move. *(2)* Suppose someone is going to an evening event w/o much parking nearby. & suppose AVs are always prowling neighborhoods waiting for their owners to summon them, so it takes a while for any particular car to get thru the traffic to the pickup location. Then the members of a 2-car family may send one of their cars earlier in the day to find the closest parking spot that it can, then rely on their 2nd car to drop them at the event & send it home immediately. When the event is over, their first AV is right there waiting for them. Cost is foisted off on the commons, in form of a parking spot occupied all day. (& w/2x the GHGs emitted.) *(3)* In the various suburban schools that my kids went to there was a pickup ritual: parents would drive up just before dismissal time & line up in the order of arrival; when school let out, teachers would bring out the kids, & the parents & teachers would cooperate to get the kids into their car seats. Cars then left one @a time. When the 1st few families have fully driverless cars, one can imagine them sending their cars to wait in line 1st, so their kids get picked up 1st & brought home. There'll be a contest to see whose AV can get to school 1st. Teachers, too, will be inconvenienced, but ppl will still try it.

What is the loop version of the trolley problem? What is the difference from the footbridge scenario?

*Loop version*: trolley is hurtling down a track twds five ppl and you can divert it onto a 2ndary track. But, the 2ndary track later rejoins the main track, so diverting the trolley still leaves it on a track which leads to the 5 ppl But, the person on the 2ndary track, when he is killed by the trolley, will stop it from continuing on to the 5 ppl. Should you flip the switch? *What's the difference with the footbridge scenario?* • failure to act in this scenario will effectively allow the 5 to become a means to save the 1. If we do nothing, then the impact of the trolley into the 5 will slow it down & prevent it from circling around & killing the 1 • as in either outcome, some will become a means to saving others; does this allow us to count the numbers? • this approach requires that we downplay the moral difference between doing and allowing.

What are one-way cycle tracks? - what may they be combined with? What are two-way cycle tracks? - how do they compare & contrast w/one-way tracks? - how may they be configured? What are raised cycle tracks? - what are many paired with? - what may they allow for? - what levels may they be set at? - what may they be combined with? - how can they interact with intersections?

*One-way* protected cycle tracks are bikeways that are at street level & use a variety of methods for physical protection from passing traffic •may be combined w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane. *Two-way* protected BLs are physically separated cycle tracks that allow bicycle mvmt in both directions on one side of the road. •share some of the same design characteristics as one-way tracks, but may require add.l considerations at driveway and side-street crossings. •may be configured as a protected cycle track—at street level w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane—&/or as a raised cycle track to provide vertical separation from the adjacent motor vehicle lane. *Raised* cycle tracks are bike facilities vertically separated from motor vehicle traffic. •many are paired w/a furnishing zone b/t the cycle track & motor vehicle travel lane &/or pedestrian area •may allow for 1-way or 2-way travel by bicyclists. •may be at the level of the adjacent sidewalk, or set at an intermediate level b/t the roadway & sidewalk to segregate the cycle track from the pedestrian area. •may be combined w/a parking lane or other barrier b/t the cycle track & the motor vehicle travel lane. •at intersxns, the raised cycle track can be dropped & merged onto the street, or it can be maintained at sidewalk level, where bicyclists cross with pedestrians, possibly with a dedicated bicycle signal.

What are 2 possible unintended consequences of increased safety of CAVs?

*Organ shortages*. • Currently, 1 in 5 organ donations comes from the victim of a vehicular accident. • If CAVs are to become norm, need to find way to supplant this externality *Wildlife* • Once smart cars & AVs are equipped w/360-degree-sensing tech, they'd be able, in theory, to brake or swerve in time to avoid killing animals as small as chipmunks or as large as deer, moose, and bears • If we don't kill animals w/our vehicles anymore, are we willing to live w/them in closer proximity to us? • Cars are a way that deer and other wildlife are culled in the absence of their natural predators - gotta find another population control

What are the definitions and travel impacts of the following land use factors behind transportation: - Parking supply and mgmt - Site design - Mobility mgmt

*Parking supply and management* • Number of parking spaces per building unit or acre, and how parking is managed. • Reduced parking supply, increased parking pricing & increased application of other parking management strategies can significantly reduce per capita vehicle travel. • Cost-recovery parking pricing (charging motorists directly for the cost of providing parking) typically reduces automobile trips by 10-30%. *Site design* • The layout & design of buildings & parking facilities. • More multi-modal site design can reduce car trips, particularly if implemented w/improved transit services. *Mobility Management* • Various programs and strategies that encourage more efficient travel patterns. • Mobility management policies and programs can significantly reduce vehicle travel by affected trips. - vehicle travel reductions of 10-30% are common

* "It takes me when I want to go" * What is peak vs base scheduling? In other words, what does each approach differently prioritize?

*Peak VS Base scheduling* • Peak-first - peak service is the fundamental product provided - other times of day are supplemental product • Base-first - pattern of service that runs all the time is the fundamental product - service added on the peak is supplemental

Per capita automobile use tends to be lower: - with what 3 things? - in what 3 types of areas? What types of commercial centers tend to have lower rates of car commuting, and why? What do land use strategies need to be combined with to increase effectiveness in this sense?

*Per capita automobile use tends to be lower: • w/increasing pop'n & employment density, particularly if clustered into compact centers. • w/incrsd land use mix, such as when commercial & public services located w/in or adj.t to residential areas. • w/presence of strong, competitive transit system, particularly when integrated w/supportive land use - (high-density dev't w/good ped access w/in ½-km of transit stations) • in areas with connected street networks. • in areas w/attractive & safe streets that accommodate ped & bike travel, & where buildings are connected to sidewalks rather than set back behind parking lots. • in areas with traffic calming and other measures that reduce automobile traffic speeds. •Larger & higher-density commercial centers tend to have lower rates of car commuting bc they tend to support better travel choices (more transit, ride-sharing, better ped facilities, etc.) & amenities such as cafes & shops, altho they may increase avg commute distances. •Most land use strategies are mutually supportive, & more effective, if implemented 2gthr & in conjunction w/other TDM strategies. - some land use mgmt strategies that improve access could increase r/t reduce total vehicle travel unless implemented w/appropriate TDM strategies.

How might CAVs contribute to increasing VMT, in terms of: - reduced friction of distance - ownership and upgrading - deadheading problem

*Reducing friction of distance* •A study predicts w/AVs, VMT will increase by as much as 60% bc AVs will help productivity rise & reduce the cost of sitting in traffic, allowing people who rarely take a car today to start doing it much more in the future. •Even if, as some predict, 2-car families become 1-car families, congestion may not necessarily be eased. - ppl may be willing to live farther from work or amenities bc AVs relieve them of driving obligations - also, overall trips could increase. *Ownership and upgrading* •In wealthier countries, ppl will be tempted to upgrade their AV after only a few years, just as today we want the latest smartphone as soon as possible - result will be # of cars worldwide may grow exp.ntly *Deadheading problem* •Shared CAVs travel empty to pick up riders - could lead to more VMT than private cars

* "I can trust it" * What is reliability? What is the main cause of reliability problems? What are the 2 types of this nuisance? What are 3 kinds of the 2nd type of that nuisance?

*Reliability*: does it run predictably? •Delay: main cause of reliability prob.s •2 types of delay: - exceptional delay: weather, emergencies, breakdowns, construction - routine delay: ___1. traffic delay is caused by the interference of other vehicles ___2. signal delay is caused by required stops @signals ___3. passenger-stop delay is caused by stops for passenger boarding & alighting

* "It takes me when I want to go" * What 2 temporal components of service provision determine this?

*SERVICE FREQUENCY*: How often? • Direct role in meeting 4/7 transit demands • What is the max waiting time? • Headway: - inverse of frequency - gap b/t consecutive vehicles *SERVICE SPAN* • Operating hours? • Is it running when I need it?

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 4 steps to creating the "useful walk"? Describe each in detail

*STEP 1: Put cars in their place* •Car is a servant that has become a master; for 60 yrs, it has been the dominant factor in shaping our cities. •Relegating the car to its proper role is essential to reclaiming our cities for pedestrians •Requires an understanding of how the car & its minions have unnecessarily distorted the way that design decisions are made in American communities. *STEP 2: Mix the uses* •For people to choose to walk, the walk must serve some purpose. •In planning terms, that goal is achieved through mixed use or, more accurately, placing the proper balance of activities within walking distance of each other. •Most downtowns have an imbalance of uses that can be overcome only by increasing the housing supply. *STEP 3: Get the parking right* •"Parking is destiny" - it's the not-so-hidden force determining the life or death of many a downtown. •Parking requirements & pricing determine disposition of more urban land nationwide than any other factor •Yet until recently there wasn't even any theory on how to use parking to a city's benefit; that theory now exists, and is just beginning to affect policy nationwide. *STEP 4: Let transit work* •Walkable neighborhoods can thrive in the absence of transit, but walkable cities rely on it. •Communities that hope to become the latter must make transit-planning decisions based upon a number of factors that are routinely neglected, such as: - the often surprising public support for transit invest. - the role of transit in the creation of real estate value - the importance of design in the success or failure of transit systems.

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "safe walk" Describe each

*STEP 5: Protect the Pedestrian* •This is perhaps the most straightforward of the 10 steps •But also has most components: block size, lane width, turning motions, direction of flow, signalization, roadway geometry, speed limits *STEP 6: Welcome Bikes* •Walkable cities are also bikeable cities, bc bikes thrive in envt.s that support pedestrians •Also bc bikeability makes driving less necessary •More & more American cities are making big investments in biking, w/impressive results

*Ten steps of walkability* What are the 2 steps to the "interesting walk"? Describe each

*STEP 9: Make friendly & unique faces* •Lively streetscapes have 3 main enemies: 1. parking lots 2. drugstores 3. Starchitects (star architects)? •Why? blank walls, repetition, & a disregard for the ped's need to be entertained *STEP 10: Pick your Winners* •Even most walkable cities aren't universally walkable: only so many interesting street edges to go around. - as a result, some will remain principally automotive. •Cities must make a conscious choice about the size & location of their walkable cores - avoid squandering walkability resources in areas that will never invite pedestrians

Describe some of the main benefits claimed by CAV supporters: - safety - traffic - fuel consumption and emissions - accessibility - system integration

*Safety* • most road crashes & trauma are preventable; due to human error • lower rates of driving under influence *Less traffic* • greater lane capacity • higher speeds, tighter packing, less "phantom jams" due to human variability in driving *Lower fuel consumption and emissions* • platooning, programming for lower emissions *Greater accessibility* • for people who cannot drive due to physical abilities, age *Last mile services*: • connect people to public transit

Summarize the 3 current, main designs of PHEVs: - series design - parallel design - series/parallel design

*Series design:* • vehicle's wheels are only rotated by the electric motor & not the ICE, which is only used to turn a generator which in turn supplies electrical power to the electric motor system which provides driving power • battery stores any excess charge prod.d by the engine. *Parallel design:* • very similar to a HEV design, both the engine & the electric motor can drive the vehicle's wheels indpndntly or even simultaneously thru mechanical coupling. *Series/parallel hybrid design:* • vehicle has the flexibility to operate in either series or parallel mode.

What were the 2 biggest barriers to bicycling that the Breakaway survey found? What percentages of respondents listed these as barriers to their entry? What 2 conclusions did the researchers come to in terms of overcoming these barriers?

*Single biggest reported obstacle was concern about traffic* • ~54% reported worry about being hit by a car/truck, • 46% said they would be more likely to ride if they could bike in areas physically separated from traffic. • One of the Breakaway's main conclusions is that more bike infrastructure could be the best way to increase cycling in the U.S. *2nd-biggest barrier was lack of access to a working bike* • Only 52% of Americans reported they had a fxning bike available to them. • Services like bike-share & bike libraries might help expand access to this group & increase total cycling activity, researchers concluded.

Slow adoption scenario of EVs: - what rate is it based on? - what was the state of car driving in 1910s America? biggest worry? state of gas and road infrastructure? car prices? - how did this state change dramatically by 1921? 1925? - how many EVs will there be in 2020s & 2040s under this scenario? Fast adoption scenario of EVs: - what rate is it based on? - what made this faster? - what 2 things are different today regarding this scenario? - what reality does this scenario match? Ultimately, what will drive EV adoption?

