EXAM 3: CH 15,16,18,22,24
Precentral Gyrus
Primary motor area - region of brain that sends nerve impulses down spinal cord toward muscle (when you want to control specific muscle and make a movement)
Postcentral Gyrus
Primary somatosensory area - Posterior to the central sulcus - place where we conciously feel sensation - sensations of skin, muscle, and joints (In red)
f'n pacemaker cells
SA node f'n: set pace at which our heart will contract - depolarize spontaneously means that the pacing activity will dictate the rhythm our hear will contract
the brachial vein drains blood into the _______ vein which drains blood into the ______ vein
axillary;subclavian
loc'n grandular/receptive layer
axon of purkinje cell + tightly packed small neurons
During ventricular diastole what happens to the semilunar and AV valves
The semilunar valves close and the AV valves open
Cranial Nerve Nuclei in Pons
Trigeminal (V) Abducens (VI) Facial (VII) Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
- lumbar region - drains blood from lumbar veins - goes up and passes through aortic hiatus - drains blood from most of the vessels of the thoracic cavity
azygous vein
what runs parrallel to the inferior vena cava?
azygous vein
Tracts are paired how along the spinal cord?
bilaterally and symmetrically - sensory tract arriving at both sides of vertebrae and motor tracts
after the auxillary artery crosses the axial and enters the arm, what does it become?
brachial artery
examples of muscular arteries
brachial artery in arm and radial artery in forearm, femoral artery
at level of the elbow, the radial and ulnar veins become what?
brachial veins
where does all deoxy. blood from head and arms end up?
brachiocephalic trunk
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
loc'n second order neuron
brain stem
why does the arachnoid mater have spider like apperance ?
due to arachnoid trabecula - made of collagen fibers
f'n left/right subclavian artery
branched off of the brachiocephalic f'n: goes under clavicle and supplies blood to right/left upper limb
loc'n tastebuds
dorsal surface of tongue
why is the azygous vein considered an important collateral circulation for the superior and inferior vena cava?
drains blood from thorax and lumbar region
f'n external jugular vein
drains deoxy. blood from exterior of skull and face
f'n lacrimal punctum
drains tears from the eye and into inferior lacrimal canioulus
why does blood start passing passively during ventricular diastole?
due to the change in pressure difference, then cycle starts again
why is the tip of our nose kind of bendable?
due to the hyaline cartilage in the nasal vestibule
mater meaning tough
dura
sinusoid
gaps in capillaries - blood vessels can enter and leave the blood stream through these gaps
refers to temperature, pain, touch, pressure, and proprioception
general senses
f'n auto messaging* pace maker cells
generation of pacemaking stimuli
Auscultation of heart does what?
give a quick assesment of heart valves
f'n of the internal and external elastic membranes
give more elasticity to the arteries and sustain pressure of the blood flowing through it
loc'n vocal chords
glottis (opening in larynx)
what structure is inbetween the intima and media layer (arteries)
internal elastic membrane
why do they lungs recoil back to a resting shape when stretched?
internal elasticity of lungs
veins of brain empty themselves into sinuses which deliver blood to ______
internal juglar vein in the neck
when the diagphram and intercostal muscles contract, what happens to chest volume?
it gets smaller - if the chest is smaller, the pressure inside the chest increases - air is forced out of our lungs
center of emotion in the brain
limbic system - causes hypothalamus to speed up heart rate and blood pressure
palpebral conjunctiva
lines the innser side of the eyelid
f'n projection fibers
link cerebraum w/ other regions of the spinal cord + brain (group of axons)
what can pass through the lipid bilayer/tight junctions formed by the capillar endothelial cells?
lipid soluble compounds
Auscultation
listening to internal sounds within the body
only digestive organ draining into inferior vena cava?
liver
cricothyroid ligament
loc'n of tracheostomy - between cricoid and thryroid cartilage
pericardial cavity
loc'n: between parietal and visceral layers - filled with fluid that makes up P&V layers
thermoreceptors
loc'n: dermis (superficial, papillary layer) - exisits as free nerve ending - detect temp - phasic receptor
f'n pulmonary / semilunar valve
loc'n: entrance of pulmonary trunk f'n: prevent backflow of blood from pulmonary trunk back into heart
loc'n of the highest concentration of macula cells
macula
areas located more ______ on the body have their sensory areas located more _____ on the brain
medially;laterally
when arteries and veins run parallel to each other, we have medium sized veins running with ______ _______ and larger veins running with ______ _________
medium veins + MUSCULAR ARTERIES large veins ELASTIC ARTERIES
loc'n pharyngeal opening of auditory tube
nasal pharynx - auditory tube f'n: equalize pressure on both side of tympanic membrane
1st order neuron
neuron that arrives to PNS and gets info from dorsal root ganglion, takes info to CNS via brianstem, synapses with 2nd order neuron
eyelashes
protect foregin objects from hitting eye - contain root hair plexus: unencapsulated tactile receptor, helps w/ blinking
f'n accessory structures of the eye
protection of eye
what is the function of CSF?
protects our brain by creating a liquid cushion - protects brain when we move head around
f'n orbital fat
provide cushion for eyeball
f'n of baroreceptors in carodtid and aortic sinus
provide info on blood pressure to cardiovascular and respiratory control centers
f'n of baroreceptors in colon
provide info on volume of fecal matter in colon, trigger defecation reflex
f'n of baroreceptors in digestive tract
provide info on volume of tract secretions, trigger reflex movement of matter along tract
f'n of baroreceptors in bladder wall
provide info on volume of urinary bladder, triggers urinary reflex
f'n of baroreceptors in lungs
provide info stretching to respiratory, rhythimicity, centers for control of respiratory rate
f'n pericardial fluid
provide lubrication to prevent friction in pericardial layers as they glide over each other everytime heart beats
what is the anatomical name for the ciliated mucous membrane?
pseudostratified stratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells
what lines the inside lining of nasal cavity all the way to bronchioles?
pseudostratified stratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells - anatomical name of ciliated mucous membrane
when the ventricles contract, where do they push blood into?
pulmonary and sysemic circuits
what two circuits are the cardiovascular system divided into?
pulmonary and systemic
which has more oxygen, blood in the pulmonary veins or in the pulmonary arteries?
pulmonary veins why: pul. arteries take blood away from heart to the lungs so the blood gets oxygenated
skeletal muscle pump
pumping effect of contracting skeletal muscles on blood flow through underlying vessels
contractile wave
pushing order because of the order in which cells are contracting (think gap junction of cardiac cells)
examples of medium-sized veins
radial, tibial, and popliteal vein
f'n levator palpebrae superioris
raises upper eyelid
pons
relay station betwen cerebrum and cerebellum - related to cerebellum (by middle peduncle of cerebellum) - F'N: plays a role in cerebellum by coordination of skeletal muscle activity - has centers for respiratory reflex regulation
which blood has more waste in it, blood in the reina arteries or renal veins?
renal arteries why: renal arteries take oxygenated blood to kidneys and kidneys filter our blood, meaning that when blood leaves kidneys inside renal veins, it has less waste
purkinje cells
responsible for motor movement
f'n goblet cells
responsible for secreting mucous - particles and pathogens get stuck to this muscous
where do the right and left gonadal veins drain into?
right: inferior vena cava left: left renal vein (then inferior vena cava)
what allows us to see black and white
rod
cardiac output
amount of blood pumped out per minute
loc'n intermediate/Purkinje layer
Purkinje cell bodies
f'n of nasal conchae
(superior, middle, inferior) works as speec bumps creating turbulence in inhaled air - turbulence makes air move around - dust particles and pathogens get stuck in mucus - air gets warmed, cleaned, and humidified before it gets to lungs - helps us smell better (odorant molecules getting trapped in nucleus)
f'n chordae tendineae
- "heart strings" - anchor AV valve cusps to papillary muscle
when discussing visual pathways, 50% of nerves go _____ and 50% of nerves go _____
- 50% of nerves cross to one side of the optic chiasm - other 50% goes straight and does not cross over
vision
- a sensation detected by receptors for vision - loc'n: posterior part of eye - photoreceptors - sensitive to photons, able to detect different wavelengths of light, allowing us to see diff. colors
tonic receptors
- always active - adapt very slowly or not at all - respond to EVERY single stimulus with the same magnitude - w/ continued exposure, sensitivity to the stimulus reamins constant X: photoreceptors of the eye, nociceptors (pain receptors), do NOT adapt
arterial anastomosis
- area (apex) received blood from two arteries - interconnected network of capillaries - arteries that interconnect
brachiocephalic
- arm and head trunk - called this because if bifuractes - splits into right subclavian artery and right common carotid
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
- function: (sensory) equilibrium balance and hearing - origin: inner ear (receptors of vestibule and cochlea - foramen: internal acoustic matus - destination: pons - made up of vestibular and cochlear nerve - vestibular nerve: axons travel to vestibular nuclei of medulla oblongata - cochlear nerve: axons synapose in the cochlear nuclei of the medulla oblongata
tears
- basic/alkaline secretion that contains lysosome and antibodies capable of breaking down bacterial cell wall, preventing bacterial infection
f'n conjunctiva (2)
- stratified squamous epithelium f'n: 1. lines sclera (white part of eye) 2. forms sheath that prevents debris from getting behind the eyeball
f'n intrinsic laryngeal muscles (2)
- tense or relax vocal folds 1. regulate tension in vocal cord - allows us to produce deep or high pitched sounds 2. control opening and closing of glottis
diencephalon
- top part of lollipopstick - 3 parts: epithalamus, thalamus, pineal gland
free nerve endings
- basically dendrites - loc'n: papillary layers of the dermis, can be found in epidermis - found throughout the skin - receptros can detect light contact/light pressure - have thermal and pain (nociceptor) receptors
functional anatomy divisions of respiratory system (2)
conducting and respiratory zone
basal cells
- basically stem cells that replace olfactory receptor cells and supporting cells every 2 months why: bc they get damaged - replacement activity declines w/ age - this is why when we get old we can't smell as well
Trigeminal (V)
- both (sensory and motor) - divides into 3 branches: opthalmic (sensory) , maxillary (sensory) and mandibular (lower branch, both, muscles of mastication) - associated w/ sensation from entire face (upper teeth=maxillary, lower teeth=mandibular) - voluntary controls (chewing Recieves somatic sensation from face and head and provide motor impulses
Injuriy to Medulla Oblongata
-Dens of axis - impinge -Medullary respiratiory center -Paralysis on opposite side -Loss of sensation on opposite side -Irregular heart beat -Irregular respiration
Diencephalon
- broken down into thalamus + hypothalamus + epithalamus - thalamus: relay + processing center for sensory info - hypothalamus: emotion, automatic (f'n = hormone production) - epithalamus: secrete melatonin (pineal gland) -Left and right are connected via the interthalamic adhesion Relay station (except smell)
corpus callosum
- bundle of axons that cross between two hemispheres - make connection between right and left sides of cerebrum f'n: allow for communication
pulmonary arteries carry what type of blood?
deoxygenated blood
intrinsic muscles of eye are responsible for what? (3)
- change diameter of pupil - adjust amount of light entering eye - changes shape of lens to give focus to images on retina
emphysema
- chronic progressive degeneration of lungs (doesn't go away or get better) - alveolar sacs degenerate - affects air and blood flow - dramatic impact of the oxygen's ability to get to alveolar sacs and impact on blood's ability to flow through capillaries to receive oxygen - most people with emphysema also have bronchitis
nociceptor
- consist of free nerve ending and large receptive fields - tonic receptors = do not adapt - extreme temp, mechanial damage, chemical damage can active this receptor - v. large receptive fields
blood pulse
- continues through arteries until it reaches arterioles but disappears by the time it gets to capillaries
what type of blood does the superior vena cava bring into the heart?
