Exam 4: Chapters 13-15

Discuss the prevention programs efficacy:

(Page 441 in the book)

What are the results of studies regarding boys with a history of reactive aggression?

(Page 441 in the book)

Describe the Androgyny model, Congruency model, and Masculinity model:

- Androgyny model = better relationships/most well adjusted; treats masculinity and femininity as independent traits and challenges the assumption that a person's gender should match his or her sex, people whose behavioral repertoires lack either masculine or feminine behaviors are ill-prepared to respond to many situations they encounter - Congruency model = no support; states that masculine men and feminine women are the most well-adjusted - Masculinity/Femininity model = better health/well-being; maintains that being masculine is the key to mental health

Differentiate between Aversion Therapy and Exposure Therapy:

- Aversion therapy: altering problem behaviors by pairing aversive images with undesirable behaviors (hospitals feeding lots of charcoal to overdose patients to make them sick for days to make them less likely to do the drugs again) - Exposure therapy: classical conditioning from behaviorism (exposing the patient to their fears in ways that diminishes the irrational fear; systematic desensitization) >Bandura?

Describe the principles of Classical Conditioning

- Begins with an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) evokes an unconditioned response (UCR). The UCS paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) evokes conditioned response (CR) - Second order conditioning is when you are building one conditioned S-R association on another (Ex: Pavlov's bell : rang a bell every time he fed the dog, dog salivates. Eventually salivated just hearing the bell ring.)

Differentiate between Consequence, Reinforcement, and Punishment:

- Consequence = the outcome of some behavior, can be reinforcing or punishing - Reinforcement = consequence that increases the probability a behavior will occur again - Punishment = consequence that decreased the probability a behavior will occur again

What are the limitations of classical conditioning?

- Have to occasionally reinforce the stimulus - If no reinforcement to strengthen response over time, then it disappears = extinction (gradual disappearance of the conditioned S-R association - Impossible to create certain S-R bonds

Differentiate between an Internal and External Locus of Control:

- Internal: People can affect what happens to them, Experiences are of people's own making; accomplishment comes from within, more motivated, more likely to push themselves towards goals; better self esteem and higher grades - External: People who believe that what happens to them and others is outside of their control; believe that things that happen to them are out of their control; more prone to depression and learned helplessness, tend to not do as well in school, work settings Most people are either external or internal, however can have a different locus of control in different domains (different situations). This was derived from attribution theory (all summed up to locus of control). Locus of control is something that you can change.

What are the criticisms of the Behavioral/Social Learning Approach?

- Narrow in its description of human personality - Does not give inadequate attention to the role of heredity - Human beings are more complex than laboratory animals - Reduction to observable behaviors distorts the real issues of therapy

Give examples of all of the Operant Conditions relating to Positive and Negative:

- PR: Kid drank all their milk, they get to go play - NR: Did well in school, don't have to do chores - PP: (never really good) bad behavior, spanked - NP: Did poorly in school, taking away videogames

Differentiate between Positive Punishment (PP) and Negative Punishment (NP):

- Positive Punishment = behavior followed by a negative stimulus (introducing a negative stimulus/punishment) - Negative Punishment = removal of pleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs (removing something; denying a child videogames when they do poorly in school)

Differentiate between Positive Reinforcement (PR) and Negative Reinforcement (NR):

- Positive Reinforcement = behavior followed by a reward (introducing something) - Negative Reinforcement = removal of unpleasant stimulus when the behavior occurs (when you are taking away an unpleasant stimulus; removing something to increase the behavior)

Differentiate between Shaping, Generalization, and Discriminate:

- Shaping = Reinforcement of successive approximations of the desired behavior (teaching behaviors/trying to make behaviors happen) - Generalization = Generalizing a response of a specific stimulus to another stimulus (generalize to other situations (if they don't receive the same rewards or punishments in that situation, they'll stop generalizing; will generalize for a certain period of time) - Discriminate = Differentiation between rewarding and non-rewarding stimuli (how to act at school vs. how to act on a playground)

What are some Operant Conditioning applications in psychotherapy?