*Slow adoption scenario:* based on the rate at which gas vehicles were adopted during the early 20thC • In 1910 there were few paved roads in America, & biggest worry in cities was what to do w/all the horse manure that was piling up. - gas was hard to find; today's massive infrastructure of refineries & gas stations just beginning to be built. - driving one of Henry Ford's new Model T's was a daunting change from a horse, w/or w/o a buggy, & it was as affordable to Americans then as a $137,000 car would have been in 2015 - not surprisingly, few ppl bought Model T's @that price • Yet by 1921, price had dropped to equivalent of $35k, Govts & the oil industry had spent massively on roads & other infrastructure, & Model T sales shot up to mil./yr. - by 1925 were nearing 2 mil/yr •If EVs are adopted at that pace, they'll acct for 5% of all vehicles by the late 2020s & 36% by the early 2040s. *Fast adoption scenario:* based on the rate @which horses disappeared during the early 20thC. • Happened much faster, in part bc public transit was expanding rapidly at the same time. - many ppl who gave up horses didn't buy cars at first; they hopped on electric street cars. - no comparable public transit boom today, but switching from gas-powered to EVs is much easier than switching from horses to cars was a century ago. •The fast-adoption scenario matches the actual EV adoption rate b/t 2011 & 2015, & may be more likely •Cost is what will push Americans out of their driver seats: EVs are 4x more energy efficient & cheaper to fuel.

How may alternative fuels be more cost effective? - how do they compare to conventional fuels currently? - which 2 alt. fuels differ in this regard? - what is needed to a certain extent to develop alt. fuels? - what could make alt. fuels cost competitive?

*Some alternative fuels have the potential to operate at a lower cost compared to petroleum products.* • currently, cost of most alternative fuels is a little bit higher than conventional fuel. • *however, the cost of biodiesel & compressed natural gas (CNG) are cost competitive w/petroleum. • for the dev't of alternative fuels, government legislations & incentives are required to a certain extent. • large-scale production of alternative fuel could make these alternative fuels cost competitive

*Locations of stops & stations*: •What are the stop coverage ranges for: - walking - cycling - driving - what has a big impact on such coverage? •What are the trade-offs involved in stop spacing? - what does close spacing mean? wide spacing? - what trade-off then results? - what does more stops mean?

*Stop coverage* •walking: .25-.5mi for local/bus; .6-1mi for regional/rail •cycling: 10min •driving: highly variable (park & ride, drop-off) •street network has big impact: gridiron allows much more accessibility than disconnect., irregular suburban *Stop spacing tradeoffs* •duplicate coverage vs coverage gaps - close spacing means smaller coverage gaps but larger duplicate coverage - wide spacing means opposite - tradeoff: coverage vs demand objective •stops vs speed: more stops means slower service

Describe the 4 types of cyclists. - What % of the Portland pop'n do they comprise? - What type of people are they? - What concerns or excites them about biking? From these, what is the main challenge, and biggest obstacle to increase ridership? What is key?

*Strong and the Fearless* •Comprise perhaps <0.5% of Portland pop'n •The people who will ride in regardless of roadway conditions: 'bicyclists;' - riding is a strong part of their identity and they are generally undeterred by roadway conditions. *Enthused and Confident* •Comprise ~7% of Portland pop'n •Those who have been attracted to cycling by bikeway networks and supporting infrastructure. •Comfortable sharing the roadway w/automotive traffic, but prefer to do so operating on their own facilities. •Appreciate bicycle lanes & bicycle boulevards. •They are the primary reason why bike commuting doubled b/t 1990 & 2000 (in Portland where they have invested heavily in bike infrastructure). *Interested but concerned.* •Represent the vast majority of citizens •Curious about bicycling; they like riding a bike, remembering back to their youths, or to the ride they took last summer and they would like to ride more. - but, don't like the cars speeding down their streets. - get nervous thinking about what would happen to them on a bicycle when a driver runs a red light, or guns their cars around them, or passes too closely & too fast. •Very few of these people regularly ride bicycles. - they would ride if they felt safer on the roadways—if cars were slower & less frequent, & if there were more quiet streets w/few cars & paths without any cars at all. *No way, no how.* •(33%) not interested in bicycling at all, for reasons of topography, inability, or simply a complete and utter lack of interest. *Main challenge*: getting the interested but concerned group to bike - single biggest obstacle is concern about traffic - therefore, bike infrastructure is key!

CAVs Cybersecurity and hacking: • what happened with the 2015 Jeep Hack? what did this show about AVs? • what vulnerability increases as vehicles become more connected? • what low tech hacks are possible?

*The 2015 Jeep Hack* •vehicles can be hacked through wireless features. •in 2015, 2 hackers were able to gain control of Jeep's driving fxns thru the entertainment system & control the car's Advanced Driver Assistance System remotely. - Chrysler recalled 1.4 million vehicles as a result *Connections between Vehicles* •as these become more & more connected to external infrastruct., other vehicles, & anything else, the pt.s thru which these vehicles are able to be hacked increases. •also, as more & more systems in the car can be controlled automatically (steering, etc.), hackers would potentially have more control over a car they hacked *Low tech hacks*: •activities online are already discussing how to hack CAVs simply by walking in the street

* "It is a good use of my time" * In what 2 ways is time valued/characterized in relation to public transit?

*Time is short* • Time required for entire trip includes: - access time (stop locations) - waiting time (frequency) - transit time (speed or delay) - transfer time (connectivity + frequency) - egress time (stop locations) *Time is useful* • Multitasking during transit is enabled • Reading lights, power outlets, internet access

What are the 3 types of natural gas vehicles? How is CNG distributed? - how is it dispensed and compressed?

*Types of Natural Gas Vehicles* • Dedicated: designed to run only on natural gas. • Bi-fuel: two separate fueling systems that enable them to run on either natural gas or gasoline. • Dual-fuel: have fuel systems that run on natural gas but use diesel fuel for ignition assistance; traditionally limited to heavy-duty vehicles *Distribution* • vast majority of nation's CNG supply is distributed via the existing natural gas distribution system • most natural gas fueling stations dispense CNG, which is usually compressed on site. • CNG is used in light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles.

In what way are CAVs safer, but what 2 potentialities may undermine that safety? What is already safer than CAVs, and what danger may CAVs pose to that? What technology that we have now, and in the next 5-10 years, is already more feasible than CAVs and nearly as safe?

*VMT increases* • CAVs are much safer on a per mile basis, but if they increase VMT those gains could be offset *Vehicle-vehicle > vehicle-human crash reductions* • CAVs can handle vehicles well bc they mostly follow rules (esp. if autonomous), but humans are complex; - it's unclear CAVs will be able to handle the full range of possible V-H interactions @ crosswalks & intersxns. *Public transit is already safer*: • overall safety effects disastrous if AV industry decimates transit systems, as cars did 1930s-1950s • transit is already ~95% safer than cars per mile traveled & may already be twice as safe as AVs @the highest levels of safety they may ever achieve. *Safe cars without self-driving.* • there's a diff. b/t safe cars & self-driving cars • much of the 50-90% est.d reduction in traffic fatalities could be achieved if car-makers simply continue to make cars themselves safer - instead of waiting for fully autonomous vehicles, this could happen in the next 5-10 yrs. • safe cars are feasible now - blind spot monitoring (BSM), lane departure warning (LDW), & forward collision warning (FCW) crash avoidance systems.

Vegetable oils: - competitiveness w/oil - vegetable oil engines Biodiesel: - what is biodiesel? what derived from? - what are its major sources? - well-to-wheel energy consumption compared to fossil diesel & gas - well-to-wheel emissions compared to diesel emissions

*Vegetable oils and biodiesel* • vegetable oil fuels not now petroleum competitive fuels bc they are more expensive than petroleum fuels. - VO engines also require frequent maintenance • biodiesel is methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids derived from edible & non-edible type vegetable oils (used or fresh) & animal fats. - major sources for biodiesel production can be jatropha, karanji, palm, soy bean, and sun flower. - well‐to‐wheel energy consumption is higher than for fossil diesel but generally lower than for gas - well‐to‐wheel emissions of biodiesel are very similar to diesel emissions; that is, higher NOx & particulates but relatively low for CO & hydrocarbons & very low net CO2 emissions bc derived from biomass

In what 2 ways is hydrogen a very attractive transportation fuel? What is a special reason for the technological interest in hydrogen?

*Very attractive transprtn fuel in two important ways:* 1.Least polluting fuel (no C) that can be used in an ICE - H-fueled ICEs (H2-ICEs) operate as clean & efficient power plants for cars - H produces H2O only when it's combusted in the ICE & makes it a very envtly clean fuel. - H combustion doesn't produce any of the major pollutants such as CO, HC, SOx, smoke, lead, or other toxic metals except NOx. - Sulfuric acid deposition, benzene & other carcinogenic compounds, and ozone & other oxidants are intrinsically absent in a well-designed neat H2-ICE. 2. It is potentially available anywhere. •A special reason for the tech.l interest in H is that H works very well within fuel cells. - most fuel cells are basically powered by H, even tho the primary fuel is not always pure H. - using H in a fuel cell leads to optimized energy efficiency (for the conversion of chem. to mech. energy) compared w/use of hydrogen in an ICE.

How do alternative transport modes supplement public transit? • Walking • Cycling • Carpooling • Carsharing

*WALKING* • virtually every transit rider is also a pedestrian • transit outcomes depend heavily on walkability, including walk length *CYCLING* • can compete w/short distance public transit • complements longer-distance transit, esp. w/bike-friendly features (bike storage @stations, bus carriages) *CARPOOLING* • crucial tool for reg-scheduled commutes esp. to lower-density employment centers not dense enough to attract high-quality transit *CARSHARING* • essential in cities that want to encourage lower levels of car ownership • eliminates temptation to own a car that one only needs once/twice a week

What is smart mobility? - what does it use, and for what purpose? - what types of vehicles? What are the benefits of smart mobility in terms of - flexibility - efficiency - integration - clean technology - safety

*What is smart mobility?* • Using data and info-tech.s to create a seamless multimodal transportation system • Shared, autonomous EVs *Benefits* • Flexibility: multiple modes of transpt.n allow travelers to choose which ones work best for a given situation. • Efficiency: the trip gets the traveler to their destination w/minimal disruption & in as little time as possible. • Integration: the full route is planned door-to-door, regardless of which modes of transportation are used. • Clean Technology: transportation moves away from pollution-causing vehicles to zero-emission ones. • Safety: fatalities and injuries are drastically reduced.

CAVs liability issues: Who is at fault - Manufacturers or drivers? • where does the liability seem to shift from an automated-enough vehicle? what question does this raise? • what question regarding automation level is there? • what question does the 2016 Tesla incident raise? Actuarial rates • what are they? what are they usually based on? • what do accurate rates help do? what questions arise from this?

*Who is at fault- Manufacturers or drivers?* •Once the power of driving is given over to the vehicles, seemingly all of the liability rests on the vehicle itself, & by extension, the OEMs. - will mfcrs have to insure every vehicle they create? •Diff. degrees of automation: manufacturer under any obligation to make sure drivers understand the automation levl of their vehicle? •In the 2016 Tesla incident, some argue that misleading marketing of the autopilot feature lead to the crash - should there be classes to instruct drivers on AVs weak points in sensors and algorithms? *Actuarial Rates* •An est. of the expected value of future loss. - usually, the future loss experience is predicted on the basis of historical loss experience & the consideration of the risk involved. •Accurate actuarial rates help protect insurance co.s against the risk of severe underwriting losses that could lead to insolvency. - how should these be determined for CAVs? - determined purely by the algorithms of the specific vehicles? the conditions they drive in? - will insurance only be offered to entire fleets of AVs?

What about bikeshare makes it an appealing option? What are the types of sharing systems?

*Why bikeshare?* • Enhance walkability • 1st-mile/last-mile connectivity to public transit • Enable car-free or car-lite living *Types of sharing system* • Community versus membership • Sponsor: public, private, public-private • docked vs dockless

What are the five "D's" of walkability? What about the last one is different from the first 4, and what 4 things does it include within it?

1) A diversity of activities; 2) high housing and commercial density; 3) Short distance to public transit; 4) Good destination accessibility; and 5) good urban design: includes the human-scaled features that make walking a positive experience: - imageability and legibility, - a sense of linkage among places - human-scale features that are visually complex but coherent. - a sense of enclosure: a great walking envt has a sense of enclosure like a corridor/room, but much grander

* "It gives me freedom to change my plans" * Under what 3 conditions can a rider say, "It is there, whenever & wherever I need it"? Under what 2 conditions can a rider say, "I can figure it out & remember how it works"?

1. "It is there, whenever & wherever I need it" • Adequate overage & connectivity • Frequency & span: high-freq., long-span service • Reliability: runs predictably 2. "I can figure it out & remember how it works" • Simplicity: the network is easy to remember • Presentation: it's easy to learn what I need to know

* "It takes me where I want to go" *: What 2 things determine whether public transit exists where you need it? What does one of these not guarantee however?