deoxygenated blood
Cerebrum
- Conscious thought processes/intellectual functions, memory storage/conscious regulation of skeletal muscle contractions - Paired cerebral hemispheres separated by the lonitudinal fissure - Largest portion - Contains sulci (grooves) - Contains of gyri (ridges) - Latera ventricles
mechanoreceptors
- defined by nature of stimulus - sensitive to distortion of cell membranes 1. pressure and vibration 2. sensative to stretch, compression, twisting or distortion of the cell membrane 3. three different types of mechanoreceptors - tactile receptors (most common, unencapsulated/encapsulated)
Pons
- Info to cerebellum and the thalamus - Regulates somatic and visceral motor centers - Bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another - White matter tracts of - Pontine nucleus connects cerebrum with opposite side of cerebellum - Coordinate voluntary motor output throughout the body
barorecptors
- detect changes in pressure - loc'n: digestive tract, urinary bladder, lungs, carotid and aortic sinus - in lungs: provide info stretching to respiratory, rhythimicity, centers for control of respiratory rate - carodtid and aortic sinus: provide info on blood pressure to cardiovascular and respiratory control centers - digestive tract: provide info on volume of tract secretions, trigger reflex movement of matter along tract - colon: provide info on volume of fecal matter in colon, trigger defecation reflex - bladder wall: provide info on volume of urinary bladder, triggers urinary reflex
low peak of the pulse
- disatolic - pressure that remains during diastole
Common AV Bundle (Bundle of His)
- electrical impulse that was at AV node keeps going down and reaches common AV bundle - bifurcates into left and right bundle branches
lamellar corpuscle
- encapsulated - pacini corpuscle - large receptors, deep in dermis - onion like capsule surrounding it - sensitive to deep pressure as well as high frequency vibrations
Bulbus corpuscles
- encapsulated - loc'n: deep in dermis - respond to deep and continous pressure - shape allows them to detect stretch
tactile corpuscle
- encapsulated - loc'n: papillary layer of the dermis - found in higher concentration (fingertips, lips, nipples, genitals) - involved in fine sensation in sensitive parts of the body - touch - good at discriminating touch through out the body - helps to sense if something is smooth or rough - capable of responding to low frequency vibrations that occur when objects are moved across our skin (places w/ no hair)
pineal gland
- endocrine gland f'n: produce melatonin
why is the hyaline cartilage c shaped instead of a full ring?
- esophagus is right behind trachea - through esophagus we have food we swallow passing through - if ring was full: swallowed food would go down esophagus, bumping into every single ring = very unpleasant sensation
what happens at the level of capillaries
- exchange between surrounding tissues - exchange of waste and nutrients (only blood vessel thin enough)
Optic (III)
- f'n: VISION (sensory) - origin: retina - foramen: optic canal - destination: diencephalon then to occipital lobe - only pair that comes together in middle, crosses, then splits again - optic chaism: where nerves cross, allows us to eye sensory info from each eye at the same time - pass through optic canal of sphenoid bone & anterior margin of diencephalon
left coronary artery
- f'n: supply blood to left atrium and ventricle - two branches - anterior introventricular artery: branch goes down between ventricles in anterior aspect of heart - circumflex artery: keeps going around in a circle towards the left side
phasic receptors
- fast adapting - receptors become less sensitive to a particular stimulus over time, we begin to ignore that stimulus - send signals at beginning/end of stimulus touch and pressure receptors - forgetting you placed glasses on the top of your head and searching for them olfactory receptors of the nose - wearing perfume, we smell it initially but after a while we are unaware we still have it on
Purkinje fibers
- fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract - subdivisions of Bundle of His
what is the f'n of valves in medium sized veins?
- folds of tunica intima that prevent blood back flow - guarantee one way flow of blood - blood keeps moving towards heart and not get backed up in legs
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
- function: (both), sensory = taste information of posterior third of tongue, barorecptors (blood pressure), chemoreceptors (dissolved gas concentrations) + motor: swallowing (pharyngeal & parotid gland) - origin: sensory = posterior 1/3 of tongue + motor = salivary gland - foramen: jugular - destination: sensory: medulla oblongata + visceral motor: parotid salivary gland + somatic motor = pharyngeal muscles for swallowing
Oculomotor (III)
- function: (motor) control extra ocular eye muscles (superior, inferior, and medial rectus, inferior oblique, intrinstic eye muscls), helps move upper eyelid - controls all extrinsic except the superior oblique and lateral rectus muscle - origin: mesencephalon - foramen: superior orbital fissure - destination: extra-ocular eye muscle Motor impulse to control eye ball movement, pupil constriction, shape of lens
Abducens (VI)
- function: (motor) control eye movement, move eye laterally towards outside (intervates: lateral rectus) - origin: pons -foramn: superior orbital fissure -destination: intervates the later rectus eye movement Motor impulses that control eye ball movement
Hypoglossal (XII)
- function: (motor) control tongue movement - origin: medulla oblongata - foramen: hypoglossal canal - destination: tongue muscles leaves cranium and passes through HPC of occipital bone
Trochlear (IV)
- function: (motor) controls superior oblique eye movement - origin: mesencephalon - foramen: superior orbital fissure - destination: superior oblique muscle Motor impulse to control eye ball movement
Facial (VII)
- function: both, sensory = taste from 2/3 tongue + motor = controls muscles of face, lacrimal gland, submandibular and sublingual glands - origin: sensory = taste buds + motor: pons -foramen: internal acoustic meatus - destination: sensory: pons + motor: muscles of the face - related to muscles of facial expression Sensory information for taste and provide motor impulses to reguate saliva, tears, facial expressions
Olfactory (I)
- function: smelll (sensory) - origin: olfactory epithelium - foramen: olfactory foramina within cribiform plate - destination: olfactory bubls (roof of nose holds olfactory recptors) - olfactory bulbs are on both sides of the cristae galli - cristae galli loc'n where bundles of nerves pass through - only nerve we have exposed to exterior - shortest nerve
Vagus (X)
- goes to diff. regions of body - sensory + motor function of internal organs - intervates: respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive organs, throacic + abdominal cavities - LONGEST OUT OF 12 CRANIAL NERVES Sensory and motor to pharynx, larynx, many thoracic and abdominal viscera
choroid plexus
- highly vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles that secretes CSF
the autonomic nervous system can control which types of things concerning blood vessels?
- how big or dilated our blood vessels get - how constricted our blood vessels get
olfactory senses
- individual sensory neurons have diff. sensitivities - each olfactory sensory neuron expresses its own type of receptor which is sensitive to a selective amount of chemical molecules
meningitis
- inflammation of the meninges - may have problem with reabsorption (lack of communication) leading to a rise in intracranial pressure
what happens when diaphragm muscle contracts?
- it becomes shorter and becomes a straight line - chest gets bigger from top to bottom
fossa ovalis
- loc'n interatrial septum (right atrium) - scar = due to closing of opening between right and left atria during development
great cardiac vein
- loc'n: anterior aspect of heart, between right and left ventricles - goes up and surrounds heart at coronary sulcus - great cardiac vein runs parallel to the anterior interventricular artery and cirumflex artery
middle cardiac vein
- loc'n: posterior aspect of heat - runs parallel to posterior interventricular branch of right coronary artery
pulmonary trunk bifurcation means ...
- means it divides into two: right and left pulmonary arteries
loc'n of heart
- mediastinum (medium of sternum) between second and fifth pair of ribs - base of heart loc'n: level of second pair of ribs - apex of heart: level of fifth pair of ribs
tactile receptors
- most common - two structural classes 1. unencapsulated X: free nerve endings (not wrapped in only connective tissue or glial cells), tactile discs, root hair plexus 2. encapsulated tactile recptors X: tactile/messiner's corpuscle, bulbous/ruffini corpuscle. lamellar pacinian corpuscle
Accessory (XI)
- only nerve that has CRANIAL and SPINAL ROOOT (when two roots converge = accessory muscle) - function: (motor) control sternocleidmastoid, trapezius, palate, pharynx, and larynx muscles - origin: spinal cord and medulla oblongata - foramen: jugular - destination: internal branch = muslces of palate, pharynx, and larynx + external branch: sternocleidomastoid + trapezius muscles think of purse or backpack bc it intervates nerves of superior back
optic disc
- part of the retina where blood vessels and nerves are entering and exiting the eye - the blindspot of the eyes because it lacks photoreceptors - usually do not notice because one eye compensates for the other
how cilia work (particles in air coming into body)
- particles in air that we inhale trapped in mucus - cilia inside mucus move in a specific direction - move particles stuck in mucus towards our throat - we swallow it - all particles in air go to stomach and get destroyed by acid in stomach mucus = respiratory defense system
cavities
- posterior & anterior chambers posterior: where aqueous humor is released into, eventually flowing into anterior chamber
respiratory pump
- replies on changes in pressure inside thorax Steps: 1. during inhalation, thoracic wall expands 2. increase volume of thorax 3. decrease in pressure in throax area 4. blood flows from high to low pressure point aka inside thorax
what does the cardiac cycle consist of?
- right and left atria contracting at same time - relaxation of both - ventricles contracting at the same time
right coronary artery
- right coronary artery ends up @ posterior aspect of heart - then goes down betwen right and left ventricles - then called posterior interventricular artery - f'n: supplies blood to right atrium and right ventricle AND conduction system of the heart - conduction system: specialized heart muscle cells (special deep branch for conduction system) - loc'd deep right side, meaning they get their blood supply from R.C.A
precapillary sphincters
- rings of smooth muscle f'n: regulate blood flow into true capillaries
f'n coronary vessels/arteries?
- running on coronary sulcus - f'n: supply the heart muscle with its blood supply
heart
- size of clenched fist - if you make heart work harder is become enlarged
What causes vasoconstriction?
- smooth muscle in tunica media contracts - leading to a decrease in the size of th vessel lumen
what causes vasodilation?
- smooth muscle relaxing - leads to wider vessel lumen - decrease in resistence - increase in blood flow
tactile discs
- unencapsulated - merkel's disc - associated with merkel cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis - merkel cells: specialized epithelial cells that release neurotransmittrs containing vessicles that can activate nerve fibers that send action potentials to the brain in response to light touch on the skin
hair root plexus
- unencapsulated - loc'n: dermis - associated with hair follicles throughout skin, surrounding hair follicles - responsible for sensing movement of hairs on the body, through bending of hairs X: allows us to feel a mosquito lands on our skin
loc'n of sinusoid capillaries
- useful in places where new blood cells are produced X: red bone marrow (new RBCs are produced here and enter the bloodstream through big gaps X: liver and spleen (help break down damaged blood cells)
lateral ventricles
- ventricles 1 & 2 - located in the cerebral hemispheres - most of the lateral ventricles are located in the parietal lobe
capillaries
- vessels that interconnect arteries and veins - vessel with very thin wall - substances can pass through
correlation between smell and memory
- when info travels to the brain - reaches the olfactory cortex, hypothalamus (longterm memory), and the amygdala (complex emotions)
antiduretic gland (kidney)
- when it reaches the kidney = retention of water - release H2O into urine (response to low BP) result: increase in blood pressure
why does food we are swallowing go into esophagus and not trachea?