- Therapist identifies the target behavior and defines it in specific operational terms - Contingencies of rewards and punishments are changed according to the frequency of behavior (if it is really severe we might give better awards; depending on child) - Biofeedback requires special equipment that provides info about somatic processes (ex: Start thinking about an exam, heart rate elevates, get nervous; can focus on lowering BP and HR) >Skinner

Identify what category each individual belongs to in the androgyny model:

- Undifferentiated = low on femininity and masculinity - Masculine = low on femininity and high on masculinity - Feminine = high on femininity and low on masculinity (high in sensitivity to others' needs; communicates well with androgynous individuals) - Androgynous = high on femininity and masculinity (able to express their romantic feelings) > According to Bem, androgyny is psychologically healthy and tend to have better relationships.

Under what conditions are aggressive models likely to lead to aggressive behaviors?

Aggressive models are most likely to lead to aggressive behavior if there is a high reward anticipation (aggression score from Figure 14.7 of 180). Also, if there is an anticipation for a punishment (score of 130 - not as high as reward expectancy).

Describe Bandura's Theory Concepts:

Albert Bandura approached the "Social Learning Theory" in saying that he agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas: Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses; and behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. He developed the Reciprocal Determinism model which is the model used for addiction research. In the model, a Behavior (such as Drug Use) is affected by External Factors (rewards, punishments) and Internal Factors (beliefs, thoughts, expectations) He also determined in Social Cognitive Theory that when people are faced with new issues they can imagine possible outcomes, calculate probabilities, set goals, and develop strategies. Think Self-Regulation and Observational Learning.

Describe the Kinsey Model:

Also called the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, is used in research to describe a person's sexual orientation based on their experience or response at a given time. The scale typically ranges from 0, meaning exclusively heterosexual, to 6, meaning exclusively homosexual (1-5 = ambisexual behavior). In both the Male and Female volumes of the Kinsey Reports, an additional grade, listed as "X", was used to mean "no socio-sexual contacts or reactions".

Describe Kelly's Theory Concepts:

As part of the cognitive approach, Kelly published the Psychology of Personal Constructs = differences in personalities are based on the way people process information (how people assess the world); how people evaluate certain constructs) (Ex: What a person expects a professor to look like) > Personal Construct Theory - Differences in personality result from differences in the way people interpret the world

Describe Skinner's Theory Concepts:

B.F. Skinner developed the Theory of Operant Conditioning and Radical Behaviorism (People do not know the reason for their behavior). Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened). - Think: PR, NR, PP, NP for reinforcement and punishment

What are the processes involved in observational learning of aggression?

Bandura's 4 Step Model for Processing Aggression: 1.) Have to pay attention to it (actual action) 2.) Have to remember it (remember the movements and the process - very detail oriented process) 3.) Attempt to enact/Be able to enact (only do this if they expect rewards) 4.) Anticipate rewards (3 & 4 go hand in hand)

Define Personal Constructs:

Cognitive structures people use to interpret and predict events. People do not use identical personal constructs. Individuals do not organize constructs in an identical manner. Constructs are bipolar (i.e. intelligent/unintelligent, masculine/feminine, friendly/unfriendly, etc.)

Describe the principles of Operant Conditioning:

Concerns the effect certain kinds of consequences have on the probability of behavior.

What are the steps of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy?

Developed by Albert Ellis, argues that people become depressed, anxious, and upset due to faulty reasoning and reliance on irrational beliefs. A: Activating event/something happens B: irrational Belief (this person was rude to me because I'm a horrible person and no one likes me) C: emotional Consequence (depreciated self esteem) Textbook does not mention that there is a "D" and "E" component as well D: Disputes/arguments - teach client why that thinking is wrong; come up with rational reasoning to argue with the irrational belief (argue with yourself) E: Emotional Effects - trying to get positive emotional effects in therapy

What is the Law of Effect?

Developed by Thorndike, behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely to be repeated if they lead to unsatisfying consequences

Define Behaviorism:

Established by John B. Watson as a way to examine overt behavior (that which can be observed, predicted, and controlled y scientists), this theory has two principles that help explain human behavior: Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.