1. *Location of stops & stations* determines how close transit service comes to each place that anyone might want to come from or go to. 2. *Connectivity* is a measure of whether transit links your destination with your origin. - stops near your origin & destination don't guarantee connectivity: transit agency may serve both pt A & pt B but be unable to take you from A to B by a reasonably direct path.

What are 3 main methods of road congestion pricing?

1. Cordon or area-wide 2. City center toll ring 3. Corridor or facility - High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes - High occupancy toll (HOT) lanes - Toll booths (eg. EZPass) - Bridges

What are the 6 urban design elements for walkability?

1. Fine-grained connections: Streets and sidewalks 2. Tissue: Parcels with narrow frontages 3. Housing/population density 4. A diverse mix of services 5. Streetscapes with human-friendly properties: A sense of coherence, permeability, architectural diversity and transparency for movement 6. Green networks: Parks, greenways and leafy streets.

What are the 7 aspects of useful public transit accg. to Jarrett Walker? (in order of increasing priority)

1. It takes me *where* I want to go 2. It takes me *when* I want to go 3. It is a good use of my *time* 4. It is a good use of my *money* 5. It respects me in the level of *safety, comfort,* & *amenity* it provides 6. I can *trust* it 7. It gives me *freedom* to change my plans

What are the 4 principles of the Charter of New Urbanism?

1. Neighborhoods should be diverse in use & pop'n 2. Communities should be designed for pedestrians & transit as well as the car 3. Cities & towns should be shaped by physically defined & universally accessible public spaces & cmnty institutions 4. Urban places should be framed by architecture and landscape design that celebrate local history, climate science, ecology, & building practice

For what 2 key reasons is public transit unique and valuable?

1. Only public transit can carry large numbers of people in a single vehicle with a single driver - wage costs (for now) are a large part of public transit costs 2. Public transit delivers people as pedestrians

What 3 things does Donald Shoup argue should be done to fix current parking policy?

1. charge fair market prices for on-street parking 2. spend the revenue to benefit the metered neighborhoods 3. eliminate off-street minimum parking requirements

What are the 4 components of the traditional definition of public transit? What is the defining virtue of transit? What is its most basic measure of its efficiency?

1. regularly scheduled vehicle trips 2. open to all paying passengers 3. capacity to carry multiple passengers - the ability to carry many people with a single vehicle is the defining virtue of transit - this is also the most basic measure of its efficiency. 4.Passengers' trips may have different origins, destinations, and purposes

What are the 3 classic theories of urban form?

1.*Concentric theory* - based on cities that developed mostly when walking & other forms of non-motorized travel were dominant 2.*Sector theory* - based on cities that developed mostly when streetcar transit was dominant 3.*Multiple nuclei theory* - based on cities developed when automobiles were dominant

Hoyt's sector model

A study of residential areas done by Hoyt (1939) in the North American context concluded that the land use pattern was not a random distribution, nor sharply defined rectangular areas or concentric circles, but rather sectors. Thus, the effect of direction and time was added to the effect of distance. Transport corridors, such as rail lines, public transit and major roads, are mainly responsible for the creation of sectors, thus transport has directional effect on land uses. Cities would grow along major axis. The sector representation also includes concentric transitional processes observed by Burgess, which is occurring along a specific direction.

Burgess' concentric zone model & its 6 zones

Concentric urban land uses. The Burgess concentric model was among the first attempts to investigate spatial patterns at the urban level (1925). Although the purpose of the model was to analyze social classes, it recognized that transportation and mobility were important factors behind the spatial organization of urban areas. The formal land use representation of this model is derived from commuting distance from the central business district, creating concentric circles. Each circle represents a specific socioeconomic urban landscape. In 1925, Burgess presented a descriptive urban land use model, which divided cities in a set of concentric circles expanding from the downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess' observations of a number of American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model (see above figure), a large city is divided in six concentric zones: Zone I: Central Business District (called the "loop" in Chicago) where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, making this zone the most accessible. Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area. Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions. Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to move away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low cost location for the working class. Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs. Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations.

Harris & Hullman's multiple nuclei theory model

Following Hoyt's development of a sectorial city, Harris and Ullman (1945) introduced a more effective generalization of urban land uses. It was brought forward that many towns and nearly all large cities do not grow around one CBD, but are formed by the progressive integration of a number of separate nuclei in the urban spatial structure. These nodes become specialized and differentiated in the growth process and are not located in relation to any distance attribute, but are bound by a number of factors: • Differential accessibility. Some activities require specialized facilities such as port and rail terminals. For instance, the retailing sector demands maximum accessibility, which is often different from centrality offered in the CBD. • Land use compatibility. Similar activities group together since proximity implies improved interactions through economies of agglomeration. Service activities such as banks, insurance companies, stores and institutions are strongly interacting with each other. This can be defined as centripetal forces between activities. • Land use incompatibility. Some activities are repelling each-other such as high quality residential and heavy industrial areas. This may be defined as centrifugal forces and one of the main reasons why poorer neighborhoods tend to be located on the eastern side, at least in industrial cities. Since in the northern hemisphere, prevailing winds tend to be westerlies, so eastern sections of an industrial city tended to have a higher level of exposure to industrial air pollution. • Location suitability. Some activities cannot afford the rent of the optimal site for their location. They are thus locating at cheaper places, which are not optimal, but suitable for these activities. Harris and Ullman poly-nuclear model was the first to represent the fragmentation of urban areas, specialized functions as well as suburbanization.

See 3.1 pg.s 9-11 for graphs on external vs internal fixed vs internal variable costs on average

See 3.1 pg.s 9-11 for graphs on external vs internal fixed vs internal variable costs on average

4 examples of TDM programs (See article: What is transportation demand management, actually? - MobilityLab; https://mobilitylab.org/2018/07/27/what-is-transportation-demand-management-actually/)

See article: What is transportation demand management, actually? - MobilityLab; https://mobilitylab.org/2018/07/27/what-is-transportation-demand-management-actually/

CAVs: Enabling technologies: What are they, and what do they do? - High-performance GPS - Sensors & Cameras - RADAR - LiDAR - AI - Machine Learning - In-vehicle data processing - Wireless connectivity - Cloud-based computing - Smart technologies

• *High-performance GPS* - satellite-based GPS tracks the vehicle's location & supports navigation • *Sensors & cameras* - collect & process data in real time to keep the vehicle traveling in the proper lane & operating safely • *RADAR* - object detection systems using radio waves determine the presence, distance, angle, and velocity of surrounding objects • *LiDAR* - Light Detection And Ranging - constructs a frequently updated 3D-like image of the envt • *Artificial intelligence* - advanced algorithms & deep learning systems enable the vehicle to quickly & automatically adapt to changing circumstances • *Machine Learning* - a form of data-driven AI that improves vehicle performance w/o reprogramming, aided by frequent software updates & new algorithms via the cloud • *In-vehicle data processing* - software that automatically performs real-time calculations enables high-speed decision-making on the road • *Wireless connectivity* - onboard systems support machine-to-machine comm.s to learn about dynamic conditions from other vehicles, infrastruct. & other road users; also communication w/cloud-based computing • *Cloud-based computing* - tools that aggregate & analyze real-time telemetric data — such as vehicle speed & surrounding car proximity —signal the need for actions like braking or lane-switching • *Smart technologies* - Road signs, traffic lights, & lane markers communicate w/sensors in the moving vehicle

Smart Columbus Operating System (SCOS): - what is it? - what is it designed to serve? - what will it help us measure? - what will it share data for? - what data will it serve?

• An integrated data exchange for mobility apps & performance monitoring • Designed to serve as the technological backbone of all current & future smart city projects. • Help us measure the performance & progress of the USDOT grant initiatives. • Share data that will inspire entrepreneurs & developers to create Columbus' mobility services of the future • Serve the data that will fuel technology deployments within the USDOT grant scope

Best Practices: What attributes should public bike systems have to maximize effectiveness and benefits? - maximize convenience for what kinds of trips, and how? - integrate with which programs, which riders? - structure fees to do what? - how should be integrated w/public transit? - what does an effective system need to do? - aesthetic-wise?

• Designed to maximize convenience for short utilitarian trips, w/easy-to-use docking systems widely distributed around the city. • Integrated w/overall cycling improvement & encouragement programs, suitable for new & inexperienced cyclists riding for utilitarian trips • Fees structured to encourage use for short trips (free or very inexpensive for the first 20 minutes). • Stations and bikes are well maintained. • Integrated w/public transit: locate at public transit stations • An effective system is needed to redistribute bikes from areas that accumulate excess bikes to those that have too few bikes. • Stations and bikes are attractive and well designed to fit into the urban landscape.

What are market prices? What are they in the context of driving? What are externalities? What are they in the context of driving?

•*Market prices*: costs involved in market transactions - driving: automobile purchase price, gas prices, insurance, maintenance, depreciation, parking - avg: 60 cents/mile •*Externalities*: costs (or benefits) incurred by individuals not involved in the market transaction - air pollution, risk, GHGs, health costs, social costs - police/hwy patrol, emergency rooms, expanded govt, subsidized parking

The four pillars of sustainable urban transportation

• Governance: Establish an Effective Body for Integrated Land-use Transportation Planning. The city is an enormously complex system for which changes in one part can affect others in unanticipated ways. It is only through a comprehensive, integrated approach to transportation and land-use planning that one can hope to understand the complex interactions within cities and to address with any confidence the range of policies and their likely outcomes. Unfortunately, land-use and transportation often are not dealt with in a sufficiently coordinated way by municipal (and higher level) governments and agencies. • Financing: Create a Fair, Efficient and Stable Funding Mechanism. Development of efficient, long-term financing for transportation systems is essential for the well being of cities, either for investment in new infrastructure or for the long-term operation and maintenance of existing systems. The financing of transportation infrastructure in many cities has been challenged in recent decades by the shrinking role of central governments. Having re-evaluated the governance of transportation and land use, cities may benefit from examining alternative funding mechanisms for sustainable, long-term financing of transportation. • Infrastructure: Make Strategic Investments in Major Infrastructure. With suitable governance and funding mechanisms in place, cities would be well positioned to invest in infrastructure that supports sustainable transportation. • Neighborhoods: Support Investments through Local Design. Until a new generation of sustainable personal transportation vehicles has been developed, investment in public transit systems may be the most viable means of making urban transportation more sustainable. But major investment in public transit infrastructure will not suffice, or even work at all, if macro land use and micro neighborhood designs are not supportive of, or compatible with, these investments. People have to be able to get to and from major transit 'line-haul' facilities; houses, jobs and other activities must be located in a connected, convenient, attractive way with these facilities. Details are important, and the details start with the design of streets and neighborhoods.

What are the Smart Columbus goals?

• Improve people's quality of life • Drive growth in the economy • Provide better access to jobs & ladders of opportunity • Become a world-class logistics leader • Foster sustainability

Market equilibrium with negative externality (See 3.1 pg.18): - what does the private cost curve reflect? - what does the social cost curve include? What is the "actual equilibrium" point? - what kind of outcome is this? - what can the gov.t do to bring this to "ideal equilibrium"? what is the trick to doing this?

• This is an example of the market outcomes in a situation where there are external costs that are not reflected in the price of a good. •Private cost curve reflects the cost of the good to the consumer: the cost of driving that only reflects the internal costs to the driver •Social cost curve includes both the internal costs plus the external costs to society •"Actual equilibrium" is the market price & quantity consumed when only internal costs are considered - this is an undesirable outcome: the quantity consumed is too high. - govt can impose a tax or add.l price on the good/ service to shift the private cost curve closer to the social cost curve so the market price & quantity demanded reflects the total ("social") cost - trick is to price the external costs that are the gap between the two curves.

What are the 3 goals of pricing and taxation? What does pricing attempt to do? What does taxation use, and for what purpose? How do pricing programs differ in purpose from taxation? Since all transportation is subsidized to some degree, what then is the question regarding transportation mode subsidization?

•*3 goals of pricing and taxation:* 1.Create revenue for transport.n infrastructure & services 2.Encourage people to use transportation more appropriately, in ways reflective of their true costs 3.Educate people about their true transportation costs as compared w/costs for alternative travel choices •Pricing attempts to bring the market price of transportation more in-line with its true cost •Taxation uses payments extracted from legislative authorities to bring the price of transportation more in-line with its cost •Pricing programs differ from taxation in that they can be justified as not just another way to increase govt funds, but rather to reduce transportation subsidies and shift the costs to those who are responsible for them. - note that all transportation is subsidized to some degree: public, private, air, freight •The question is not whether we should subsidize but rather what transportation behavior is best for society?