- when swallowing, muscles attached to hyoid bone pull hyoid bone - hyoid bone pulls larynx up - epiglottis covers glottis
atrioventricular node
- where electrical impulse is held for a brief period of time - short amount of time is the time needed for the atria to eject blood into ventricles
three types of capillaries
1. Continuous 2. Fenestrated 3. Sinusoidal
divisions of the pharynx (3)
1. Nasopharynx (nose) 2. Oropharynx (oral cavity) 3. Laryngopharynx (larynx)
primary taste sensations (5)
1. Sweet: sugar in food 2. Salty: salt, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium iodine 3. Sour: acid (lactic acid) 4. Bitter: complex organic moleculs that may be toxic 5. unami: receptors activated by specific receptors in food (MSG = monosodium gultamate) - beef and chicken broth
three tunicas/layers that organize arteries and veins
1. adventitia 2. media 3. intima
cones
1. allows us to see color 2. provide high degree of resolution, sharpness to the image - utilized during the day
f'n fibrous pericardium (2) (outermost layer)
1. anchor heart to surrounding structrues (like sternum, diaphragm, and lungs) 2. prevent hear from overfilling + overexpanding - dense connective tissue
diffrences between arteries and veins (5)
1. arteries have thicker walls than veins 2. lumen of a vein is wider than an artery 3. tunica media thicker in arteries 4. arteries have elastic fibers w/in tunica media & bands of elastic tissue inbetween 3 layers of blood vessels 5. veins have a larger lumen diameter than arteries
phases of cardiac cycle
1. atrial systole begins 2. atrial systole ends/atrial diastole begins 3. ventricular systole 1st and 2nd phase 4. ventricular disatole early and late phase
how can you classify receptors? (2)
1. body location 2. nature of stimulus
branches of arteries coming off the thoracic aorta (4)
1. bronchial arteries: provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue 2. esphoageal: provide oxygenated blood to esophagus 3. intercostal arteries: provide oxygenated blood to intercostals 4. superior phrenic: provide oxygenated blood to diaphragm
BBB made up of (2)
1. capillary endothelial cells 2. astrocytes (glial cell)
main branches of the abdominal aorta (5)
1. celiac trunk (left gastric, splenic, common hepatic 2. inferior/superior mesenteric 4. renal 5. gonadal
6 major regions in adult brain
1. cerebrum 2. diencephalon 3. cerebellum 4. mesencephalon/midbrain 5. pons 6. medulla (oblongata)
what structures prevent the AV valve cusps from turning inside out and when the right ventricle contracts to eject blood to pulmonary trunk? (2)
1. chordae tenindeae 2. papillary muscle
what are the four areas of the brain where the blood brain barrier is absent?
1. choroid plexus: bc no astrocytes present 2. hypothalamus: bc receptors are present to sense chemical content of blood, so hypothalamus needs to have easy access to blood content 3. pituitary gland 4. pineal gland - both because both endocrine glands need to release hormones straight into bloodstream
f'n conducting zone (2)
1. cleaning system (w/ mucus) 2. warms and humidifies inhaled air conducting air until it reaches the respiratory zone - certain parts are very exposed to external environment
what are the important respiratory muscles? (2)
1. diaphragm: separates our abdominal and thoracic cavities 2. intercostal muscles: between ribs
f'n internal jugular vein
1. drains blood from face 2. drains blood from all sinuses found on dura mater folds X: superior/inferior sagittal sinus
3 meninges
1. dura mater (tough, right under meninges) 2. arachnoid mater (spider web encloses and protects blood vessel supply) 3. pia mater (most pliable) - pia M. delicate connective tissue that attaches to the brain itself, on top of cerebral cortex, has blood vessels, contours every gyri, helps nourish brain cells
different types of arteries (3)
1. elastic arteries 2. muscular arteries 3. arterioles
f'n gap junctions (2)
1. electrically connect two cardiac muscle cells 2. allow the electrical current to flow from one cell to the next - order of cell contraction depends on on electrical current spreading from one cell to the next
three structures of the heart wall
1. epicardium: external surface containing visceral pericardium 2. myocardium: cardiac tissue (cardiac muscle cells, connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves) 3. endocardium: internal endothelial surface
what pieces of cartilage make up our larynx?
1. epiglottis 2. thyroid cartilage 3. cricoid cartilage
receptor classification based on body location
1. exterorecptor: provide info about external environment - found more superficially - aware of these sensations 2. proprioceptors: provide info about the position of body - exclusively related to our understanding of the position and stretch within our joints and tendons - propria = self - allows us to know where limbs are located if we have our eyes closed 3. interoceptors: provide info about the inside of the body - loc'n: walls of digestive and respiratory organs - involved in detecting oxygen levels in the blood and pressure within walls of our organs - not always aware of what they are detecting
when the posterior tibial artery splits into two, which arteries does it give rise to
1. fibular artery 2. plantar artery
f'n viterous humour (3)
1. fills posterior cavity of the eye 2. gelatenous substance that helps maintain round eyeshape 3. gives support to the retina by pressing neural layer against the pigmented layer
f'n liver
1. filters all blood coming from all organs before passing to inferior portal vein 2. detoxifies chemicals 3. metabolizes drugs (alcohol)
what is the importance of the nasal conchae
1. forces air to move around - moving motion warms and humidifies air - helps with dust particles and pathogens getting stuck to mucus 2. helps us smell better/aids in process of smell - odorant molecules getting trapped in mucus - odorant molecules bind w/ olfactory receptors on superior surface of nasal cavity
what is the purpose of pumping blood to the lungs?
1. gain oxygen 2. get rid of CO2
the common hepatic artery breaks up and goes to which two places
1. hepatic proper goes to liver 2. gastroduodenal artery goes to stomach and dudoenum
heart muscle damage depends on (2)
1. how long myocardium cells were deprived of oxygen 2. how big the affected area is
possible causes of hydrocephalus (3)
1. increased amount of CSF 2. obstruction at some point in ventricular system 3. realated to problems with CSF absorption
flow of smell (olfactory nerves to temporal lobe) (4)
1. information received from chemical molecules is transduced into action potential 2. travels up through cribiform plate of ethmoid bone 3. reaches olfactory bulb 4. travels through olfacory tract (bundles of axon) to olfactory cortex located in temporal lobe of brain
what are the two parts of the pericardium?
1. inner serous pericardium 2. fibrous pericardium (outer layer)
cardio vascular system f'n
1. keep blood circulating, helping to provide oxygen, nutrients, hormones and even heat to all tissues/all different part of body 2. remove waste products from all tissues. - circulatory system aiding in dfense against infectious agents - all part of body linked together by cardiovascular system heart and blood vessels working to move blood throughout entire body
tear flow
1. lacrimal punctum drains tears from the eye into inferior lacrimal canioulus 2. then travels down into lacrimal sac 3. then into nasolacrimal duct (opens up inside of nose)
what structures make up the lower respiratory system (5)
1. larynx 2. trachea 3. bronchi 4. lungs 5. bronchioles
three main arteries branching off celiac trunk
1. left gastric (stomach) 2. common hepatic (liver and stomach) 3. splenic (spleen) f'n: supply blood to stomach, liver, and spleen
as we get smaller and smaller in the airways, what changes in histology? (2)
1. less and less hyaline cartilage explaination: hyaline cartilage in the trachea prevents it from collapsing, but as you get smaller and smaller, there is less cartilage meaning that airways are capable of collapsing 2. increase in the amount of elastic tissue and the amount of smooth muscle - small airways are very flexible and have a thick layer of viscera smooth muscle in the walls (intervated by autonomic motor neruons = constriction or dilation of airway)
visual pathway (10)
1. light enters eye 2. gets through the lens and gets focused on retina 3. in the retina, light activates photoreceptors (rod and cone cells) activating other cells that lead to activation of retinal ganglion cells 4. actions of ganglion cells from the optic nerve 5. 50% of nerves cross to one side of the optic chiasm 6. other 50% goes straight and does not cross over 7. once fibers cross at optic chiasm, it is called optic tract (over optic nerve) 8. 75% of visual information goes to thalamus 9. next goes to the primary visual cortex, where we become concious of visual information 10. approx. 25% of visual info goes to mesencephalon in area called the superior colliculus
f'n of diaphragm sellae (3)
1. lines sella turcia 2. anchors dura mater to sphenoid bone 3. encases pituitary gland
f'n surfacant
1. lowers surface tension = preventing alveoli from collapsing - does not allow sides of alevolar sacs to glue to each other
which regions of the brain make up the brainstem (3)
1. mesencephalon/midbrain 2. pons 3. medulla (oblongata)
3 layers of cerebellum
1. molecular layer (close to surface) loc'n: where we find dendrites of Purkinje cells 2. Intermediate/Purkinje layer loc'n: Purkinje cell bodies 3. Grandular/receptive layer loc'n: axon of purkinje cell + tightly packed small neurons
f'n proprioceptors
1. monitor the position of joints 2. integration w/ sensory info from the inner ear covery info about body position
f'n brainstem (2)
1. move eyes 2. help with processing light, sound, and associated reflexed
factors that influence venous blood flow (2)
1. muscular skeletal pump 2. respiratory pump
two parts of inner layer (eye)
1. neural layer 2. retina layer
what structures make up the upper respiratory system (5)
1. nose 2. nasal cavity 3. nasal conchae 4. paranasal sinuses 5. nasopharynx
f'n of respiratory system
1. olfaction 2. vocalization
f'n of the folds of the dura mater (3)
1. subdivide the cranial cavity 2. support brain 3. limit brain movement
what two structures are the AV values connected to?
1. papillary muscles 2. chorda tendineae
the dura mater is divided into what two layers?
1. periosteal layer (attaches to surface of skull) 2. meningeal layer (closer to arachnoide mater)
f'n medulla oblongata
1. play role in cerebellum by coordination skeletal muscle activity 2. relay station betwen spinal cord and thalamus
f'n CSF (4)
1. prevent contact of neural tissue w/ surrounding bones 2. provide support for brain 3. transport nutrients to CNS tissue 4. transport waste away from CNS
f'n interoceptors (2)
1. provide info about the inside of the body 2. involved in detecting oxygen levels in the blood and pressure within walls of our organs
f'n metarteriole (2)
1. regulate blood flow to capillaries 2. blood delivery to particular tissue can be increased quickly to respond to the need of our body at a certain time
f'n serous pericardium
1. secrete serous fluid (pericardial fluid) - formed by parietal and visceral layer - visceral layer in actual contact with the heart - squamous epithelium
respiratory centers of medulla oblongata (chemoreceptor)
1. sensitive changes in pH and PCO2 2. triggers reflective adjustments in depth and rate of respiration
f'n carotid bodies (chemoreceptor) (2)
1. sensitive to changes in pH, PCO2, and PO2 blood 2. triggers reflexive adjustments in respiratory and cardiovascular activity (via cranial nerve)
f'n aortic bodies (2)
1. sensitive to changes in pH, PCO2, and PO2 in blood 2. triggers reflective adjustments in respiratory and cardiovascular activity (via cranial nerves)
which 3 anatomical principls can the sensors be arranged into
1. sensory modality arrangement: diff. types of sensory info comes from specific areas of spinal cord 2. medial lateral rule: info coming from inferior areas of body run more medially 3. somatotopic arrangement: ascending sensory fibers will be arranged w/in individual tracts depending on their site of origin in body
which blood vessels bring blood to the right atrium? (3)
1. superior vena cava 2. inferior vena cava 3. coronary sinus
the wave of depolarization goes down until it reaches what? (wave of depolarization flow)
1. the AV node (located at very bottom of atrium) 2. then moves to Bundle of His which splits into left and right branches 3. electrical impulse continues traveling down until interventricular septum until apex of heart 4. from apex to ventricular cardiac muscle cells through perkinje fibers 5. then ventricles contract bottom up, then blood enters pulmonary trunk and aorta
what are the receptive responses (2)
1. tonic 2. phasic
divisions of respiratory system
1. upper respiratory tract 2. lower respiratory tract
four different types of specialized epithelial tissue that has gustatory cells
1. valiate papilla 2. follate papilla 3. fungiform papilla 4. filliform papilla - each papilla contains our tastebud which lines the clef within the papilla, open to taste
two passageways for blood to our brain (cerebral arterial circle)
1. vertebral artery 2. internal carotid arteris
veterbral artery journey to brain
1. verterbral artery travels up through brain via transverse foramen in vertebrae 2. VA passes through foramen magnum, right and left vertebral arteries join together to form basilar arteries 3. basilar arteries bring oxy. blood to brain
Air flow to produce sound (5)
1. when we breathe in, glottis opens up 2. air goes into our lungs when we talk: 3. pushing air out of respiratory tract 4. when air passes through glottis, it vibrates elastic vocal folds 5. creates sound waves
what does the complexity of the body's response depend on? (2)
1. where info is processed 2. where info is going (where motor response is initiated)
remaining __% of CSF continues to flow through a central canal that runs through entire spinal cord
10%
How many cranial nerves are there?