Define Reciprocal Determinism:

External and internal determinants of behavior are part of a system of interacting influences. Affect both behavior and various parts of the system. (Ex: Thinking about a Barbecue vs. Fire when smelling smoke outside)

Describe the Cognitive-Affective Units:

From Table 15.1: - Encodings: Do we say something is good or bad? Categories (constructs) for encoding info about one's self, other people, events, and situations - Expectations: What we believe should happen (engage in a way to get a desired outcome) - Affects: Positive/Negative affects (glass half full vs. glass half empty person and how they view things). Feelings, emotions, and emotional responses. - Goals & Values: Act in accordance to what we want to be/what we want to do. Individual goals and values, and life projects. - Competencies and SRP: Can we monitor our own emotions? Can we process what's going on? (Maybe I'm evaluating this person harshly, change what I do). Some people can, some people can't. Perceived abilities, plans, and strategies for changing and maintaining one's behavior and internal states.

Discuss the study result regarding men vs. women and self-descriptions:

Had participants come up with 12 pictures they felt described themselves. Women: had more pictures of themselves with other people Men: had more pictures of themselves only > Subject matter different for the individuals.

What are the goals of cognitive therapy?

Helps recognize inappropriate thoughts and replace them with appropriate ones. Therapist will call out their client (Why should you have done that?) and it works for the long term because cognitive psychologists teach clients how to deal with future and recurring problems Limited to psychological problems that are based in irrational and self-defeating thinking (not as effective with schizophrenia or autism).

What is Learned Helplessness?

Idea that you can't get ahead; Constantly beaten down so you give up. For the individual, feels like they can't overcome the situation (see this a lot with racial disparities). Child learns helplessness from individual via observation Canine Trials: shock the dog using metal floor, put a little wall that they could get over where they would not be shocked but they just gave up and laid down after repeated exposure.

Define Observational Learning:

In relation to the Social Cognitive Theory as part of the Social Learing Theory, Observational Learning is when people learn by observing other people's actions or by observing or reading or just hearing about other people's actions (think: people with younger siblings). - Behaviors learned through observation need not be performed - Performing an observed behavior depends on people's expectations about the consequences

Define Self-Regulation:

In relation to the Social Cognitive Theory as part of the Social Learing Theory, Self-Regulation controls the behavior in the absence of external reinforcements and punishments. If someone is highly impulsive, they may be missing the self-regulation component.

Describe Rotter's Theory Concepts:

Julian B. Rotter approached the "Social Learning Theory" in saying that personality represents an interaction of the individual with his or her environment. Behavior potential (BP) is the likelihood of engaging in a particular behavior in a specific situation. Expectancy (E) is the subjective probability that a given behavior will lead to a particular outcome, or reinforcer. Reinforcement is another name for the outcomes of our behavior. Reinforcement value (RV) refers to the desirability of these outcomes. Things we want to happen, that we are attracted to, have a high reinforcement value. Things we don't want to happen, that we wish to avoid, have a low reinforcement value. (BP) = (E) + (RV)

Differentiate between Inter vs independent self-construals:

Men are more independent as far as self-construals (think of themselves and their accomplishments). Think: do I have good grades, have I been able to do the things that I wanted to do. Women are more interdependent (think of themselves as their roles to others - sister, caregiver, mother, etc.). Think: how close am I with ____, how many friends do I have.

How is the Negative Cognitive Style used and what are we trying to predict using it?

Negative Cognitive Style: Glass is always half empty (kinda like negative affect), attribute problems to stable unchangeable causes, learned helplessness, logical flaws (Negative Schema: Construct that we use to process things). Tends to be stable over time and is related to depression (Exception: Collectivist cultures). Used to identify people who may be vulnerable to future episodes of depression. Predicts how adolescents react when encountering stressors in teenage years.

Define Spontaneous Recovery:

Only takes once or twice to get reaction back once trained (much easier to train second time around).

Define Radical Behaviorism:

People do not know the reason for their behavior. Developed by B.F. Skinner

What happens when a person has inadequate personal constructs?