What are 2 conflicting goals of public transit? Describe the conflicting considerations, targeted riders, and definitions of public transit accg. to each

•*Coverage*: serve all parts of our community - provide service regardless of how many people use it - *captive riders*: serve those who depend on public transit - public transit is a social service •*Ridership*: maximize ridership w/a fixed service budget - farebox recovery - *choice riders*: compete with the automobile - public transit is a business

What does Grid-to-vehicle charging refer to? What is battery charging mostly achieved through? - how has this since shifted, and why?

•*Grid to vehicle charging (G2V)* refers to the process of battery charging of PEHVs & EVs from the electricity grid infrastructure. •Battery charging is mostly achieved through the use of conventional household outlets. - however, high charging times & the need for vehicle charging in outside locations for more frequent & quicker charging has resulted in the advent of publicly available charging stations

Describe the 6 levels of automation. For each: - how much control does the automation system have? - what responsibility does the human driver have?

•*Level 0*: The human driver does all the driving. •*Level 1*: an advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) on the vehicle can assist the human driver with either steering or braking/accelerating. •*Level 2*: an ADAS on the vehicle can control both steering & braking/accelerating under some circumstances. - the human driver must continue to pay full attention ("monitor the driving environment") at all times and perform the rest of the driving task. •*Level 3*: an automated driving system (ADS) on the vehicle can perform all aspects of the driving task under some circumstances. - the human driver must be ready to take back control at any time the ADS requests the human driver to do so. - in all other circumstances, the human driver performs the driving task. •*Level 4*: an ADS on the vehicle can itself perform all driving tasks and monitor the driving environment - essentially, do all the driving - in certain circumstances. - human needn't pay attention in those circumstances •*Level 5*: an ADS on the vehicle can do all the driving in all circumstances; the human occupants are just passengers and need never be involved in driving.

What are - marginal costs - fixed costs - sunk costs ?

•*Marginal costs*: incremental costs resulting from an incremental change in consumption •*Fixed costs*: not affected by consumption •*Sunk costs*: fixed costs incurred in the past which cannot be recovered

What are market versus non-market costs? In this context, what are monetary costs called? (as opposed to externalities)

•*Market costs*: involve goods that are traded in a competitive market, such as vehicles, land, and fuel •*Nonmarket costs*: involve goods that aren'tt regularly traded in markets such as clean air, crash risk, and quiet •Monetary costs are called *expenditures*

Summarize the 4 main Distance-Based Pricing Options: 1. Odometer audits 2. VUDAR 3. On Board Data Collection 4. GPS

•*Odometer audits*: odometer readings collected by certified odometer auditors, usually during scheduled maintenance - low equipment costs, operating costs, user inconvenience, and price adjustability •*VUDAR*: vehicle operating hours are recorded by a small instrument installed in each vehicle; data are transmitted annually at a special station - medium equipment costs and price adjustability, low operating costs and user inconvenience •*On Board Data Collection*: electronic system in each vehicle tracks mileage; data are transmitted monthly to a central computer, either automatically or by users - high equipment costs, medium operating costs and user inconvenience, low-med price adjustability •*GPS*: GPS system used to track the location of each vehicle; data are automatically transmitted monthly - high equipment costs and price adjustability, medium operating costs, and low user inconvenience

What are the 3 main purposes/effects of taxation in general?

•*Revenue*: raise money to spend on armies, roads, schools & hospitals, & on more indirect govt fxns like market regulation or legal systems. •*Redistribution* normally means transferring wealth from the richer cohorts of society to poorer cohorts. - in case of transportation, could also mean redistbtn from those creating neg. externalities to those harmed •*Repricing*: taxes are levied to address externalities - eg., tobacco is taxed to discourage smoking, carbon tax discourages use of carbon-based fuels.

What do soft policies rely on? - what techniques do they involve? - how do they differ from hard policies? What do hard policies include? - what do they improve? - how do they improve that? - examples

•*Soft policies* rely on voluntary behavior r/t coercion - involve techniques such as info dissemination, persuasion, & social pressure to encourage travelers to switch to alternative transportation modes - often less expensive & controversial than hard policies - eg. workplace & school mobility plans, awareness campaigns, priority lanes for more sustainable modes, support for carpooling •*Hard policies* include: - improving alt. transptn infrastruct. & services (eg.more frequent bus service or add.l bicycling infrastructure), - incr.g the cost of car-use thru taxes, tolls, fees & other forms of pricing & rationing car-use (e.g. alternative day driving restrictions based on license plate #). - eg. increasing parking prices, tolling roads, & congestion charging

Describe the soft policy level of TDM: - what is TDM a program of? - how does it aim to help ppl? - what counterbalance does it seek to create? Describe the hard policy level of TDM: - what should TDM guide, and why? - what important new initiatives does TDM underlie?

•*Soft policy level*: TDM is a program of info, encouragement, & incentives provided by local or regional org.s to help ppl know about & use all their transprtn options to optimize all modes in the system - counterbalance the incentives to drive that are so prevalent in subsidies of parking & roads - both traditional & innovative tech-based services to help ppl use transit, ridesharing, walking, biking, & telework. •*Hard policy level*: TDM is a principle that should guide everything we do in designing our transprtn & physical infrastructure so that alternatives to driving are naturally encouragd & our systems are better balanced - TDM thus underlies most of the important new initiatives of today: transit-oriented dev't, complete streets, walkable activity centers, livability & sustainability initiatives, and integrated corridor management, to name a few examples.

What does tank-to-wheel efficiency refer to? What does well-to-wheel efficiency include? What is T2W efficiency used to provide? What is W2W efficiency needed to provide?

•*Tank-to-wheel (T2W) efficiency* refers to the operating efficiency of the car itself & provides the car's actual fuel economy. •Well-to-wheel efficiency is a more comprehensive efficiency indicator since it includes, apart from the T2W efficiency, the efficiency of the fuel/electricity production infrastructure from the oil-well to the tank •Generally, T2W efficiency is used to provide a fuel econ comparison for vehicles of the same category type; - also used for the same purpose to compare vehicles across diff.t vehicle category types, (ie., for CGVs, FEVs, or PHEVs) •W2W efficiency is however necessary to provide a meaningful comparison of vehicle tailpipe emissions across these different types of vehicle categories.

What are the 2 types of biking? How mutually exclusive are they? What important distinction is there between them?

•*Utilitarian cycling* - cycling primarily as a means of transport - most common type in the world •*Recreational cycling* - cycling primarily as a form of recreation •Note: a person can be both; depends on trip - a trip can serve both purposes - *but, these types of cycling have diff. needs*

CAVs: Describe the types of vehicle connectivity. For each: - what does the tech do? - what is the goal/intention of them?

•*V2I "Vehicle to Infrastructure"*: the tech captures data generated by the vehicle & provides info about the infrastructure to the driver. - the tech communicates info about safety, mobility or envt-related conditions. •*V2V "Vehicle to Vehicle"*: the tech communicates info about speed & position of surrounding vehicles thru a wireless exchange of information. - the goal is to avoid accidents, ease traffic congestions, & have a positive impact on the envt. •*V2C "Vehicle to Cloud"*: tech exchanges info about & for applications of the vehicle w/a cloud system. - allows the vehicle to use info from other connected industries like energy, transportation and smart homes and make use of IoT. •*V2P "Vehicle to Pedestrian"*: tech senses info about its envt & communicates it to other vehicles, infrastructure & personal mobile devices. - enables the vehicle to communicate w/pedestrians & is intended to improve safety and mobility on the road. •*V2X "Vehicle to Everything"*: tech interconnects all types of vehicles & infrastructure systems w/another - connectivity includes cars, hwys, ships, trains, & airplanes

What are Contra-flow bicycle lanes? What conversion do they create? How are they separated? What unintended consequence could they provoke however?

•BLs designed to allow bicyclists to ride in the opposite direction of motor vehicle traffic. - convert a 1-way traffic street into a 2-way street: one direction for motor vehicles & bikes, & the other for bikes only. •Separated w/yellow center lane striping. •Introduces new design challenges & may introduce add.l conflict points as motorists may not expect on-coming bicyclists.

What are bicycle boulevards? What do they use and for what purpose?

•Bicycle boulevards are streets with low motorized traffic volumes and speeds, designated and designed to give bicycle travel priority. •Use signs, pavement markings, & speed & volume mgmt measures to discrge thru trips by motr.vehicles & create safe, convenient bike crossings of busy arterial streets.

What do two-stage turn queue boxes offer bicyclists? - where may they also be used, and for what? - what may they be used for at midblock crossing locations? What does cycle track design often prevent bicyclists from doing? - what does this make the provision for 2-stage turns? - where else do the principles for 2-stage turns apply to? What drawback may two-stage turns result in? - why is that? - where else may this configuration have this drawback, and why?

•2-stage turn queue boxes offer bicyclists a safe way make left turns at multi-lane signalized intersxns from a right side cycle track or bike lane, or right turns from a left side cycle track or bike lane. - may also be used at unsignalized intersxns to simplify turns from a BL or cycle track, as for ex., onto a bicycle boulevard. - at midblock crossing locations, a two-stage turn queue box may be used to orient bicyclists properly for safe crossings. - multiple positions are available for queuing boxes, depending on intersection configuration. •Cycle track design often prevents bicyclists from merging into traffic to turn. - this makes the provision of 2-stage turns critical for basic transportation function. - same principles for 2-stage turns apply to bike lanes as well. •While two stage turns may increase bicyclist comfort in many locations, this configuration typically results in increased delay for bicyclists. - bicyclists now need to receive 2 separate green signal indications (one for the thru st, followed by one for the cross st) to turn. - at unsignalized intersxns this configuration may also increase delay for bicyclists due to the need to wait for appropriate gaps in crossing motor vehicle traffic.

What is LiDAR? - what does it generate, and how? - how is it similar, yet distinct, from Radar and Sonar? - what does a LiDAR system calculate? Using what? - how many pulses are fired per second? what are each of these returns then processed into (what's this called?)? - what does a LiDAR instrument consist of? - when equipped to a vehicle, what can it simultaneously locate and assess? how does this aid the on-board computer system?

•A remote sensing method that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges (variable distances) to objects. - these light pulses—combined w/other data recorded by the system— generate precise, 3D info about a setting or environment. •Works in a similar way to Radar & Sonar yet uses light waves from a laser, instead of radio or sound waves. •A LiDAR system calculates how long it takes for the light to hit an object or surface & reflect back to the scanner. - the distance is then calculated using the velocity of light; these are known as 'Time of Flight' measurements. •LiDAR systems can fire ~1,000,000 pulses per second. - ea. of these measurements, or returns, can then be processed into a 3D visualization of the surrounding scene known as a 'point cloud'. •A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, & a specialized GPS receiver. •LiDAR can simultaneously locate the position of people & objects around the vehicle & assess the speed & route @which they are moving. - using that info, an on-board computer system can determine the safest way for a self-driving vehicle to drive to its destination. centimeter resolution

What are bicycle networks? What are the design principles for bicycle networks? - what do they provide bicyclists with? - what coherency should there be? - what should they be separated from? what special considerations should be given? - what should be considered? - what should they establish? - what should they provide? - how can safety be enhanced?

•A well-connected bike ntwk should consist of inter-connected bike lanes, cycle tracks, traffic-calmed st.s w/priority for bikes, & special cnsdrtns at jxns & intrsxns, which are designed to prioritize cyclists' needs. *Design principles for bicycle networks* •provide bicyclists the most direct possible routes and a continuous right-of-way. •should be coherent & not interrupted by intersxns or building sites. •separate from high-speed motorized traffic. - special considerations & clear visibility to bicycles should be given at inter-sections and junctions. •consider bikeway typology/hierarchy, from off-street trails to shared streets to protected BLs on streets. •establish wayfinding tools, signalization, & integration with other transport modes. •provide ample bike parking. •safety of bicycle networks can also be enhanced by signalizing.

How many natural gas stations in the US? Provide a reference for this Who owns these stations?

•Accg to U.S. DOE, only 824 privately operated CNG stations in U.S. & 74 private LNG stations in the country. - by contrast, you can get liquid propane at 2,883 places or charge your EV at 9,572 charging stations or 24,450 charging outlets •Many CNG & LNG stations are owned & operated by private fleet owners-- CNG sales continue to carve out a niche w/private fleets with their own infrastructure

How is natural gas advantageous compared to gas and diesel from an environmental perspective? What about natural gas is disadvantageous compared to petroleum fuels?

•Advantages compared to gas & diesel from an envtl perspective: - NG vehicles cost-competitive, lower-emission alt. to gas-fueled vehicles - produces less than half the CO2 emissions per unit of generated electricity compared to conventional fuels, •Difficult to store/transport bc physical nature, needs high pressures &/or low temps to increase bulk density - oil is readily stored in large, relatively simple, & cheap tanks & then transported in huge tankers.