12 pairs
a normal adult replaces ___ mililiters of CSF every 8 hours
150 mililiters
how many alveolar sacs does each lung have?
150 million - sacs give lungs spongey texture
CSF reduces weight of brain from ____ grams to __ grams
1500 grams to 50 grams - allows brain to float
3 types of sensory nuerons that send info from PNS to brain
1st, 2nd, and 3rd order neurons 1. 1st order neruon: arrives to PNS and gets info from dorsal root ganglion, takes info to CNS via brianstem, synapses with 2nd order neuron 2. 2nd order neuron: cell body of neuron loc'd in brain stem/spinal cord (dependind on when it will synapse), after it gets to thalamus it synapses w/ 3rd order neuron 3. 3rd order neuron: once it reaches thalamus, info sent to specific areas of cerebral cortex, different sensations in diff. areas depend on where info arrived
the sensory tract ending in the cerebellum involves how many neurons?
2
The sensory tract ending in cerebellum involves how many neurons?
3
__ to ___ percent of our blood is inside arteries
30 to 35%
3rd order neuron
3rd order neuron: once it reaches thalamus, info sent to specific areas of cerebral cortex, different sensations in diff. areas depend on where info arrived
how many chambers does the heart have?
4
which ventricle is located between the pons and the cerebellum
4th ventricle
every minute, how much blood do we have ejected out of the right and left ventricles?
5 liters of blood
veins have what percentage of our blood volume at rest?
65-70%
how much blood do kidneys filter every hour?
7 liters - entire blood volume is filtered in less than one hour
__ % of blood passes passively to ventricles at the bottom
70% - due to pressure difference
how many times does your heart beat per mintue
70-75 - 100,000 beats per day
___% of the CSF flows out through the lateral and median aperatures into the subarachnoid space
90%
pneumothorax
= damage to pleura - air entering either right or left pleural cavity - lungs will pull away from thoracic cavity - results in partial or complete collapse of lungs Treatment: inserting needle of syringe in pleural cavity and trying to aspirate air into syrine
what is generated during cellular respiration?
ATP (from oxygen) waste: CO2
Opration of the AV Valves *
AV valve open 1. blood returning to heart fills atria 2. pressure against AV values forces valves to open 3. as ventricles fill, AV valve flaps hang limply into ventricles 4. atria contracts, forcing additional blood into ventricles AV Valve close 1. venricles contract, force blood against AV valve cusp 2. AV valves close 3. chordae tenindeae tighten and prevent valve flaps from entering atria
Globus Pallidus
Adjusts muscle tone to prepare for walking
Association Areas
Areas associated with integrating and understanding sensory or motor information Somatosensory Association Area Premotor Cortex Visual Association Area Auditory Association Area
Pia Mater
Attached to the surface of the brain Anchored to brain by processes of astrocytes Follows the sulci and gyri of the brain Helps to anchor the larger blood vessels of the cerebrum
Major Reflex Centers
Cardiovascular Centers - Cardiac and vasomotor Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers - Rhythmic breathing
how is trachea held open?
C shaped hyaline cartilage rings
how can CSF leave the ventricular system
CSF can leave the ventricular system through two apertures (median and lateral) found at the roof of the fourth ventricle
what will happen if the CSF pressure is greater than the venous pressure of the superior sagittal sinus?
CSF will be squeezed out of the subarachnoid space, flow into the blood stream, and get reabsorbed
F'n Frontal Lobe
Conscious control of skeletal muscles + trouble solving, reasoning, and planning
Temporal Lobe
Conscious perception of auditory and olfactory stimuli/deep is the insula
f'n parietal Lobe
Conscious perception of touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, and taste
allows us to know where limbs are located if we have our eyes closed
proprioceptors
Cerebellum
Coordinates somatic motor function/adjusts output of somatic motor centers resulting in smooth Consists of: Cerebellar Cortex -Subconscious coordination of movements Arbor Vitae -Connects cerebellar cortex with cerebellar peduncles Cerebellar Peduncles
Commissural Tracts
Corpus Callosum Anterior Commissure Posterior Commissure Gyri in one hemisphere to other
Third Ventricle
Diencephalon
Brainstem
Diencephalon, midbrain, pons, and medulla
Cranial Meninges
Dura Mater -Periosteal cranil dura -Meningeal cranial dura Arachnoid Mater Pia Mater
Falx Cerebelli
Extends from the tentorium cerebelli to separate the cerebellar hemispheres #7
arachnoid granulations
Extensions of the arachnoid mater - f'n: allow excess CSF to be absorbed by the dural sinuses.
Medulla Oblongata
F'n (1) Info to thalamus and brainstem, regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion Cardiovascular Center -Rate and force of heart beat -Relay proprioception - cerebellum - TOUCH, CONSCIOUS, proprioception, pressure, vibration -Medullary respiratiory center -Paralysis on opposite side -Loss of sensation on opposite side -Irregular heart beat -Irregular respiration
Thalamus
F'n: Relays information to the cerebrum, (2) Processes sensory information -Left and right thalamus are connected via the interthalamic region Egg-shaped Relay station (except smell)
Cerebral Hemispheres
Frontal Lobe Occipital Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Insula Central Sulcus Precentral Gyrus Postcentral Gyrus Lateral Sulcus
Lentiform Nucleus
Globus pallidus- lateral to thalamus Putamen - close to cerebral cortex
Claustrum
Gray matter lateral to putamen #2
Sulci
Grooves
cerebral arterial circle
Group of arteries at the base of the brain where the anastomizing of arteries providing the blood supply of the brain occurs
alveolar macrophages
HELP US NOT GET SICK BY egulfing any virus, bacteria, or debris from getting into lungs
Gray Matter and White Matter Organization
In the cerebrum and the cerebellum, the white matter is covered by gray matter (cortex) Gray matter consist of cell bodies
Meningeal Cranial Dura
Innermost layer of the dura mater Large veins called dural sinuses
F'n hypothalamus
Involved in emotions, thirst, some habitual activity/connects to the pituitary gland (hypophysis) via the infundibulum - Extending from the hypothalamus is the infudibulum connecting the pituitary gland Mamillary Region: Includes mamillary bodies- sense of smell Subconscious control of the skeletal muscles Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and digestive functions Secretion of antiduretic hormone (via the supraoptic nucleus) and oxytocin (via the paraventricular nucleus) Emotional and behavioral drives Coordination between voluntary and autonomic functions Body temperature (via pre-optic area) Circadian rhythm (via suprachiasmatic nucleus)
Corpus Striatum
Lentiform and caudate
Insula
Lies deep in the lateral cerebral sulcus
The Limbic System
Limbic lobe Cingulate gyrus Dentate gyrus Parahippocampal gyrus Hippocampus
Diaphragma Sellae
Lines the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone It anchors the dura mater to the sphenoid bone It encases the pituitary gland
F'n mesencephalon
MIDBRAIN F'n: Processes visual and auditory data, (2) maintains conciousness and alertness, (3) involved with reflexive somatic motor responses to stimuli
muscular arteries have lots of what type of muscle?
smooth muscle
Myelencephalon
Medulla and fourth ventricle (lower part)
Falx Cerebri
Meningeal layer that extends into the longitudinal fissure Inferior/anterior portion attaches to the crista galli (ethmoid) Inferior/posterior portion ataches to the internal occipital creast and the tentorium cerebelli Superior sagittal sinus and the inferior sagittal sinus
Medulla
Nuclei of cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII
carotid body measures what
O2 (chemoreceptors) carotid bO2dy
mnemonic for remembering the name of cranial nerves
OLd OPerators OCcasionally TROubleshoot TRIcycles ABDUCted FACtions VESTIges GLOSSily VAGUe History Olfactory (l), Optic (ll), Oculomotor (lll), Trochlear (lV), Trigeminal (V), Abducens (Vl), Facial (Vll), Vestibulocochlear (Vlll), Glossopharyngeal (lX), Vagus (X), Acessory (Xl), Hypoglossal (Xll)
Cranial Nerve Nuclei in Midbrain
Occulomotor (III) Trochlear (IV)
what don't capillaries have in their walls?
smooth muscle
what nervous system are the cranial nerves apart of?
PNS
Communication Between Brain and Spinal Cord
Passes through the medulla oblongata Medulla Oblongata Nuclei: Relay stations Gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus: Somatic sensory information to the thalamus Solitary Nucleus: Visceral sensation from the spinal nerves and cranial nerves Olivary Nucleus: Large bulges (olives); pass information from the cerebrum, spinal cord, diencephalon, and brainstem o the cerebellum
Occipital Lobe
Perception of visual stimuli
Two Layers of Dura Mater
Periosteal cranial dura Meningeal cranial dura
Epithalamus
Pineal gland- melatonin
Fourth Ventricle
Pons and cerebellum
Metacephalon
Pons, cerebellum, fourth ventricle (upper part)
Arachnoid Mater
Projections called arachnoid granulations CSF flows through these to enter into venous circulation Contains subdural space: space between arachnoid mater and meningeal cranial dura Deep to the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space Consists of weblike material underlining the arachnoid layer These collagenous fibers help anchor cerebral blood vessels
Auditory Association Area
Recognizes sound In temporal lobe
Medulla Oblongata Nuclei
Relay stations
Gyri
Ridges
cilliary body
smooth muscle that controls shape of lense
Tentorium Cerebelli
Separates the cerebellar hemispheres from the cerebral hemispheres Extends across the cranium at right angles to the falx cerebri Contains the transverse sinus
Gracile Nucleus and Cuneate Nucleus
Somatic sensory information to the thalamus
mnemonic for remembering the function of cranial nerves
Some Say Money Matters, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More! S = sensory function M = motor function B = both
CNS Filled Ventricles
Transports nutrients to the CNS and transports waste away from the CNS CSF also provides cushion for the CNS
Cranial Nerve Nuclei in Medulla
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Glossopharyngeal (IX) Vagus (X) Accessory (XI) Hypoglossal (XII)
Visual Association Area
Visually recognizes and interprets objects In occipital lobe
Carpus Collosum
White matter track #1
can a patient survive damage in the cerebrum?
YES note: a patient can survive damage in the cerebrum but NOT the brainstem - brainstem means death bc has system necessary of survival
aortic arch
a curved blood vessel from which arteries branch to the head and neck.
each broncopulmonary segment is supplied by what?
a tertiary bronchus
what cells are involved in processing visual information and refining the information before its sent out to brain? (3)
amocrine, bipolar, ganglion cells
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil f'n: controls the size of the pupil opening
artery
a vessel that carries blood away from the heart - A(rteries) AWAY(from heart) - carry blood away from heart into smaller and smaller arteries
f'n of digestive system
absorb nutrients from blood
afer the aorta passes through the aotric hiatus what is it called?
abdominal aorta
what is a heart murmur?
abnormal heart sound from the cusps not completely closing
how are axons within each tract grouped?
according to the body region innervated - specific information from specific regions are groups in the same area of the spinal cord of brain - this is how we differentiate different types of information depending on the pathway or tract the info is traveling and where the info will be arriving at the level of the spinal cord, brain, or brain stem
f'n pleural fluid
act as a lubricant - allows two pleural membranes to slide against each other during respiratory movements
f'n melatonin
affects moedulation of awake/asleep pattern - time for bed = increase in concentration of melatonin
when both atria contract simultaneously, what hapens?
all blood squeezes out from atria into ventricles
peripheral nervous system
all nervous system ouside of cell - cranial nerves + spinal nerves - whatever leaves brain and spinal cord
f'n capillary
allow for exchange of nutrients with surrounding tissue
how wide is the diameter of a capillary
almost as wide as one red blood cell - RBCs need to get squeezed when passing the capillary bed
Bronchioles split to form what
alveoli ducts and alveolar sacs (alveoli)
when vasoconstriction happens what also happens?
an increase in resistance which leads to a decrease in blood flow in that vessel
facial nerve (Vll) intervates what part of the face?