How to automobile owners decide how much to drive? What do public agencies tend to be influenced by? What do current transport planning and investment decisions tend to focus on? Why do indirect and externalities tend to be undervalued?

•Automobile owners decide how much to drive based primarily on perceived, internal, variable costs. •Public agencies tend to be influenced by costs perceived by their constituents, however defined. •Current transport planning and investment decisions tend to focus on direct market costs. •Indirect and non-market costs tend to be undervalued because they are more difficult to measure.

How may autonomy inevitably have a negative effect on personal health, specifically in relation to the effects of active transportation? What are the effects of lowered friction of distance? How might CAVs offset its safety gains in this way?

•Autonomy may inevitably have a neg. effect on personal health by causing a rise in inactivity. - whereas active transportation reduces individuals' costs for transport., makes them healthier, & fosters a move twd mixed-use communities & city & town centers, CAVs could upset this balanced way of living by putting large #s of these ppl back into cars & encouraging suburban sprawl even to rural areas. •Lowered friction of distance makes longer commutes and thus suburban sprawl easier - could also replace activate transport for short trips •Studies have shown that inactivity is related to miles traveled by car. - if CAVs increase travel by vehicle substantially, as many experts predict, death by preventable diseases may reduce overall lives saved by a considerable amt.

What does biodiesel refer to? What's it derived from? How does transesterification work/produce biodiesel? What policy do many countries follow wrt biodiesel? What have studies of biodiesel shown, and how have auto manufacturers responded accordingly?

•Biodiesel refers to diesel equivalent, processed fuel derived from bio. sources such as VOs & animal fats. - burns like normal diesel, fine in any diesel engine. •VOs can be modified into various, more useful forms that are suitable for diesel engine application, including: - microemulsion - pyrolysis - transesterification (most commercially successful) •Transesterification: chemical process of transforming large, branched triglyceride molecules of VOs & fats into smaller, straight chain molecules, almost similar in size to molecules of the species present in diesel fuel. •Many countries started biodiesel production industries & blend it w/diesel commercially as per national policy - EU has become world leader of biodiesel production •Engine performance, emission, endurance, & metal components wear analysis, fleet studies, & engine oil effects conducted by various automotive mnfctrs & oil co.s. yielded positive results - thus, auto. mnfctrs extended warranty of biodiesel operated vehicles

What are bus bulbs? How do they help buses, and how do they help bikes?

•Bus bulbs are curb extensions or concrete islands that align the bus stop w/the parking lane, allowing buses to stop & board pssgrs w/o ever leaving the travel lane. - help buses move faster & more reliably by decreasing the amount of time lost when merging in & out of traffic. - help reduce bus-bike conflicts at bus stops when a protected bike lane is provided behind the bus stop rather than a bike lane in the bus stop.

What questions arise regarding CAV morality?

•CAVs will be placed in situations where they need to react in ways that will cause damage, injury and death •What happens when a CAV is faced with a difficult "choice"? •Some type of rules will need to be built into the algorithms that steer CAVs •What is the legality of that choice? Possible future court cases over these algorithms.

How do CNG vehicles and engines functions much like gas-powered ones?

•CNG vehicles work much like gas-powered vehicles w/spark-ignited internal combustion engines; engine functions the same way as a gasoline engine: - fuel-air mixture compressed & ignited by spark plug. - natural gas stored in fuel tank, or cylinder, typically at the back of vehicle. - fuel system transfers high-pressure natural gas from the fuel tank to the engine. - pressure is then reduced to a level compatible w/the engine fuel injection system, thru which the fuel is introduced into the intake manifold or combustion chamber.

Market equilibrium with positive externality (See 3.1 p. 19) How can negative externalities be leveraged to support positive ones? (UNFINISHED)

•Can use tax $ on a neg. externality to support a good/service w/pos. externalities •In this case, we have a market where the demand for the good/service is too low since some enjoy the benefits w/o paying or (equivalently) ppl who pay enjoy more benefits beyond the price - reflected in the private demand curve which doesn't acct. for the societal or unpriced benefits. - result is a poor outcome: ppl are unwilling to pay as much as they should, so the quantity supplied in the market is too low. •The social demand curve reflects how much society would demand if societal benefits were considered. •In this case, government should use their resources to subsidize the good or service; the goal is to shift the private demand curve to the social demand curve, leading to a better market outcome. - again, the trick is to price the positive externalities.

What did the Census find about gender differences in bike commuters? What did the Breakaway survey find about gender differences across bikers overall? What did this show about the Census? What did Breakaway find the most common types of transportation biking trips were? Where did commute trips come in?

•Census finds that ~25% bike commuters are women. - but this survey, looking at biking trips of all kinds, found 30% of women had ridden a bike in the last 12 months compared to 39% of men. •Of ppl who bike, men are also somewhat more likely than women to ride twice a week or more (16% to 12%), but this still wouldn't acct for the gender discrepancy in the Census •The survey results also reinforce the idea that the Census over-emphasizes commute trips. •Breakaway found that the most common types of transportation biking trips are "traveling to and from social, recreation, or leisure activities" and "running errands or shopping." - commute trips came in third.

What are the New Urbanism design features for public buildings & neighborhoods?

•Certain prominent sites reserved for public buildings •A building must be provided @the center for neighborhood meetings •Neighborhood should be self governing, deciding on matters of maintenance, security, & physical evolution

Hybrid electric vehicles: - what 2 power sources are combined? - what is the battery/electric motor intended to achieve? how well do they achieve this, and why? - how is the battery charged? - what can the extra power provided by the electric motor allow? - what else can the battery power and reduce?

•Combines 2 distinct power sources to provide driving power: conventional ICE & a battery/electric motor system - presence of the battery/EMS is intended to achieve either better vehicle fuel econ.y or better performance than a conventional ICE vehicle; - this is essentially achieved since the low efficiency ICE is now used in combo w/a much higher efficiency power source, such as the battery. •Cannot be plugged in to charge the battery. - instead, battery is charged thru regenerative braking and by the ICE. •The extra power provided by the electric motor can potentially allow for a smaller engine. •Battery can also power aux. loads like sound systems & headlights, & reduce engine idling when stopped.

What are excise taxes? What is one of the major components of the excise program? Why is the fuel tax in the US considered as a user fee by many? How does the US differ from other countries in this regard?

•Excise taxes are taxes paid when purchases are made on a specific good, such as gasoline. - often included in the price of the product. - also on activities, such as on wagering or on hwy usage by trucks. •One of the major components of the excise program is motor fuel. - in most countries the fuel tax is imposed on fuels which are intended for transportation. - fuels used to power agricultural vehicles, and/or home heating oil which is similar to diesel are taxed at a different, usually lower, rate •In the US, the fuel tax receipts are often dedicated or hypothecated to transportation projects so that the fuel tax is considered by many a user fee - in other countries, the fuel tax is a source of general revenue.

Complete streets: - what are they? who do they include? - what do approaches do they encompass? - what levels are CS policies set at, and frequently supported by? - how do CS approaches vary, and what may they address? - what things do they reduce? - what can they promote, and how? what did a study find in this regard?

•Complete Streets are streets designed & operated to enable safe use & support mobility for all users. - those include people of all ages and abilities, regardless of whether they are travelling as drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, or public transportation riders. •Encompasses many approaches to planning, designing, & operating roadways & ROW w/all users in mind to make the transportation ntwrk safer & more efficient. •CS policies are set at the state, regional,& local levels & are frequently supported by roadway design guidelines •CS approaches vary based on community context. - may address a wide range of elements, such as sidewalks, bicycle lanes, bus lanes, public transit stops, crossing opportunities, median islands, accessible ped signals, curb extensions, modified vehicle travel lanes, streetscape, & landscape treatments. •CS reduce motor vehicle-related crashes & ped risk, as well as bicyclist risk when well-designed bicycle-specific infrastructure is included. •Can promote walking & bicycling by providing safer places to achieve physical activity through transportn. - study found that 43% of ppl reporting a place to walk were significantly more likely to meet current recmndtns for regular physical activity than were those reporting no place to walk

Vegetable oil fuels: - when was the concept of using VO for fuel conceived? - what does mixing VO w/diesel afford users? - how can modern diesel engines run VO?

•Concept of using VO as fuel began in 1895: Dr. Rudolf Diesel developed the 1st diesel engine to run on VO - Dr. Diesel had demonstrated his engine at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 using peanut oil. •Mixing vegetable oil w/diesel lets users get some of the advantages of burning vegetable oil & is often done w/no modification to the vehicle •Can be run in modern diesel engines w/modifications, just need heating element to maintain low viscosity

Path to CAV heaven: guarantee mobility w/congestion pricing - why is congestion pricing essential for CAVs? - what will increase? - what can lead to more vehicles - how do CAVs make congestion pricing easy to implement? What can pricing be based on?

•Congestion pricing is *essential* since risks of gridlock w/CAVs is so great - vehicular capacities on hwys feeding centers will increase - MaaS can lead to more vehicles -- see Uber and Lyft •CAVs make congestion pricing easy to implement - pricing can be based on vehicle occupancy; emptier cars pay more

What is congestion pricing? What are some examples? What type of pricing strategy is it, and what does it regulate? According to economic theory, what is the objective of congestion pricing policy? What does it encourage, and what does it shift demand to?

•Congestion pricing is a system of surcharging users of a transport network in periods of peak demand to reduce traffic congestion. - eg. some toll-like road pricing fees, & higher peak charges for utilities, public transport & slots in canals & airports. •Variable pricing strategy that regulates demand, making it possible to manage congestion w/o increasing supply. •Objective of this policy is to use pricing to make users more aware of the costs they impose upon one another when consuming during the peak demand, & that they should pay for the add.l congestion they create •Encourages the redistribution of the demand in space or time, and shifting demand to a substitute good (eg. public/active transport)

What are 3 main options for pricing and taxing driving?

•Congestion pricing: charge drivers based on •Gas tax: charge drivers based on fuel consumed •VMT tax: charge drivers based on distance traveled

How do consumers underestimate electric vehicle range? How do consumers overestimate electric vehicle cost? Why are the lifetime cost of EVs lower than GPVs? (example)

•Consumers tend to underestimate EV-range: rsrch shows that even lower-end EVs have enough range to meet about 90% of driving needs. •Consumers also tend to overestimate the cost of EVs: electric cars are often cheaper than gas-powered cars when acct.g for fuel, repairs, & other expenses. •Rsrchrs eval.td the lifetime cost of various cars & found that EVs are often cheaper than comparable gas-powered vehicles. - reason is that the lower fuel costs of EVs relative to gas-fueled cars compensate for the higher vehicle costs of EVs - eg. battery-powered Ford Focus will prove less expensive over the course of its life than gas-powered Ford Focus.

What are buffered bike lanes? What are the benefits of buffered bike lanes? - what 3 improvements do they provide? - who do they appeal to? - what 2 things do they encourage bicyclists to do?

•Conventional BLs paired w/a designated buffer space separating the BL from the adjacent motor vehicle travel lane and/or parking lane. *Benefits* •provides greater distance b/t motor vehicles&bicyclists. •provides space for bicyclists to pass another bicyclist w/o encroaching into adjacent motor vehicle travel lane. •provides a greater space for bicycling w/o making the BL appear so wide that it might be mistaken for a travel lane or a parking lane. •appeals to a wider cross-section of bicycle users. •encourages bicyclists to ride outside of the door zone when buffer is between parked cars and bike lane. •encourages bicycling by contributing to the perception of safety among users of the bicycle network.

* "I can trust it" * What is advantageous of dedicated transit lanes? Describe the 3 transit right-of-way classes

•Dedicated transit lanes - separate transit from car traffic - improves speed, reliability, & quality •Transit right-of-way classes: - *Class A*: exclusive & separated; other traffic operates in its track, no cross traffic intersects; only pssgr delay - *Class B*: exclusive but not separated; must interact w/cross traffic; signal & passenger delays - *Class C*: mixed traffic; share lane w/traffic; subject to all 3 types of routine delay

What is the definition of a bike lane? What do they enable bicyclists to do? How are they distinguished from cycle tracks? Where do conventional bikes lane run? How do they typically run with traffic?

•Defined as a portion of the roadway that has been designated by striping, signage, & pavement markings for the preferential or exclusive use of bicyclists. - enable bicyclists to ride at preferred speed w/o interference from prevailing traffic condtns & facilitate predictable behavior & mvmts b/t cyclists & motorists. - distinguished from a cycle track in that it has no physical barrier (bollards, medians, raised curbs, etc.) that restricts the encroachment of motorized traffic. •Conventional BLs run curbside when no parking is present, adjacent to parked cars on the RH side of the street or on the LH side of the street in spec. situations. - typically run in same direction of traffic, tho they may be configured in the contra-flow direction on low-traffic corridors nec. for the connectivity of a part.r bike route.