anterior 2/3 of our tongue
which artery gives rise to the dorsalis pedis
anterior tibial artery
anterior/posterior interventricular sulcus
anterior: separates left and right ventricles in the anterior portion posterior: separates left and right ventricles in the posterior portion
the azygous vein uses the same holes as the _____ to cross diaphragm
aorta
what is the closest artery to the heart?
aorta
which is the larges artery in body?
aorta
examples of elastic arteries
aorta (brachiocephalic trunk, left common carotid, left subclavian), pulmonary trunk, common carotid, common iliac arteries
auricle f'n
appendeges of the atria -f'n: increase the volume of chamber (volume of blood each atria can contain)
how does the third ventricle communicate with the fourth ventricle?
aquduct of midbrain / cerebral aquduct
glaucoma
aqueous humor not being absorbed fast enough - aqueous humor builds up in anterior cavity - increase pressure in eye - can cause permanent blindness
spider web that encloses and protects blood vessel supply
arachnoid mater
what helps anchor cerebral blood vessels to their place?
arachnoid trabecula
if CSF pressure is less than venous pressure what happens?
arachnoid villi will not allow for CSF to enter bloodstream
costal surface of lung
area of lung that faces ribcage
diaphragm surface of lung
area of the lungs in contact with the diaphragm
f'n palmar arches
arise from radial and ulnar, give off the digital arteries of the thumb and fingers f'n: supply blood to all of hands
how many times does the bronchi subdivided until we get to bronchioles?
around 24
why do arteries have a thicker tunica media than veins
arteries carry blood with higher pressure than veins - since arteries carry blood away from the heart, they are closest to where the pressure is generated
lateral arteries
arteries that interconnect and form arterial anastomosis why: bc they together provide circulation to this area - would be optimal to have more anastomosis/interconnections because if 1/2 arteries gets blocked you have another artery supplying blood to that area
musclar arteries branch into what
arterioles
thinnest out of all arteries we have
arterioles
which has more smooth muscle? (artey/vein)
artery
blood flow
artery --> arteriole --> capillary --> venule --> vein --> back to heart
which type of glial cell plays a key role in providing nourishment for the neurons?
astrocyte
What forms the blood brain barrier?
astrocytes
where does the brachial artery divide into the radial and ulnar artery?
at the coronary fossa of the humerus
when does the popliteal artery split into two?
at the popliteal fossa
where do you find the carotid body?
at the splitting point between the external and internal carotid arteries
receiving chambers (2)
atria
______ need to contract first to push blood into the ________
atria;ventricles
autonomic motor neurons
automatically control internal organs
why does the amount of times our heart beats per minute change?
autonomic neural fibers reaching the SA and AV node
artries carry blood ______
away from the heart
what helps maintain shape of alveolar sac during inhale and exhale?
bands of elastic fibers
blood brain barrier
barrier that prevents substances present in our blood stream from getting into brain tissue
which arteries supply blood to cerebral arterial circle?
basilar + internal carotid artery
the right and left vertebral arteries join together to form which artery?
basilar artery
why is grey mater dark on the outside?
bc of neuronal cell bodies
why can't the heart cannot feel beyond pericardium sites?
bc of the toughness of pericardium
why is the funciton of the mesencephalon to move the eyes
because almost all extrinsic eye muscles are intervaed by cranial nerves that leave the mescencephalon
why is the heart shoved into the left lung?
because it is positioned slightly to the left
why is the common carotid artery named as such?
because it splits into two, the external and interal carotid arteries
why does the left lobe have one less lung? (2 lobes)
because the heart is shoved into the left lung
why do we say the medulla is related to the autonomic centers that regulate the cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system
because the vagus nerve (CN #10) is related to the autonomic control of organs in thoracic abdominal cavities
why is there no moderator band in the left ventricle?
because the wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than the wall of the right ventricle
Central Sulcus
between frontal and parietal lobes
parieto-occipital lobe
between parietal and occipital lobe
loc'n aortic / semilunar valve
between the left ventricle and the aorta
Which valve separates the left atrium and left ventricle?
bicuspid valve / left AV valve
coronary thrombosis
blockage on obstruction of blood flow through one of the left coronary artery branches - leads to myocardial infarction (heart attack)
what DON'T you find in CSF?
blood protein and blood cells X: RBCs and WBCs
Metarterioles
blood vessel that links arterioles and capillaries - think precapillary sphincter - ONLY found in mescenteric circulation
choroid means ____
blood vessels
vascular means
blood vessels (60,000 miles of blood vessels)
what gives heart "lubb-dubb" sounds?
both AV valves closing at the same time and both semilunar valves closing at the same time
f'n coronary sinus
brings deoxygenated blood into right atrium from heart muscle itself
after the main bronchi enter the lungs, it starts splitting into what?
bronchiole tree
how is the connection between cardiac muscle cells made?
by gap junctions
how is the cerebellum separated from the other parts of the cortex?
by the 4th ventricle
the cephallic drains blood from the _____ of our hands while the basillic drains blood from the _____ of our hands
cephallic = back of hands basillic = front of hands
2nd largest part of the brain
cerebellum
basically just made of tunica intima layers
capillaries
smallest blood vessel we have
capillaries
what are the most abundant but also smallest and thinnest of our blood vessels?
capillaries
what level does the exchange of substances happen between the blood and surrounding tissues
capillaries
arteries become progressively smaller as they branch resulting in what?
capillaries - arteries branch so much and become very thin resulitng in capillaries
why does the pulse disappear at capillary level?
capillaries do not have elastic fibers or smooth muscle so they cannot expand and contract
what do arterioles branch into?
capillaries which form the capillary bed
when oxygen goes into our body, what do we eliminate?
carbon dioxide - need air reaching oxygen to get in and air reaching carbon dioxide to get out
what artery does the jugular vein pair up with?
carotid artery
loc'n baroreceptors
carotid sinus
vein
carry blood to heart
2nd order neuron
cell body of neuron loc'd in brain stem/spinal cord (dependind on when it will synapse), after it gets to thalamus it synapses w/ 3rd order neuron
why do we need oxygen in our bodies?
cellular respiration
where is the area with the sharpest vision
center of macula
fovea centralis
center of the macula - rod cells are NOT present in macula - only cone cells present - highes concentration of cone cells - center of visual field
brainstem
center that regulates basic vital functions --> impo for survival
which runs more laterally, cephallic or basillic vein?
cephallic
where is coordination of complex skeletal muslce movements found X: drive a car, play sports
cerebellum
each hemisphere controls opposite side of body
cerebral cortex
sensory tract ending
cerebral cortex (brain)
loc'n third order neuron
cerebral cortex --> THALAMUS
what is the largest portion of the brain?
cerebrum
what is the point of awareness in the brain?
cerebrum - how you know what's going on - where we are aware of our senses + initiate voluntary movements of body
What allows CSF to flow into ventricles
cilia of the ependymal cells
what lines the entire conducting zone of respiratory tract and why?
ciliated mucous membrane lines the conducting zone why: to filter out dust particles we inhale before getting to deeper part of lungs EXCEPTIONS: laryngopharynx and oropharynx
what is the blood pressure of some larger veins?
close to zero why: they are so far away from where pressure is generated
f'n orbicularis oculi
closing both eyelids (inferior and superior)
what is the "lubb" or first heart sound?
closure of AV valves
what is the "dubb" or second heart sound?
closure of semilunar valves
cortex
collection of neuronal cell bodies in surface of CNS
f'n great saphenous vein
collects blood from superficial veins at the leg and foot - returns blood from superficial veins in lower limbs to femoral vein
which nutrients are allowed to go in and nurish brain tissue and what is allowed out, via the blood brain barrier?
comes in: glucose and oxygen goes out: waste and co2
anterior commissure
commisure fibers (together w/ corpus collosum) f'n: fibers that connect two separate hemispheres
what do you get when the external and interal illiac veins merge?
common illiac vein
f'n superior peduncles
communicates cerebellum w/ mesencephalon, diencephalon + cerebrum (everything superior aspect of cerebellum)
inferior peduncle
communicates cerebellum with medulla oblongata
f'n middle peduncle
communicates cerebellum with pons
f'n median cubital vein
communication between cephallic and basillic vein
perception
concious awarness of a sensation - occurs in cortex areas of the brain
f'n pyramidal cells
concious control of skeletal muscle movements - large neurons
what allows us to see color
cones
f'n association fibers
connect areas of cerebral cortex within same hemisphere * arcuate fibers & longitudinal fasciculus
f'n extrinsic laryngeal muscles
connect larynx to nearby structures - w/ hyoid bone, extrinsic laryngeal muscles move up and down
both sclera and connective tissue are made up of what?
connective tissue
meninges
connective tissue layers that separate soft tissue of brain for skull
what do the three meninges do?
connective tissue layers that separate soft tissues of brain from skull
f'n desmosomes
connects cell membranes of two neighboring cells together
f'n infundibulum
connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland
infundibulum
connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland
interthalamic adhesion
connects right and left thalamus
f'n trachealis
connects two ends of C-shaped hyaline cartilage of trachea
what is inside the vascular layer? (layer of the eye) (3)
contains iris, cilliary body, choracoid
f'n neural (inner layer)
contains the photoreceptor cells that can help sense light
bronchiole tree
continued division of bronchi - splitting into smaller and smaller branches - system of tubes formed by main bronchi
what is the most common type of capillary
continuous
capillary that makes blood brain barrier
continuous - blood brain barrier = barrier that prevents substances present in our blood stream from getting into brain tissue
where is the highest blood pressure of our entire body found?
cornary arteries
first arteries to branch off aorta?
coronary arteries
which vessels supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself?
coronary arteries
which are the first arteries of our body to receive blood?
coronary arteries bc they are at the beginning of the aorta
where do the small, great, and middle cardiac vein all dump blood?
coronary sinus
5% of sensory information that does not go to thalamus goes where ?
corresponds to sense of smell and comes in through olfactory nerve, straight through cerebrum and does not pass through thalamus
bulbar conjunctiva
covers anterior surface of eye
which nerve is related to the autonomic control of organs in the thoracic and abdominal arteries?
cranial nerve #10 vaugus nerve
only cartilage of larynx with a posterior surface
cricoid cartilage
loc'n for tracheostomy
cricothyroid ligament - you know you will not damage the vocal cords of a person - make a hole in he cricothyroid ligament - allow air to go into person's lung in case the obstruction of the airway was located above this area
point of attachment in the inferior anterior aspect of the falx cerebri
crista galli
how do we differentiate different types of information
depending on the pathway or tract the info is traveling and where the info will be arriving at the level of the spinal cord, brain, or brain stem
the right side of our heart works with what type of blood?
deoxy. blood - blood pumped to lungs to get oxygen - pulmonary circuit: blood going into the lungs and coming back from the lungs
grey mater
dark outside surface - dark because it's composed of neuronal cell bodies
what stops the passive flow of blood from atria to ventricles?
decrease in difference in pressure between atria and ventricles
blood pressure ______ from aorta to vena cava
decreases
what happens when the trachealis constricts?
decreases the lumen of the trachea why: it brings the endings of the C-shaped ring together
fissure
deep depression
what is the first artery to branch off femoral artery?
deep femoral artery
what encases the sellae turcia?
diaphragm sellae
relaxation
diastole
where is the third ventricle located?
diencephalon - between right and left thalami
the pharynx belongs to what two systems?
digestive and respiratory
arteriovenous anastomosis
direct connection between arteriole and venule
the azygous vein dumps venous blood where?
directly into superior vena cava
asthma
disorder characterized by conducting airways contracting too much and too easily - related to tightening of smooth muscle that surrounds airways - asthma attack can happen spontaneously or due to exposure to a wide range of stimuli - asthma attack = inflammation in the air passage, which results in temporary narrowing of the airways - leads to shorting of breathe and tightening
Longitudinal Fissure
divides right and left sides of the brain
receptive fields
each receptor has a specific area that is monitors - can have large and small receptive fields - large fields: makes it MORE difficult to localize a stimulus in one specific area - small fields: several receptors are placed close together making it easy to localize a stimulus X: if you place two fingers in the same receptive field, brain cannot interpret that as two, it feels as if it was one stimulus
loc'n tarsal plates
either corner of the eye - tarsal gland: produce oily secretions that prevents the eyelid from sicking together
largest of our arteries?