How dense is the Short North in terms of people and housing, and compared to Cbus at large? How much is public transit used in the Short North, (compared to overall region)? What about the Short North's street network and connectivity makes it particularly walkable? What about the "tissue" (building & street pattern) of Short North makes it particularly walkable? How do transit services make the Short North esp. walkable? What is the greenway situation in the Short North?

•Density: - people: 6,300/sqmi. (2,800 for Cbus overall) - housing: 8/acre (2/acre for Cbus overall) •Public transit: - sadly, a shadow of its past - but, ~25% of district's residents commute w/o car (compared to 9% of region overall) •Street network: - residential streets in the SN tend to be long & narrow - blocks along the central commercial spine are small and square - connectivity: the street network is highly connected, w/111 intersections •Tissue: - large buildings (commercial & multifamily structures) hug High St (center) - smaller structures, their narrow ends parallel to the street, line residential block •Services: - businesses are located along High St, where buses run @ 10- to 15-min headways throughout the day •Greenways: - public gardens, including Victorian-era Goodale Park - w/redevt in SN have come new green spaces in the form of residential greens & pocket parks

What is a bike box? What are the benefits of bike boxes? - what do they increase? - what do they for bicyclists? - what 2 things do they facilitate? what do these only apply to? - what do they help prevent? - who do they provide priority for? - how do they group bicyclists together, and what advantage does this provide? - how do pedestrians benefit?

•Designated area @the head of a traffic lane @a signalized intersxn that provides bicyclists w/a safe & visible way to get ahead of queuing traffic during the red signal phase. *Benefits of bike boxes* •increases visibility of bicyclists. •reduces signal delay for bicyclists. •facilitates bicyclist left turn positioning at intersections during red signal indication. - only applies to bike boxes that extend across the entire intersection. •facilitates the transition from a right-side bike lane to a left-side bike lane during red signal indication. - only applies to bike boxes that extend across the entire intersection. •helps prevent 'right-hook' conflicts w/turning vehicles at the start of the green indication. •provides priority for bicyclists at signalized bicycle boulevard crossings of major streets. •groups bicyclists together to clear an intersection quickly, minimizing impediment to transit or other traffic. •pedestrians benefit from reduced vehicle encroachment into the crosswalk.

What should designs for intersections with bike facilities reduce, and how? What can intersection treatments resolve and coordinate with? What elements may the configuration of a safe intersection for bicyclists include? What should intersection design take into consideration? In all cases, what does the degree of mixing or separation intend to reduce? What will the level of treatment required for bicyclists at an intersection depend on?

•Designs for intersxns w/bike facilities should reduce conflict b/t bicyclists (& other vulnerable road users) & vehicles by heightening the level of visibility, denoting a clear right-of-way, & facilitating eye contact &awareness w/competing modes. •Intersxn treatments can resolve both queuing & merging maneuvers for bicyclists, & are often coordinated w/timed or specialized signals. •The configuration of a safe intersxn for bicyclists may include elements such as color, signage, medians, signal detection, & pavement markings. •Intersxn design should take into consideration existing & anticipated bicyclist, pedestrian, & motorist mvmts. •In all cases, the degree of mixing or separation b/t bicyclists & other modes is intended to reduce the risk of crashes & increase bicyclist comfort. •Level of treatment required for bicyclists @an intersxn will depend on the bike facility type used, whether bike facilities are intersecting, the adjacent st. fxn & land use.

How is the path to CAV heaven paved? Specifically, - where should ownership be discouraged? - who should retain ownership & liability? - which concept should be emphasized in planning? - what should be narrowed, and what reduced? - what should be sold primarily, and via what?

•Discourage ownership in urban areas (but not rural areas) via fees and licensing •Maintain fleets: mfg retain ownership (& liability) •Emphasize accessibility over mobility in planning •Narrow the space for traffic: Current street design standards dictate 12ft wide lanes since humans cannot drive a straight line. - CAVs can (& should) get by with much narrower lanes •Reduce parking •Sell rides not cars via MaaS

What are VMT taxes? How popular are they? What does Vehicle Distance-Based Pricing mean? What are 3 diff.t strategies of VMT taxes?

•Drivers pay (by the mile) based on how much they travel, at a rate that reflects the actual cost of driving. •More than 25 states have looked into taxing VMT •Vehicle Distance-Based Pricing (aka Pay-As-You-Drive, Mileage-Based, & Per-Mile pricing) means that vehicle charges are based on how much a vehicle is driven, so the more you drive the more you pay and the less you drive the more you save. •Strategies: - flat fee (fixed # of cents/mile) - variable fee based on: > time of travel > congestion levels > type of road > type and weight of vehicle > vehicle emission levels > ability of owner to pay them - combo of flat and variable fees

What r-ship b/t price and demand does econ. theory posit? What is price elasticity of demand? How is it operationalized? What is price elasticity of supply? Which type is pricing and taxing transportation more concerned w/? Define inelastic, elastic, and fixed demand accg to elasticity coefficient values and price sensitivity

•Econ theory dictates that the higher the price of a good or service, the less of it is demanded. •*Price elasticity of demand* is a measure used in econ to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity demanded of a good or service to a change in its price. - % change in quantity demanded in response to a 1% change in price (holding constant all the other determinants of demand, such as income). •*Price elasticity of supply* is a measure used in econ to show the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the quantity supplied of a good or service to a change in its price. •In pricing/taxing transportation, more interest in the price elasticity of demand. •Can describe the elasticity of demand for a good as inelastic, elastic or fixed: - elasticity coefficient < 1: the supply of that good can be described as inelastic - demand insensitive to price. - elasticity coefficient > 1: the supply can be described as elastic - demand is sensitive to price - elasticity = 0 indicates that quantity supplied does not respond to a price change at all - the demand is fixed

What is a cycle track? What is it separated from? What common elements do they have? What are the benefits of cycle tracks? - what can they offer? who are they attractive too? - what do they dedicate & protect? - where does it keep motorists and bicyclists from? - what can it visually reduce? - what costs are minimized? - cost?

•Exclusive bike facility that combines the user exprience of a separated path w/the on-street infrastructure of a conventional bike lane. •Physically separated from motor traffic & distinct from the sidewalk. •Have different forms but all share common elements - they provide space that's intended to be exclusively or primarily used for bicycles, & are separated from motor vehicle travel lanes, parking lanes, & sidewalks. •In situations where on-street parking is allowed cycle tracks are located to the curbside of the parking (in contrast to bike lanes). *Benefits* •by separating cyclists from motor traffic, cycle tracks can offer a higher level of security than bike lanes & are attractive to a wider spectrum of the public. •dedicates & protects space for bicyclists in order to improve perceived comfort and safety. •.more attractive to a wider range of bicyclists at all levels and ages than less separated facilities. •keeps motorists from easily entering the cycle track. •encourages bicyclists to ride in the bikeway rather than on the sidewalk. •can visually reduce the width of the street when provided adjacent to a travel lane. •minimizes maintenance costs due to limited motor vehicle wear. •w/new roadway construction a raised CT can be less expensive to construct than a wide or buffered BL

All-electric vehicles: - what certain advantages in performance do EVs exhibit, and why? - what disadvantage of EVs is sometimes overlooked, and where may this prove to be a significant factor?

•Exhibit certain advantages in performance compared to conventional gas vehicles resulting from built-in high power battery packs - BPs drive electric motors w/inherently higher torque in lower vehicle speeds than ICE -> EVs can be much quicker & accelerate from rest faster than conventional vehicles w/o using any transmission or clutch systems •However, disadvantage of EVs that is sometimes over-looked is that the absence of an ICE minimizes the available heating capability of the vehicle's internal heating system - could prove to be a significant factor in colder climates that needs to be addressed.

How did biodiesel trends change between 2008 and 2013- , and why? What is the Renewable Fuel Standard program? - what does it require? - what did it originate with, and then get expanded by? - what does it require of each renewable fuel category in the program?

•Exports of biodiesel peaked in 2008 largely due to an unintended effect of a biodiesel tax credit in the EU - exports then dropped after the effect was eliminated. •Increased production & consumption from 2011 onward largely driven by the Renewable Fuel Standard •Quantity of biodiesel imported by the U.S. exceeded quantity exported in 2013 - + growth of net exports since 2013 is likely due to continued effort of reducing GHGs & expanding reg.ns. •Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) is a federal program that requires transprtn fuel sold in the US to contain a min. volume of renewable fuels. - originated w/the Energy Policy Act of 2005 & was expanded & extended by the Energy Independence & Security Act of 2007 (EISA) - requires renewable fuel to be blended into transprtn fuel in increasing amounts each year, escalating to 36 bil. gal.s by 2022. - each renewable fuel category in the RFS program must emit lower levels of GHGs relative to the petroleum fuel it replaces.

What are externalities? What are internal vs external vs social costs? What grey area can there be b/t internal and external costs, and what does considering b/t one or the other depend on?

•Externalities: changes of welfare which are caused by economic activities w/o being reflected in market prices - wrt the transport sector, relevant external costs are negative externalities which occur when transport consumers/producers impose higher costs on society than they bear themselves. •Internal (also called user or private) costs are borne by a good's consumer. •External costs are borne by others. •Social costs are the total costs to society, including both internal and external impacts. •Some costs, (eg. traffic congestion & crash damages), are largely imposed by motorists on other motorists, & so are external to individuals but internal w/in a group (or sector). - whether such costs should be considered internal or external depends on the type of prob being addressed.

What is an externality? What do prices not reflect when externalities exist in a competitive market? What positive externalities may transport networks include? What negative externalities may they include? What do negative externalities provide a basis/justification for? What do positive externalities provide a foundation for regarding transportation?

•Externality: cost or benefit, not transmitted thru prices, incurred by a party who didn't agree to the action causing the cost or benefit. •In the case of externalities, in a competitive market, prices don't reflect the full costs or benefits of producing or consuming a product or service. •In addition to providing benefits to their users, transport networks impose both pos & neg externalities on non-users - pos externalities of transport networks may include the ability to provide emergency services, increases in land value and agglomeration benefits. - neg externalities are wide-ranging and may include local air pollution, noise pollution, light pollution, safety hazards, community severance and congestion. - contribution of transport systems to potentially hazardous climate change is a significant neg externality which is difficult to evaluate quantitatively, making it difficult (but not impossible) to include in transport economics-based research and analysis. - congestion is considered a neg externality by econ.ts. •Negative externalities provide a basis or justification for intervening in a market by imposing additional prices/taxes to capture these costs •Positive externalities provide a foundation for why we should support transportation, and perhaps even treat it as a public good, using pricing and taxation revenues.

* "It is a good use of my money" * What is farebox recovery? Are fares worth collecting? What different contexts raise different issues regarding free fares?

•Farebox recovery - fraction of operating cost expenses which are met by fares paid by passengers - system's total fare revenue divided by its total operating expenses •Are fares worth collecting? - costly to collect fares - time consuming: source of bus delays - can prevent dual door boarding •Free fares? - Rural/small cities: ridership is low & doesn't even pay cost of collecting fares - Universities: student services, sustainability - Downtown circulation: dev't or congestion relief

US transit buses by fuel types from 2007 to 2015: - which most powered by? 2nd most? - which fuel type fastest growing? - what these increases largely due to? - where CNG/LNG mostly used?

•From 2007 to 2015, diesel buses represent the largest portion of total buses, w/NG buses a distant second. •Electric & hybrid buses are fastest growing fuel type, increased >8x from 2007-2015. •Increase in both NG buses & electric & hybrid buses is largely due to the favorable econ.s & clean air benefits in the transit bus app.s. •CNG &LNG are mostly in private fleets such as businesses and public transit agencies.

What about hydrogen makes it hard to store? - why is overcoming this challenge important for light-duty vehicles? - what is the ideal storage capacity of H in LDVs? what does this require currently? What are 3 potential solutions to the storage problem?

•H's energy content by volume is low; makes storing H a challenge bc it requires high pressures, low temps, or chemical processes to be stored compactly. - H performs poorly compared to other fuels in terms of energy per mass and energy density •Overcoming this challenge is important for light-duty vehicles bc they often have limited size & weight capacity for fuel storage. - storage capacity for H in LDVs should enable a driving range of >300 miles to meet consumer needs. - bc H has a lower volumetric energy density than that of gas, storing this much H on a vehicle currently requires a larger tank *Solutions to the storage problem* • Compressed gas storage, using adv.d pressure vessels • Cold or cryo-compressed hydrogen storage • Materials-based H storage techs., including sorbents, chemical hydrogen storage materials, & metal hydrides

What is hydrogen an ideal alt.fuel candidate? - abundancy? Where is it found chemically in the US? How is it produced? How should it be produced?

•Ideal candidate as an energy carrier for both mobile & stationary app.s while averting adverse effects on the envt & reducing dependence on imported oil for countries w/o natural resources. •By far most abundant element in the universe (90% on basis of # of atoms), & one of most abundent elements in the earth's crust •On Earth, ~exclusively found in chemical compounds (such as water), as opposed to free molecular hydrogen •Prod.n of industrial H is currently based mainly on fossil fuels, but to some extent electricity is also used. - if to be alt.fuel, shouldn't be produced from fossil fuels; wouldn't lead overall to decreased GHGs.

What would be the outcomes if developers were allowed to directly face the high land costs of providing so much parking? - in terms of # spaces, availability, price, and driving behavior? What is the low estimate of the cost of a parking space in the US if priced appropriately? - how much is parking subsidized by current policy for a commute of 20 days/mth?

•If developers were allowed to face directly the high land costs of providing so much parking: - # of spaces would be a result of a careful econ. calculation r/t a matter of satisfying a legal requirement. - parking would be scarcer, & more likely to have a price, (or one higher than now), & ppl would be more careful about when & where they drove. •Under a more sensible policy, a parking space could cost *@least* $100/mth in many US cities & suburbs - on low est.d end, if a commuter drives to work 20 days/mth, current parking policy offers a subsidy of $5/day, which is more than the gas and wear-&-tear costs of many round-trip commutes. •In essence, the parking subsidy outweighs many of the other costs of driving, including the gasoline tax

•What things do New Urbanism improve? •How are individual design features enhanced, and what do such enhancements lead to? - what such reductions are seen in what kinds of neighborhoods? - how could these reductions be made even greater? •What improvements of this sort were seen in Southern Village in Chapel Hill, NC? - in what types of travel were these seen in? - how did travel in this community compare to that of the conventional community?

•Improves accessibility, improves transportation choice, & reduces traffic speeds, which tend to reduce per capita automobile ownership and use •Altho most indiv.l design features have modest impacts on total travel, their effects are cumulative & synergistic, resulting in significant total reductions in vehicle use. - residents in well-designed NU neighborhoods w/good walkability, mixed land use, connected streets, & local services tend to drive 20-35% less than residents in car-dependent areas - even greater vehicle travel reductions may be possible if NU is coordinated w/other TDM strategies, such as transit improvements, carsharing, road pricing, parking mgmt, & commute trip reduction programs. •Controlling for demographic factors, residents of a neo-tradtl cmnty (Southern Village in Chapel Hill, NC) generate 22% fewer car trips & take 30% more walking trips than residents of conventional design communities. - these include reductions in both commute & non-commute automobile travel. - in this cmnty, 17% of trips are by walking compared w/ 7% in the conventional community, tho avg per capita time spent in travel is similar between the two groups.

With CAVs, how are small decisions amplified? What implications does this have? Why may the Trolley Problem not occur with CAVs?

•In a future where all cars are self-driving, small chgs to driving behavior would make a big diff in the aggregate. - decisions made by engineers today will determine not how 1 car drives but how all cars drive •This has enormous implications across the entire spectrum of driving: e.g., how should engineers trade-off desire for speed with energy consumption and emissions of GHGs and poor air quality? *Why the Trolley Problem may not occur:* • following simple rules (such as always go right) means less liability exposure • it's not clear what CAVs will know who the ppl are - e.g. young vs old. • but, OTOH, they could know - will they be required to make these decisions since they have the information? • banishing of humans from streets "solves" the problem

Describe the operation of Hybrid electric vehicles: - what does the electric motor/generator do, and why? - what does the ICE do, and why? - what does this combined mode of operation allow?

•In a typical electric mode operation, the electric motor/generator uses power from the battery pack & acts as a motor to drive the vehicle @startup & @low vehicle speeds & acceleration where it offers high torque - the ICE, which can provide low torque @low vehicle speeds, is only engaged when higher speeds, faster acceleration or more power for charging the batteries is required & is automatically started by the motor/ generator acting as a starter. - this combined mode of vehicle operation allows the ICE to be utilized only at high efficiencies & to be normally switched off @ traffic stops where it is anyway extremely inefficient.

What are the types of bicycle infrastructure?

•In-roadway markings - sharrows - bicycle boulevards •Bike lanes - conventional - buffered - contraflow •Cycle tracks - one-way - 2-way - raised •Intersections - bike boxes - 2-stage turn boxes •Bike paths - greenways - shared use trails

What could battery swapping mean for EVs? What types of batteries could this apply to in the future? What about EVs currently make them best suited for local driving? - what is needed in order to facilitate the penetration of EVs as a competitive alternative to conventional vehicles? - what would play a critical role in the adoption of EVs by area, and what would need to be taken into consideration?

•Instead of recharging the battery it could be mech.ly replaced @ special stations in just a few minutes •Could apply to batteries w/very high energy densities that require significant time to recharge - batteries w/the greatest energy densities, such as metal-air fuel cells, which cannot be recharged in a purely electric way, appear to be promising future candidates for battery swaps. •Clear that until a charging infrastructure (even one that consists of simple 240V electrical outlets in convenient places) is developed, EVs will remain best suited for local driving in short ranges around the home. - in order to facilitate the penetration of EVs as a competitive alternative to conventional vehicles, mass provision of charging pts & networks must precede consumer availability of electric vehicles. •Geographic location of the charging pts would play a critical role in the adoption of EVs in each area, esp. EVs, & would have to take into consideration the concentration of both residential and office areas.

What is community-based planning? How does it open up the planning process? What type of planning? What's a big potential disadvantage?

•Involving community stakeholders in pluralistic, adaptive, inclusive, proactive planning •Open the planning process to citizen involvement in all phases of the process - esp. criteria dev't & solution generation •Bottom-up planning by citizen org.s •Disadvantage: potential for NIMBYism

What are the limitations of the rational planning model? - in terms of time - assumed criteria - assumes what knowledge - how is citizen input usually limited?

•It's a slow process that requires a great deal of time, and cities are getting faster •Assumes rational, measurable criteria; however, many urban problems are "wicked problems" •Assumes accurate, stable & complete knowledge of all alternatives & their consequences •Citizen input is usually limited to evaluating the final alternatives being considered by planners

FLEXIBLE TRANSIT SERVICES How much of US ridership? Define it How are they limited? Where do flexible routes tend to be useful (2)?

•Less than 1 percent of ridership in the US •Flexible or demand-responsive services, where the routing followed by a transit bus or van can change based on customer requests •Can be useful, but limited because they are intrinsically less efficient. •Flexible routes tend to be useful where: - overall demand is low - specific populations whose needs aren't met by fixed services, such as people with different abilities

How Do Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles Work Using Hydrogen? - how do they operate like all-electric vehicles? - how do they contrast to other EVs? - how are FCEVs designed differently from all-electric vehicles in terms of their power?

•Like all-electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) use electricity to power an electric motor. •In contrast to other electric vehicles, FCEVs produce electricity using a fuel cell powered by hydrogen, rather than drawing electricity from a battery. •During the vehicle design process, the vehicle manufacturer defines the power of the vehicle by determining the size of the fuel cell, & the amount of nrg to be stored on board by the size of the fuel tank. - different from an all-electric vehicle, where the amount of power and energy available are both closely related to the battery's size

What does Mobility as a Service (MaaS) combine? - what does it aim to move away from? - what will it do for users? What are 4 major components of MaaS, in terms of: - private ownership - CAVs - friction - public and active transport

•MaaS combines mobility services from public transport, taxis, car rental & car/bicycle sharing under a single platform that's accessible from a smart phone - move away from dependence on privately owned cars or multiple transport apps - will plan your journey & also allow you to buy tickets from a range of service providers. *Mobility as a service* 1. Beyond ownership: shared for most activities 2. CAVs are part of a seamless multimodal transprtn system that can be configured on demand 3. Not frictionless - will cost time & money, & may mean being outside - but will be robust. 4. Public & active modes as the backbone; CAVs to fill niches (places, people and activities)

What types of costs make up the major portion of transportation costs at large? How much does each dollar spent on vehicle operating expense impose on society on average? What do external & fixed costs represent, and what does this cost profile lead to? What does failure to consider external, fixed, and non-market costs lead to? What's an example of such an outcome?

•Major portion of transportation costs are external, fixed and non-market. •On average, each dollar spent on vehicle operating expenses imposes about $2.55 in total costs to society. •External & fixed costs represent underpricing - this cost profile is inequitable and leads to economically excessive motor vehicle travel that exacerbates various econ, envtl & social probs •Failure to consider these costs can lead to decisions that result in negative net benefits. - eg. society is overall worse off if a roadway expansion saves motorists 5¢/mi in avg travel time costs but imposes 10¢/mi on avg in additional econ & envtl costs

What is the TDM philosophy? What must travel demand be managed by?

•Meeting unfettered demand for travel is impractical - "predict & provide" paradigm is obsolete •Travel demand must be managed by: - expanding the avail.y of more sustainable alternatives - controlling demand for use of unsustainable modes - providing incentives & rewards for more sustainable travel decisions - imposing full-cost pricing on automobile use

What are the benefits of urban street trees? (there are many)

•More approp. urban traffic speeds •Create safer walking envt.s •Less drainage infrastructure needed •Rain, sun, heat, & skin protection •Reduced harm from tailpipe emissions •Lower urban air temperatures •Convert streets, parking, & walls into more aesthetically pleasing environments •Soften & screen necessary street features •Reduced blood pressure, improved overall emotional & psychological health •Lower travel time perception •Longer pavement life due to shading

What are the New Urbanism design features for dwellings? How are work and commercial needs integrated? How about elementary schools and recreational amenities?

•Most dwellings are w/in a 5-min walk (a 2.5mi) from the center •A variety of dwelling types: - houses, towns or row houses, apartments - younger & older, singles & families, the poorer & the wealthier can find places to live •There are places to work w/in and adjacent to the nbrhd, inclg. shops, office buildings, & live-work units •There are shops sufficiently varied to meet common household needs, such as convenience stores, a post office, a bank machine, and a gym •There should be an elementary school close enough so that most children can walk from their dwelling •There are parks, trails, & playgrnds near every dwelling - this distance shouldn't be more than 1/8th a mile

Path to CAV heaven: maintain and support good transit systems - what mindset must be left behind? - use autonomous technologies where else? - use microtransit CAVs for what purpose?

•Move beyond mindset that public transit is for the poor •Use autonomous techn.s to improve bus networks •Use CAVs & microtransit to solve 1st mi/last mi access issues

Give a brief history of the Short North

•Named for being just "short" of the N edge of dwntown •Emerged after 1850 construction of nearby Union Stn. •By 1927: 1000s of jobs and 4 streetcar lines •1960s & 1970s: Exodus to the suburbs •1979: Union Station demolished •1993: Columbus Convention Center built •2000s: Revitalization, gentrification •2002: Arches rebuilt (originally from 1888 centennial of Northwest Territory)

What are the New Urbanism design features for roads, streets, thoroughfares, and parking?

•Networks of highly connected roads & paths provide multiple routes between destinations •Streets are designed for walking & cycling •Thoroughfares are relatively narrow & shaded by rows of trees that slow traffic & create an appropriate environment for pedestrians & bicyclists •Parking lots & garage doors rarely front the thoroughfares - parking is relegated to the rear of the buildings & usually accessed by alleys or lanes

Charging time of day: - how may PHEVs & EVs allow for more efficient use of existing electricity generation capacity through charging times? - what would increase, and what would consequentially be better balanced? what gap would be narrowed, and what would this allow? - what is the biggest potential problem with EV charging? how could this proposed charging schedule cause this? what condition would lead to this problem?

•PHEVs & EVs may allow for more efficient use of existing electricity generation capacity, which mostly sits idle during off-peak hours as an operating reserve - can be achieved by charging the vehicle's battery primarily during off-peak periods, i.e., during the night - in such a case, charging of PHEVs or EVs would increase electrical demand during the night but would allow the utilities to better balance their electricity prod.n loads, causing improved operating efficiencies. - also, increase of the off-peak demand would narrow the gap between peak & off-peak demand, thus allowing optimum use of generating units. •Most potential problem of EV charging is that of exceeding grid power capacity & grid infrastructure capability. - in theory, if all/a large proportion of private vehicles were to charge their batteries at the same time, i.e., @night, this would increase substantially the energy consumption & electricity demand. - in some cases, the increase of demand would be > available local transformer power supply causing transformer overload or the current carrying capability of the transmission or distribution grid infrastructure causing severe thermal loading of conductors.