elastic arteries
which specific type of arteries need to sustain a higher amount of pressure
elastic arteries
what makes elastic arteries more elastic?
elastic fibers
how are cardiac cells joined together?
electrically
gyrus
elevations in brain - gyrus (singular) - gyri (plural)
which layer of the heart is the inner layer?
endocardium - simple squamous epithelium (same tissue that forms inside of blood vessels) - flat cell = very smooth surface for blood to flow through
what happens when intercostal muscles contract?
enlarges the rib cage - increases chest from side to side and front to back
f'n of ALL valves throughout body
ensure one way flow
what do the interventricular septum and interatrial septum have in common?
ensure that blood from right and left sides of heart do not mix
laryngopharynx starts at the level of the hyoid bone and goes until _____
entrance of esophagus
vessels in choroid plexus are surrounded by what kinds of cells?
ependymal cells
which layer is the most outside layer of our heart?
epicardium
contains pineal gland
epithalamus
Iso-volumetric contraction
equal volumes of blood pumped into the pulmonary and systemic circuit
how often do basal cells replace olfactory receptor cells
every 2 months
aductor hiatus
gap between femur and aductor magnus f'n: allows passage of blood vessel
f'n choroid
extensive capillary network that (1) helps nourish the retina found in the inner layers (2) help with the cooling of the inside of eyeball
Dura Septa
extentsions of the dura mater that go deep inside the brain
the right and left common illiac arteries bifurcate into what? (2)
external and internal illiac arteries
what structure is inbetween the media and adventitia layer (arteries)
external elastic membrane
external carotid artery supplies blood where
external skull and face
provide info about external environment
exteroceptors
somatosensory association area
f'n: allows you to understand the texture, size, and shape of something
f'n superior colliculus (3)
f'n: controls reflex responses to visual stimulate, (2) controls focusing/accomodation of our eyes, (3) how much pupils dilate
cilliary zonule
f'n: help change the shape of lens in order to focus light in the retina - suspensery ligaments controlled by cilliary muscles
Premotor Cortex
f'n: planing of motor movements X: thinking about wanting to grab a pen - In frontal lobe - sends info to primary motor cortex which sends the output to early skeletal muscle then you grab pen
f'n arterial anastomosis
f'n: reduce the impact a blockage causes by having another available artery to supply nutrients surgical connection between two arteries - if one artery gets blocked, the other one will supply blood to that area
f'n heptic portal system
f'n: routes venous blood from all organs to liver for liver to do its job made up of: hepatic vein + all the veins that leave the stomach, intestine, spleen, and pancrease that drain into the superior/inferior mescenteric veins
f'n ependymal cells
f'n: take nutrients from blood and produce cerebral spinal fluid at constant rate (type of glial cell) - take blood plasma and its components to make CSF
dura mater fold located between the right and left hemispheres of the cerebellum
falx cerebelli
dura mater fold located between the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum (along longitudinal fissure)
falx cerebri
which arteries supply blood to thigh area?
femoral and deep femoral arteries
as soon as external illiac arteries passed boarder of pelvic girddle what does it become?
femoral arteries
what type of capillary is founf on the choroid plexus of brain and in kidneys
fenestrations - found in places where we need to have filtration of blood - allow waterm waste and small ions to pass through and get removed from blood stream
three layers of the eye
fibrous layer, vascular layer, inner layer
f'n kidney
filter waste products out of blood
loc'n center of the macula
fovea centralis
palpebral fissure
fissure between palpebra
ventricles
fluid filled cavities - hold CSF
third ventricle
fluid filled space between right and left ventricle
what are autonomic motor neurons responsible for?
frequency of firing - can increase/slow down rate of firing
subarachnoid space
space between arachnoid and pia mater (true space) - loc'n of CSF
fornix
fold between the bulbar and palpebral conjunctiva ** loc'n for lacrimal ducts from the lacrimal glands, open up and tears/lacrimal fluid is released
folia of cerebrum
folds (like cerebrum gyrus)
why does go to the lungs?
for gas exchange to happen
valsalva maneuver
forcing exhalation with airways closed
loc'n for lacrimal ducts from the lacrimal glands, open up and tears/lacrimal fluid is released
fornix
which ventricle communicates with the central canal of the spinal cord
fourth ventricle
tricuspid valve ensures blood flow in what direction?
from right atrium to right ventricle
how does blood flow in the capillaries?
from the arteole end across the capillary towards the venous end
how are AV valves formed?
from the folds of endocardium
longest vein in our body
great saphenous vein
nuclei
group of central neural cell bodies in CNS
what gives the perception of taste?
gustatory cortex
what allows us to feel a mosquito lands on our skin?
hair root plexus
separates nasal and oral cavities
hard and soft palate
action of inhaling brings blood toward _____
heart
what is the muscle pump (right and left) that pumps bloods to the two circuits
heart
f'n tunica adventitia/externa
help hold vessels to surrounding tissue - made up of: dense, fibrouus connective tissue
vestibular folds / false vocal cords are mostly involved in what?
helping to close glottis - durng valsalva maneuver, vestibular folds keep the glottis closed and prevent air from escaping - leads to increased pressure in abdominal area X: helps when lifting weight and delivering babies and bathroom activities
How does the liver receive blood?
hepatic portal vein
where do the splenic vein, superior/ inferior mescenteric veins drain their blood?
hepatic portal vein
which blood has more nutrients, blood in the superior mescenteric artery or blood in the hepatic portal vein?
hepatic portal vein why: hepatic portal vein receives blood from all digestive tract which means the nutrients would be absorbed from all over
fluids always flow from ___ pressure to ____ pressure
high to low
what is the foramen ovale (when discussing the heart)?
hole between right and left atrium present before development - hole needed for oxygen - if the hole does not close during birth, condition known as a "hole in the heart"
Venal caval foramen
hole where vena cava crossed diaphragm
f'n cerebellar peduncle
how cerebellum communicatd w/ other brain regions
- asvascular - weakest type of cartilage - loc'n: between ribs and sternum, articular cartilage, synovial joints, passageways of respiratory tract
hyaline cartilage
what forms the inferior portion of nasal septum?
hyaline cartilage - makes for flexibility of nasal septum
what marks the line that separates the oral and laryngopharynx?
hyoid bone
brain's thermostat
hypothalamus
controls release of hormones by pituitary gland
hypothalamus
loc'n of temperature control and many reflex centers that play a role in maintaining internal balance?
hypothalamus
what is the center of of homeostasis
hypothalamus
what links the nervous and endocrine system
hypothalamus
which part of the brain is greatly affected by emotion?
hypothalamus
described forced contraction of blood from arteriole end to venule in capillaries
if all precapillary sphincters contract at the same time, blood has no option but to go from the arteriole end to the venule end via the metarteriole - in this situation the metarteriole acts as a thoroughfare channel and entire capillary network is bypassed
where is the wave of depolarization generated?
in the SA node at the upper part of the right atrium
why are gyri needed in the cerebellum?
increase surface area
which vena cava is bigger? superior or inferior
inferior
where do the right and left renal veins drain directly into?
inferior vena cava
endocarditis
inflammation of the inner lining of the heart
bronchitis
inflammation of the lining of bronchial tubes - those with bronchitis often cough up thickened mucus trying to eliminate from their airways
pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium sac = friction every time the heart beats
insula
inside cerebrum
where is the gustatory cortex located
inside insula
loc'n gustatory cortext
inside insula - inside cerebrum
what separates right and left atria?
interatrial septum
how are cardiac cells bound together?
intercalated discs - consists of desmosomes + gap junctions
anastomosis
interconnecting - crictical in areas where blood flow is restricted for some reason
anastomosis
interconnection
venous anastomosis
interconnections between veins
vascular anastomosis
interconnections of blood vessels
how does the lateral ventricle communicate with the third ventricle?
interventricular foramen
what separates right and left ventricles?
interventricular septum
where do the superior and inferior mescenteric arteries supply blood to
intestines superior mescenteric: oxy blood to basically entire intestine inferior mescenteric: terminal portion of large intestine an rectum
during gas exchange, oxygen goes out into blood and CO2 goes where?
into alveolar sacs
how can we subdivide our lung lobes?
into bronchopulmonary segments
after heart muscle cells use oxygen and nutrients present in blood where does the blood go?
into coronary veins
once the electrical impulse reaches the Purkinje fibers, where does it go?
into the ventricular myocardium (heart muscle cells of the ventricles)
what kind of control is the trachealis udner?
involuntary why: smooth muscle
rod
involved in black and white vision - better for seeing at night - able to see grey scale
why is myelin white?
it is basically fat
why is deoxygenated blood coming from the pulmonary arteries so high in pressure?
it is coming from the right ventricle
why is the hypothalamus so greatly affected by emotion?
it is controlled by the limbic system, which is the center of emotion in the brain
what is the importance of humidification?
it protects cells against dehydration - if we got dry, NON humidified air into body, it could dehydrate the membrane linning the inner side of our respiratory tract = cell damage of respiratory tract
if you squeeze the lungs what happens?
it retracts then slowly goes back to resting shape
which vein drains blood out of our brain
jugular vein
renal arteries go through _____
kidneys
place where vocal cords are anchored anteriorly
laryngeal prominence
voice box + loc'n of vocal chord?
larynx
the ocularmotor nerve (lll) does not control which two extrinsic eye muscles
lateral rectus and superior oblique
describe the flow of CSF
lateral ventricle --> third ventricle ---> fourth ventricle - due to ciliated movement of ependymal cells
there is NO direct connection between which ventricles?
lateral ventricles
the two right pulmonary veins and the two left pulmonary veins arrive where in the heart?
left atrium
where to the four pulmonary veins arrive within the heart
left atrium
flow of in oxygen rich blood within the heart
left atrium --> left ventricle --> aorta
where are the pectinate muscles located in the lft side of the heart?
left auricle
where does the apex of the heart point towards?
left hip
which side of the heart pumps blood to the systemic circuit?
left side
why is the left ventricle much bigger than the right?
left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta and from the aorta the blood goes to our entire body
which ventricular wall is thicker?
left ventricular wall
dividing line betwen anterior and posterior cavity
lens
in what time frame do all the events in the cardiac system happen?
less than one second
where do the external illiac arteries / femoral artery carry blood to?
lower limbs
where does blood gain oxygen and get rid of CO2
lungs
continous capillaries
made up of simple squamous epithelium - single layer of endothelial cells held together by tight junctions
what are the functions of the three meninges?
maintain and circulate cerebral spinal fluid
which branch innervates the muslces of mastication?
mandibular division of the trigeminal nerves
f'n meninges
mantain and circulate cerebral spinal fluid
f'n lacrimal caruncle
mass of soft tissue with glands that produce thick secretions
visual association cortex
matching face w/ person - perception of visual stimuli
what makes up the hard palate
maxilla and palatine bones
connects brain and spinal cord
medulla oblongata
f'n gonadal arteries (men and women)
men: testicular arteries f'n: supply blood to testes and scrotum women: ovarian arteries f'n: supply blood to ovaries, uterine tube, and uterus
the _____ layer of the dura mater is closer to the arachnoide mater
meningeal
which layer of the dura mater is the true layer that covers the brain and extends into vertebral canal as spinal dura mater?
meningeal layer
approx. 25% of visual info goes to
mesencephalon - specifically: superior colliculus
where are metarterioles found?
mesenteric circulation ONLY
thoroughfare channel
metareriole/ main street between a capillary and a venule - where all capillary branches emerge from
why are the main streets connecting arteries and veins in capillaries called metarteriole instead of capillaries?