All-electric vehicles: - what powers them? - what generates electricity? - how can battery-charging done? - what kind of electric motor? - what positive to they have, especially compared to what, but what is this critically dependent on?

•Powered *only* by an electric motor or a traction motor •Electricity typically generated by on-board re-chargeable battery packs & in some cases thru the use of capacitors or flywheels. •Battery-charging can be done in way similar to those of PHEVs: either in standard home electricity outlets or in external dedicated charging stations. •Could use either a DC or an AC electric motor. •Have potential to provide a sig. decrease of harmful GHG emissions of the transport sector compared to conventional ICE vehicles - level of emission reductions from EVs is potentially much higher than that of PHEVs - critically dependent on the efficiency & on the emissions intensity of the electricity generation system in the specific region where the vehicle will be recharging its battery pack. -

What income levels bike the most, and what for what reasons?

•Ppl w/incomes <$20,000 & ppl w/incomes >$100,000 are more likely to have ridden a bike in the past 12 mths than other income groups - but ppl on low end of income spectrum bike more freq.tly for both transportation & recreation than others.

What is the presence of such widespread parking an artifact of? How does legally mandated/zoning restrictions disrupt market prices and compare to building space? What does Donald Shoup show about the unsustainable economic value of parking spaces compared to their costs and uses?

•Presence of so many parking spaces is artifact of regulation & serves as a powerful subsidy to cars & car trips. •Legally mandated parking lowers the market price of parking spaces, often to zero. •Zoning & dev't restrictions often require a large # of parking spaces attached to a store or a smaller # of spaces attached to a house or apartment block •Shoup est.s that many American parking spaces have a higher econ. value than the cars sitting in them. - eg., after including construction & land costs, he measures the value of a LA parking space @ >$31k, much more than the worth of many cars, especially when considering their rapid depreciation

Alternative fueling stations by fuel type from 1992 to 2018: - most numerous (1992-2011), then 2011- - EVSE growth 2011-, 2016, then 2017 & 2018 - expected trends of EVSEs moving fwd - number of E85 stations since 2004, and why? - number of CNG stations 1996-2006, despite what, and why?

•Propane stations were most numerous until 2011, when they were surpassed by EV supply equipment (EVSE), or charging units. •Growth in EVSE units accelerated starting in 2011, following the 2010 increase of plug-in EVs offered by major automakers. - 2016 experienced the largest growth for EVSE in order to support the growing EV pop'n, followed closely by 2017 & 2018. •Number of EVSE is expected to increase as the population of electric vehicles continues to grow. •Number of E85 stations has been increasing steadily since 2004, as the # of flex-fuel vehicles available from major manufacturers has increased. •Number of CNG stations decreased b/t 1996 & 2006 (despite the increase in CNG sales during this time) largely because the average station size was increasing.

What is an Electric vehicle network? Who have already entered into many agreements to create these? What do the charging networks in place today offer, based on what? - what contrast is offered to this in limited locations?

•Proposed infrastructure system of publicly-accessible charging stations & possible battery swap/switch stations to charge EVs. - govt, car manufacturers, electricity utility co.s, & charging infrastructure providers have entered into many agreements to create such networks. •The charging networks that are already in place today offer conventional AC charging outlets, based on the prevailing national vehicle charging specifications, standards, & protocols. - contrast to conventional AC charging, option of fast charging, (can be either AC or DC depending on the specific country or region), is offered in a few countries

In what situations are raised cycle tracks most beneficial? - along what kinds of streets? - on what kinds of streets?

•Raised cycle tracks can be considered wherever a bicycle lane would be the standard recommendation. •They are most beneficial in situations where: - along higher speed streets w/few driveways and cross streets. - along streets on which bike lanes would cause many bicyclists to feel stress bc of factors such as multiple lanes, high traffic volumes, high speed traffic, high demand for double parking, and high parking turnover. - along streets with high bicycle volumes - on streets for which conflicts at intersxns can be effectively mitigated using parking lane setbacks, bike markings thru the intersxn, & other signalized intersxn treatments. - on streets with numerous curves where vehicle encroachment into bike lanes may be a concern.

Path to CAV heaven: - how should parking be reallocated? - what types of vehicles should be prioritized, and how?

•Reallocate parking for better uses - demand for parking will decrease - reallocate for housing, shops, offices, & parks •Prioritize lighter, smaller, lower-energy, & less-polluting vehicles - tax ownership of less fuel efficient vehicles - increase fuel taxes - implement VMT taxes & combine w/VHT taxes for congested urban areas

Household charging: - advantage and disadvantages of it? - parameters in typical US & Japanese household, and what this means for charging times? - parameters in typical European household, and what this means for charging times?

•Recharging the battery from a regular household charging system has the advantage of convenience, however the disadvantage is increased charging time & the possible absence of electrical outlets at convenient locations for charging such as the garage. •Typical US & Japanese household has a 120V outlet w/a 15 Amps circuit breaker. - for a typical FEV, a 12 to 15 kWh full battery recharge would take 10 to 12 hours. •Typical EU household outlet is 220/240V @ 30 A supply - would allow sig.ly faster charging than the 110 V;could fully recharge a 12-15 kW h battery pack in 4-5 hrs.

What are Sharrows or Shared Lane Markings (SLMs)? What are their benefits? What are they not -- what shouldn't they be substituted for?

•Road markings used to indicate a shared lane envt for bicycles & automobiles. - the shared lane marking is a pavement marking w/a variety of uses to support a complete bikeway network; •Among other benefits shared lane markings reinforce the legitimacy of bicycle traffic on the street, recommend proper bicyclist positioning, & may be configured to offer directional & wayfinding guidance. •Not a facility type & shouldn't be considered a subst. for bike lanes, cycle tracks, or other separ.tn treatmnts where these types of facilities are otherwise warranted or space permits.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: - how are they similar to HEVs? - how do they differ from HEVs? - what 2 things power their battery packs? - how *can* they perform compared to ICE vehicles and HEVs in terms of emissions and pollutants?

•Similar to HEVs in that they have both an ICE & a battery pack as a means to provide driving power. •Don't utilize the ICE to charge the battery to the same extent as in HEVs - instead, they have a battery pack that can be fully charged by the electricity grid by plugging the vehicle into a standard electrical outlet of 120/240 V AC. - also, regenerative braking can also provide an on board battery charging alternative. •Several studies have found that when charged from the electricity grid, PHEVs may emit less CO2 & other pollutants over their entire fuel cycle than conventional ICE vehicles & HEVs.

Describe the following New Urbanism design features: - what does the community have? - what kinds of spaces? - building layouts?

•The community has a center - a transit stop should be located at this center •Quality public spaces, including sidewalks & paths, parks, streetscapes, & public buildings •Buildings are close to the sidewalk & to each other, creating an urban sense of spatial definition

Properties to consider for alternative energy for transportation: - density - transportation - storage, handling, and distribution - engine performance/envtl impact - equipment reliability - investment cost

•The fuel s'have high volumetric & mass energy density. •Ease of transprtn from production site to delivery pts. •Long-storage life of fuel, min. handling, & dist.n probs. •Engine performance expected to improve sig.ly w/r/t regulated & unregulated emissions while using alt. fuel •Equipment reliability: alt.fuel must guarantee lifetime of the equipment; reliability & operational capability not modified. •Investment cost: add.l investment on an existing engine must be small to ensure operation is competitive w/oil.

FIXED TRANSIT SERVICES: What does public transit need to be to be useful to individual riders? What does this^ explain about transit? What characterizes fixed TS, and what power does this give riders? What is the advantage of fixed services, and in terms of what? How much transit ridership in the US is fixed?

•To be useful to ppl who aren't coordinating with one another, public transit has to be predictable. - why transit is dominated by fixed services •Same path, at the same time, day after day, so that customers can plan around the pattern •Fixed services are most efficient form of transit in terms of ability to carry many pssgrs for ea. hour of the driver's time •Describes >99% of transit ridership in the United States

What is New Urbanism? What is it influenced by? What kinds of principles does it encompass?

•Urban design mvmt that promotes walkable nbrhds that contain a range of housing & job types •Influenced by urban design standards that were prominent until the rise of the car in the mid-20thC •Encompasses principles such as traditional neighborhood design (TND) and transit-oriented development (TOD).

Vehicle to grid electricity: - what does it refer to? what can V2G enabled vehicles do? - what could EVs enabled with this tech achieve? where could this take place? - what would this be beneficial to? what combination could be used to create a mutually beneficially system? - what would this benefit mean for utility providers? how would EV owners stand to gain financially? - how could EVs be used to benefit the power grid?

•V2G electricity refers to the technology of bidirectional flow of electricity b/t the EV and the grid. - V2G enabled vehicles can therefore transfer electricity both to & from the power grid as necessary. •W/this tech, EVs could use their excess battery capacity to export power back to the grid, thus potentially assist & supplement electricity supply during peak hours. - could take place either in the G2V charging stations themselves or in private home outlets •Beneficial to the electric utility: would allow for lower electricity generation costs since the more expensive peaking units would be committed to a lesser extent. - if export of electrical power combined w/off-peak import charging it would potentially even out the demand for electricity; financially beneficial to both the electric utilities and the EV owners. •For the utilities a smoother demand curve would translate to more economic unit commitment & economic dispatch. - EV owner would stand to gain from the difference of buying electricity (charging) at the low off-peak rates, while selling it to the grid at higher peak demand rates. •EVs could be used to stabilize the grid from any intermittent energy sources w/generation profiles that do not match demand profiles, such as wind power

Vegetable oil fuels - sources: - 2 broad classifications - main uses of each classification - 2 uses of oil cakes

•VOs have two broad classifications: 1. edible oils (sunflower, soy bean, palm oil, etc.) 2. nonedible oils (jatropha, karanji, rubber seed oil,etc.). - edible type oils are mainly used for food purposes - nonedible VOs serve as important raw material for manufacture of soaps, paints, varnishes, hair oil, lubricants, textile auxiliaries, & various products. •After extraction of oil from oil seeds, oil cakes can be used as cattle feed and fertilizer. - moreover, these oil cakes can be used as biomass feed stock for gasification process.

How might AVs impose further hassles on pedestrians? Who might this disproportionately affect? What other negative effect could stricter jaywalking laws have?

•W/AVs, anti-pedestrian laws could become even more draconian, and a new excuse to hassle citizens. - jaywalking laws can be applied inequitably to target minority groups and the homeless, disproportionately affecting the poor. - stricter jaywalking laws could also shift the way ppl view walking & turn potential pedestrians into drivers—causing more congestion in the process. •The separation of pedestrians from streets to "improve" traffic—which really means privileging cars over people in downtown areas—could become a reality if we allow city planners to be seduced by carmakers.

Does congestion pricing work? What is the main concern regarding congestion pricing? - what does use of tolled roads depend on, and what inequity may this cause? - who can be left worse off, and how? How is road space rationing generally regarded relative to congestion pricing? - however, what loophole and inequity can this still cause?

•Yes, but it's controversial - inequities due to regressive pricing - difficulties in getting the price right - how to spend revenues? horizontal equity says on roads/hwys, vertical says on public/active transport •Main concern is the possibility of undesirable distrbt.n of repercussions due to the diversity of road users - use of tolled road depends on user's level of income; when some can't afford to pay, then this policy is likely to privilege the middle-class & rich. - users who shift to some less-preferred alternative are also worse off; less wealthy are the more likely to switch to public transit. •Road space rationing is another strategy generally viewed as more equitable than congestion pricing. - however, high-income users can always avoid the travel restrictions by owning a 2nd car & users w/relatively inelastic demand (such as a worker who needs to transport tools to a job site) are relatively more impacted

What were the findings of an online survey of 16,193 US adults aged 18+ and 8,858 adults with children aged 3+ in household? - How many bike each year? At least twice a week? - What share older than 3yo biked at least once in a year? older than 18yo? - How frequently did those who do bike, bike? - Of those who did bike, how many only did for recreation? - How many Americans had made at least one bike trip for tranportation?

•~100 million Americans bike each year, but only ~14 mil bike at least twice a week •~34% of Americans >3yo rode bike @least 1ce in last yr. - for adults >18yo, share was a slightly smaller 29%. - but of everyone who bikes, less than half ride more than twice a month, & just 14% bike at least twice a week. •Slightly more than half the people who bike made only recreational trips. •~15% of Americans —or 45 million people— made at least one bicycle trip for transportation in the last year.