metarterioles have precapillary sphincters with smooth muscle cells and capillaries cannot have smooth muscle cells in their walls
f'n mescencephalon
midbrain - above mesencephalon: cerebrum + diencephalon - below mescenphalon: medulla oblongata + pons f'n: moving eyes why: almost all extrinsic eye muscles are intervaed by cranial nerves that leave the mescencephalon
f'n moderator band
moderate how much chamber extends (since right ventricle wall is much thinner than left ventricle wall)
loc'n molecular layer
molecular layer (close to surface) loc'n: where we find dendrites of Purkinje cells
function of sensory receptors
monitor conditions inside the body and in external environment
collateral arteries
more than one artery supplying blood to one specific area - fuse and form capillary bed - arterial anastomosis
how do we ensure that areas needing rich blood flow all the time (heart and brain) always have the blood they need?
more than one artery supplying blood to one specific area (collateral arteries)
info exits spinal cord
motor tract
pulmonary ventilation
movement of air into and out of the lungs - venting: releasing air - like moving air around - linked to cardiovascular system
f'n soft palate
moves up and closes nasal passage when swallowing
regulates blood pressure and blood flow
muscular arteries
specific type of arteries that can change their diameter and cause vasoconstriction/dilation
muscular arteries
f'n trabeculae carneae
muscular ridges on the internal surface of the ventricles f'n: help squeeze the maximum amount of blood out of the ventricle
what is white mater composed of?
myelinated axons
which layer of the heart is the muscle layer and the thickest layer?
myocardium - loc'n of cardiac muscle cells and blood vessels and nerves
what happens to vessels as they cross anatomical boundaries?
name change
epithelium change when crossing from nasal to oral pharynx
nasal pharynx: regular respiratory epithelium = pseudostratified ciliated columnar oral/laryngo pharynx: stratified squamous epithelium
where do we find hairs that extend towards our nostrils and work as strainers to inhibit large particles from getting into nasal cavity
nasal vestibule
why do we get a runny nose wehn we cry?
nasolacrimal duct opens up inside the nose
detect odor molecules
nerve fibers on the superior part of the nasal cavity - chemical molecules that bind to receptors found on nerve fibers - nerve fibers = olfactory nerves
how do the CNS and PNS communicate?
nerves and tracts (pathways) - nerves have other names like axon and fibers
pelxus means ____
network
hydrocephalus (new borns/adults)
new borns: bc skull is not fused yet and increased pressure causes head to become very large adults: bc skull is formed, increase in pressure is kept within and leads to potential brain damage --> compression of brain vessels and crushing of soft nervous tissue fix: drainage of CSF via hole and tube in ventricle
external nares
nostrils
flow of air through nose
nostrils-> nasal vestibule-> nasal cavity --> nasal conchae->internal nares
why are false vocal cords considered false?
not elastic enough to vibrate when air passes through them = they CANNOT produce sound
aqueous humor
nourishing fluid - produced similarly to CSF - basically filtered blood plasma that fills anterior cavity f'n: (1) helps nourish iris and cornea (2) gives nutrients to cornea (since it is avascular) - constantly being made and and getting reabsorbed - reabsorbed in scleral venous sinus loc'd in corneoscleral junction
_____ lobe = VISION
occipital
chemicals in saliva can activate receptors where?
on taste hairs - allows gustatory cells to activate nerve fibers that go back to our brain to allow us to be concious of taste
when does the air reach the pharynx?
once it passed the posterior nasal aperture
the inability to smell peanut butter is related to what?
onset of Alzheimer's disease later in life
aortic hiatus
opening in diaphragm for the aorta to pass from the heart to the abdomen
glottis
opening in larynx
pupil
opening in the center of the iris
median and lateral aperatures f'n
openings that communicate with the subarachnoid space in the brain and spinal cord - communication important for CSF to get into base of the CNS
where are the blind spots of the eyes located
optic discs why: lacks photoreceptors
where do the internal illiac arteries supply blood to?
organs found within pelvic girddle x: urinary bladder, walls of the pelvis, and external genitalia
autonomic nervous system modulates ______
our heart rate
proprioception
our sense of body position
loc'n vestibular folds
outside of vocal folds
the left side of our heart works with what type of blood?
oxy. blood - systemic circuit: blood going to systems of body and coming back
during gas exchange, what goes into the blood and what comes out?
oxygen goes into the blood CO2 comes out
what type of blood just arrives in the left atrium from the pulmonary veins?
oxygenated blood
what happens after gas exchange occurs in the lungs?
oxygenated blood flows back inot the heart via a vein
which cells are constantly firng the electrical signal?
pacemaker cells in SA node
f'n + loc'n sinoatrial node
pacemaker of the heart f'n: regulate how many time heart contracts per minute loc'n: upper posterior wall of right atrium (near where superior vena cava connects to right atrium
normally we do not feel sensations in body, but the main sensation that can be felt is
pain - but still not sharply defined, we are not able to pinpoint which organs is causing pain
reffered pain
pain that feels as if it is coming from some part of the body other than the part being stimulated - painful sensations from visceral organs that is perceived as coming from another region X: during heart attack you feel pain in left arm why: nerve fibers from a particular part of the body shares the same pathway as another organ, brain cannot differentiate between the two
_____ lobe = SENSATIONS
parietal
ascending + decending aorta
part of aorta where blood is being ejected upwards/downwards
the ______ layer of the dura mater is closer to the skill
periosteal
what forms the nasal septum? (2)
perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone fused with the vomer
will give different intensities in rate of change in stimulus
phasic receptors
rods and cones are
photoreceptors
what allows us to see different colors?
photoreceptors being sensitive to photons causing for the ability to detect different wavelengths of light
recptor specificity
photoreceptors in retina of eye primarily detect photons, - photons:pockets of light - can respond to pressure X: seeing flashes of light when you rub your eyes
mater meaning soft
pia
which meninges ataches to the brain itself?
pia mater
which meninges has blood vessels, contours at every gyri and helps nourish the brain cells?
pia mater
f'n retina (inner layer)
pigmentd layer: has lots of melanocytes that abosorb light, (2) prevent scattering of light inside the eyeball (3) keeps image clear
what separates 2 lobes
primary fissure
master gland
pituitary gland
cardiac notch
place in left lung where heart fits in
what keeps our lungs inflated?
pleura
space between lungs and wall
pleural cavity - surrounds respective lungs
what is between the parietal and visceral pleura membrane ?
pleural fluid - fluid secreted by simple squamous epithelial cells that make up visceral and parietal layers of pleura
Glossopharyngeal (IX) intervates what part of the face?
posterior 1/3 of tongue
what are the two arteries the popliteal artery splits into?
posterior and anterior tibial arteries
where does the deep brachial artery supply blood to?
posterior surface of our arm
catoid sinus measures what
pressure (baroreceptors) carotid Sinus measures preSSure
f'n parietal and visceral pleura membrane
prevent our lungs from collapsing
where we become concious of visual information
primary visual cortex
f'n neurosecretaory cells (hypothalamus)
produce hormons X: antiduretic hormone (ADH) + oxytocin
tarsal gland
produce oily secretions that prevents the eyelid from sicking together
what lines the lumen of the trachea ?
regular respiratory epithelium - pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
f'n respiratory center (medulla oblongata)
regulate breathing pattern - pons can modulate
f'n blood brain barrier
regulate substance between blood and brain tisuse
arterioles contribute to ______
regulating blood pressure and blood flow at the arteriole level
if someone loses their sense of taste, what could be a possible problem?
related to facial nerve, or glossopharyneal nerve, brain, tissue, or tastebud damage
temporal lobe
related to smell and hearing
during ventricular systole and diastole, what are both atria doing?
relaxing - they are in natural systole getting ready for next cycle
if an object goes down our trachea, would you expect it in the right or left lung?
right why: bc they right main bronchi is wider and steeper than left main bronchi
the ____ ventricle of the heart pumps blood with less force
right why: because the pulmonary circuit is shorter
Which lung has 3 lobes?
right - superior, inferior, and middle
what does the abdominal aorta break up into? (2)
right and left common illiac arteries
when the hepatic artery proper goes into the liver, what does it split into? (2)
right and left hepatic artery
what does trachea split into?
right and left main bronchi
what is a big difference between the left and right atria?
right atria HAS pectinate muscles while the left atria does NOT (left auricle DOES have pectinate muscles present)
name the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle
right atrioventricular valve - tricuspid valve - think TRI before you BI (bicuspid valuve before tricuspid valve)
blood arrives back at which part of heart via superior and inferior vena cava for the cycle to be complete again?
right atrium
superior and inferior vena cava arrive in which portion of our heart?
right atrium
where does the coronary sinus directly connect to?
right atrium - same chamber that superior and inferior vena cava arrive to
flow of blood low in oxygen within the heart
right atrium --> right ventricle --> pulmonary trunk
where do we find pectinate muscles
right auricle & right atrium wall
small cardiac vein runs parallel to ______
right coronary artery itself
cigarette smoke is more likely to go into which lung?
right lung - higher instance of smoking related cancers on right lung rather than left (could also be due to having one extra lobe in right lung vs left lung)
which lung is bigger?
right lung why: bc heart is shoved into left side of thoracic cage
a stroke on the primary motor cortex of the left hemisphere, impairment will develop on what side of the body?
right side
which side of the heart pumps blood to the pulmonary circuit?
right side
where is the moderator band located?
right ventricle ONLY (extends from interventricular wall to side of right ventricle)
pericardium
sack around heart
where is aqueous humor reaborbed?
scleral venous sinus - loc'n: corneoscleral junction
f'n type 2 alveolar cells
secrete surfactant
gustation
sensation and taste - gustatory cells: specialized cells that help with taste (loc'n tastebuds) - tastebuds loc'd in doral surface of tongue
chemoreceptors
sensitivie to chemical conecentrations within the body
sensory modality arrangement
sensory fibers are arranged within the spinal cord according to the type of sensory info carried by individual neuron X: (1) posterior spinal cord: carry info on touch, pressure, and vibration (2) lateral spinal cord: pain and temperature (3) anterior
sensation
sensory info arriving at CNS
interface between the nervous system and the internal and external environment
sensory receptors
info enters spinal cord
sensory tract
f'n of septum pellucidium?
separate lateral ventricles
coronary / atrioventricular sulcus
separates atria from ventricles - goes around person's entire heart like a crown - loc'n: coronary vessels
Lateral Sulcus
separates frontal and temporal lobe
interatrial groove
separates left and right atria
f'n nasal septum
separates right and left wall of nasal cavity - formed by perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone fused with the vomer
oblique fissure
separates superior and inferior lobes of left lung
oblique fissure of right lung
separates the middle lobe from the inferior lobe
horizontal fissure
separates the superior and middle lobes of the right lung
why is carina of trachea so important?
several nerve endings group together here - if somehow a pathogen gets all the way down here, free nerve endings are stimulated and we start coughing like crazy - LEADS TO COUGHING REFLEX - coughing = defense mechanism bc you can remove debris out of airways
sulcus
shallow depression
sensory homunculus
shows specific areas of your body where you feel more or less sensation X: lips and hands have a lot of sensors
subdural space
space between dura mater and arachnoid mater - poential to be filled with fluid, does not normall exist X: filled with blood in a subdural hematoma
type 1 alveolar cells
simple squamous cells where gas exchange occurs (alveoli)
what are capillaries made out of?
simple squamous epithelium - layer of endothelial cells held together by lots of tight junctions and desmosomes - have a basal lamina surrounding
what forms capillary wall
simple squamous epithelium - same tissue forms walls of alveolar sacs
what is the tunica intima layer made up of ?
simple squamous epithelium - single layer of epithelial cells that provides smooth lining for blood to flow through
superior sagittal sinus
sinus between right and left cerebral hemispheres in superior side
least abundant type of capillaries
sinusoid
which capillary has a discontinuous basement lamina
sinusoid capillaries - discontinous basement allow for large gaps to exist
hilum of the lung
site of entrance and exit of all structures associated w/ lungs (including blood vessels)
do hands have small or large receptive fields?
small
fenestrations
small pores f'n: allow rapid movement of fluid and proteins that need to be exchanged BUT cells cannot cross fenestrations
venule
small veins
vasa vasorum
small vessels that supply blood to outer part of the larger vessels - needed so big vessels get their oxygen and nutrients - latin for vessel of the vessel - loc'n: aorta
arterioles
smallest arteries
designates the line that separates the nasal and oral pharynx
soft palate
general senses
somatic and visceral - refers to temperature, pain, touch, pressure, and proprioception - general sensory receptors are distributed throughout body
transducens
something that converts one stimulus into another - done by picking up stimuli and converting it into action potentials - changes in conditions can be both inside and outside body stimulating sensory receptors - sensory receptors work as transducens
refers to smell, taste balance, hearing, and vision
special senses
merkel cells
specialized epithelial cells that release neurotransmittrs containing vessicles that can activate nerve fibers that send action potentials to the brain in response to light touch on the skin
specialized epithelial tissue that has gustatory cells that have what?
specialized epithelial tissue that has gustatory cells that have gustatory receptros that allow us to be sensitive to different types of chemical stimuli
sensory recptors
specialized to respond to changes in environment (stimulus) - each sensory receptor responds primarily to one particular type of stimulus
loc'n first order neuron
spinal cord
blood leaving capillary beds supplied by the celliac trunk and superior/inferior mescenteric artery to into where? (3)
splenic vein, superior/ inferior mescenteric vein
f'n pectinate muscle
squeeze out maximum amount of blood into ventricle when atria contracts
pockets of info
stimuli
Where does the hepatic portal vein get its blood supply? (4)
stomach, intestines, pancrease and spleen
what are the laryngopharynx and oropharynx lined with?
stratified epithelium - several layers of squamous cells
cerebral vascular accident
stroke
f'n lacrimal apparatus
structures involved with production, distribution, and removal of tears - to some extent, always active
where do you find cerebral spinal fluid flowing through?
subarachnoid space
what gives different lobes of the brain
sulcus
which has more oxygen, blood in the superior mescenteric artery or blood in the hepatic portal vein?
super mescenteric artery why: the superior mescenteric artery is a branch of the abdominal aorta and inside all vessels that leave the aorta, there is oxy. blood + the hepatic vein takes deoxy. blood to the liver then hepatic veins leave the liver and dump all deoxy. blood into inferior vena cava
examples of large veins
superior and inferior vena cava
big veins that bring blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide into heart
superior and inferior vena cava - vena = vein - cava = big
where does CSF get back into blood stream
superior sagittal sinus
brachiocephalic trunks get together and from what?
superior vena cava that delivers blood to right atrium
the base is the ____ border of the heart while the apex is the ______ portion of the heart
superior;inferior
f'n cornoary arteries
supply oxy. blood to heart muscle itself
f'n left/right common carotid artery
supply oxy. blood to right/left side of our heads
f'n of anterior and posterior tibial arteries and fibular arteries
supplying blood to our legs
what are the adial and ulnar artery responsible for?
supplying blood to the forearm
mediastinal surface
surface of each lung facing the mediastinum
sympathetic vs parasympathetic neurons
sympathetic neurons increase: heart rate & force of contraction parasympathetic neurons decrease: heart rate & force of contraction
there is more blood found in the _______ circuit than the ______ circuit
systemic; pulmonary
contraction
systole
high peak of the pulse
systolic pressure - high peak of pulse generated while in systole
merkel's disc is also known as
tactile disc
most common receptor
tactile receptors
f'n right and left pulmonary arteries
take blood away from heart to lungs
transition cells (support) and gustatory epithelial cells are located where?
taste buds
where are gustatory cells located
taste buds
gustatory microvilli are also called what
taste hairs
where do taste hairs open up into?
taste pores
dura mater fold located along the transverse cerebral fissure
tentorium cerebelli
why is the larynx of a man bigger than the larynx of a woman?
testosterone
what divides the cerebrum and cerebellum?
transverse cerebral fissure
75% of visual information goes to ____
thalamus
relay station for all sensory info that comes up through spinal cord + eyes + ears
thalamus
what is considered the largest nuclei in our brain?
thalamus - basically group of neuronal cell bodies in one specific area
what structure relays important sensory info?
thalamus - relay station for all sensory info that comes up through spinal cord + eyes + ears
95% of the info arriving in the cerebral cortex has to pass through what
thalamus - thalamus sends info where it needs to go
95% of sensory info goes where ?
thalamus - then forewarded to the place it needs to go
after blood is pumped from the left ventricle, through the aortic valve, and into the aorta, where does the blood go?
the OXYGENATED blood goes to all systems of the body
when we blow air on a mirrow, why does it get foggy?
the air exhaled condensed on the mirror - think conducting system f'n
collateral circulation
the alternative route of blood flow to a body part through an anastomosis - works as a detour around blockage
after the subclavian artery passed under the clavicle, what does it become?
the auxillary artery
why can't we smell as well as we age?
the basal replacement of olfactory receptor cells decline
the visceral layer of the pericardium is exactly the same as what?
the epicardium itself
what blood vessel would be used to replace a blocked coronary artery?
the great saphenous why: (1) its a superficial vein meaning easy access (2) can handle pressure well
periphral distribution of arteries and veins are identical except for where in the body
the heart
veins carry blood toward what?
the heart
what generates blood pressure in the body?
the heart
where are pulmonary veins carrying blood towards?
the heart
only 7% of blood is found here
the heart - talking about chambers and not the vessels within the heart
how do the heart cardiac cells depolarize in terms of direction?
the heart cardiac cells depolarize in a wave direction that favors the blood being ejected in a specific direction
why do men have deeper voices?
the larynx of a man is bigger than a woman's and the voicebox is located in the larynx
f'n of the left side of the heart / why is the systemic circuit called systemic?
the left side pumps this oxygenated blood throughout all other systems of body - works 6 times harder than right side of heart
what does the tunica intima layer line?
the lumen or inside of our blood vessels - made of simple squamous epithelium
which cranial nerve #10 (vagus nerve) leaves which portion of the brain?
the medulla
solitary nucleus
the medullary relay nucleus of the gustatory system - from either facial or glossopharyngeal nerves - sent to a nucleus in brainstem
mesentery is the name given to
the membrance that attaches the intestines to the abdominal wall and holds it in place
optic chiasm
the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye "crosses over" to the appropriate side of the brain for processing - allows us to see sensory info from each eye at the same time
Where is the pituitary located?
the sella turcica
olfactory sensory neurons
the sensory receptors for smell that reside high up inside the nose - olfactory epithelium embeded w/ these specialized cells - supporting cells and basal cells
visceral pleural membrane is in direct contact with
the surface of the lungs ' - attached to surface of lungs
loc'n laryngeal prominence (adam's apple)
thyroid cartilage
cornea
the transparent layer forming the front of the eye. - covers the anterior part of eye - corneal-scleral junction is where sclera and cornea join together - provides a degree of protection - point of attachment of extrinsic eye muscles
the four ventricles form _____
the ventricular system of the brain
why do pulmonary veins have low pressure?
they are bringing blood from the lungs back to the heart - thinner walls
why do we need several layers of cells in the oral/laryngo pharynx?
they are on the path that food follows - we need straified squamous so we know that they can withstand abrasion caused by foods we swallow
when semilunar valves get filled with blood what happens?
they close (both valves, semilunar and aortic)
when respiratory muscles contract what happens?
they increase chest volume which creates suction that draws air into our lungs
f'n prefrontal cortex
thinking, trouble solving, concentration, behavior, personality, morality, judgement - anterior premotor cortex - when something goes wrong in this area = psych disorder
before the aorta passes through the aotric hiatus what is it called?
thoracic aorta
what is the parietal pleura membrane in contact with?
thoracic wall - attached to inner wall of chest
how does each main bronchi enter the mediastinal surface of our lungs?
through the hilum
internal carotid artery enters skull via carotid canal in temporal bone and supplies blood where?
to our brain
blood pumped into the pulmonary circuit goes where ?
to the lungs - pump blood to the lungs to get blood oxygenated
95% of sensory information goes where
to the thalamus - in thalamus info is sorted out into other parts of the brain - thalamus = relay center for all parts of the brain
most dangerous behavior that causes people to develop emphysema?
tobacco smoke - exposed to air pollution, chemical fumes, and dust - small % of cases are caused by inherited deficiency of a protein that protects elastic structures of lungs
bringing vocal cords together/apart leads to
together: very high pitched sound apart: deep sound
taste goes from _____ to _____ to _______
tongue to the thalamus, which relayes 95% of sensory info in our bodies thalamus to gustatory cortex - loc'n inside insula (inside cerebrum)
respond to EVERY single stimulus with the same magnitude
tonic receptors
epicaranial aponeurosis
tough layer of dense fibrous system
epicranial aponeurosis
tough layer of dense fibrous tissue which covers the upper part of the cranium
what happens when the trachealis relaxes?
trachea dilates and the lumen of the trachea increases
f'n of arteries and veins
transport blood
what nerve is also called the pathetic nerve?
trochlear - why: paralysis of this nerve causes deviation of eye = patient to fuse two images
bronchial tubes
tubes that carry air to and from our lungs
layer that we see on the outside of the blood vessels?
tunica adventitia/externa
both veins and arteries have this distinct layer
tunica media - smooth muscle (involuntary = controlled by autonomic nervous system)
special senses
unique to head - refers to smell, taste balance, hearing, and vision - special sense receptors are located in complex sense organs X: eyes, ears, tastebuds
when skeletal muscle contracts what prevents blood flow in both directions?
valves - blood only flows up in direction that valve permits - valves are the ones blocking the backflow of blood - valves etablish the unit direction of venous flow
periosteum of cranium
vascular connective tissue that involved bone
64% of blood is found in _______
veins
under normal conditions what vessel does not pulse?
veins - if you feel a vessel pulsing, it is not a vein - only pulse under abnormal conditions X: pulsing of jugular vein6
blood reserviors are also known as
veins - most of blood found at veneous end
which holds more blood? (veins/arteries)
veins - why: larger diameter of the lumen
dural venous sinuses
venous blood filled space created by gaps formed between the inner and outer layers of the dura- mater. - majority of blood drains into here
discharging chambers (2)
ventricle
2 hemispheres separated by
vermis
very first artery branching of left subclavian artery
vertebral artery
false vocal cord
vestibular fold
how does blood come back to the heart?
via four pulmonary veins (two veins from each lung)
what fills the posterior cavity of the eye
viterous humor
true vocal cord
vocal fold
f'n eyelids (palpebrae)
washes debris off the surface of eye
tight junctions hold cells together to strongly it prevents ____ from passing between them
water
CSF is basically gatorade, meaning it has ____, _____, and ______
water, sugar, and electrolytes
why is it important to warm the air we are inhaling?
we don't want cold air possibly freezing our lungs, so we must warm it up before it gets deep into lungs
the visual cortex controls
what you see
When does the femoral artery become the popliteal artery?
when is passed the aductor hiatus
when respiratory muscles contract/relax what happens?
when respiratory muscles contract, we inhale when respiratory muscles relax, we exhale
why do we have smooth muscle in the veins if they do not have to sustain high blood pressure?
when veins constrict, it helps squeeze blood back towards our heart
f'n respiratory zone
where gas exchange occurs - thin enough for gases to move across via diffusion
corneal-scleral junction
where sclera and cornea join together
arbor vitae
white mater under cerebellar cortex
sclera
white part of the eye
name the pulmonary veins (4)
why four: bc we have two veins leaving each lung - two left pulmonary veins - two right pulmonary veins - all arrive at left atrium of heart
right main bronchi
wide and much steeper than left main bronchi why: 3 lobes in right lung and 2 lobes in left
capillary beds
wide areas of capillaries forming big blankets and networks of little vessels that spread out and within tissue allow for nutrient and waste exchange to happen
why is the cricothyroid ligament the perfect loc'n for a tracheostomy
you know you will not damage the vocal cords of a person