Psychological problems arise due to defects in construct systems (doesn't take into account traumatic experiences - can affect personal constructs). If constructs don't line up/aren't realistic, then start having psychological issues (ex: unintelligent vs. majestic - aren't the same things, so don't make sense) and start addressing things in an abnormal way. People become anxious when personal constructs fail to make sense of the events in their lives. When we can't use our constructs, we start to freak out (people tend to fear what they don't understand and hate what they fear). People frequently generate a new construct to replace the inadequate one.

How do we use Possible Selves and why are they important?

Researchers use possible selves to study behaviors: Binge drinking, academic performance, drug addiction, as well as weight loss, adherence to an exercise program. Research indicates gender differences because parents tend to train children from a young age to adhere to gender expectations (i.e. Female children tend to model themselves after their mothers). How you visualize yourself will determine your behavior, which is ultimately why children that come from educated backgrounds are more likely to get degrees .

Define Self Schemas:

Self Schemas are the cognitive representations of oneself (How you think of yourself/How you view yourself = Your self concept). Some things that are characteristic of you and some that are uncharacteristic for you (different things that we evaluate). Used to organize and process self-relevant information. Part of self schema includes Trait Concepts = people behave differently due to individual differences in their self schemas.

According to cognitive therapists, what are the causes of behavioral problems and disorders?

Their constructs are flawed/don't really line up (ex: intelligent or mean, instead of bipolar constructs such as intelligent or unintelligent).

What is the purpose and use of the Rep Test?

To understand your schema, your constructs, how you view the world. Used for career counselling, among other things. Developed by Kelly. States that how you view the world can be listed out in the constructs (could be constructs that are used a lot). Researchers employ grid technique to study: Teaching effectiveness (objectives of teaching, roles), profiles of specific criminal type, and career counseling

Describe Unmitigated Agency:

Unmitigated Agency is the opposite of Unmitigated Communion in which a person is narcissistically focusing on the self to the exclusion of others. These people only care about themselves and getting ahead and are not afraid to burn bridges or cut off relationships. Often okay with taking advantage of people (like the Givers) and are often "Takers."

Describe Unmitigated Communion:

Unmitigated Communion is a focus on and involvement with others to the exclusion of the self. People that are the "Givers" like in Adam Grant's TED Talk. Often times can be self-sacrificing (have low well-being and low self-esteem, prone to depression). Boost self worth by helping others, if they can't then they are depressed.

What is the Kelly "man-as-scientist" idea?

We want to figure out the world around us, want to know reasons why something happens. Constructs - how we assess that/make sense of the world

What is self-discrepancy theory?

What happens when the person you are and the person you want to be aren't the same. Based on the cognitive representations of the self: - Actual self: the kind of person you are - Ideal self: the kind of person you would like to be - Ought self: the person you believe you should be (this is where society and upbringing come in) When the actual does not equal the ideal, often results in disappointment, dejection, and sadness (i.e. Body Image). When the actual does not equal the ought, often results in agitation, anxiety, and guilt (a lot of cognitive behavior therapy addresses this).

Describe the results of the elderly resident study:

When elderly put in nursing home and not given sense of independence, let nurses do everything for them. Often they slip into depression; Participate less; Stay in bed more. Known as Generalized Uncontrollability = lack of motivation and activity symptoms. Study: Went to nursing home and looked at different floors, on one floor brought everyone into training session to tell them that they have control and then gave them a plant if they wanted it. Other floor, told them that they are there to help and do everything for them and gave them a plant and told them the nurses are going to take care of them. Individuals with more autonomy had lower mortality rate, lower depression, and less likely to be sedentary >> Improves health of individuals.

Elements of emotional memories and their link to gender:

Women are more likely to be communal: process things related to relationships and emotions. Information about themselves is connected with information about personal relationships. Self-relevant information is associated with emotions. Recall emotional memories better than males regardless of age. Have a stronger cognitive link between one emotional memory and another. Men are more individual: process facts (historical time points). > Can be explained by the way people process self-relevant information.

What are the strengths and criticisms of the cognitive approach?

Strengths: ideas developed through empirical findings, subjected to extensive investigation in controlled laboratory experiments, and Positive psychologists like it - we are currently moving more towards positive psychology and this allows us to look at people's bright sides and where there is room from improvement. Criticisms: Concepts are too abstract for empirical research (can't analyze it with numbers unless we use ratings, and even then it is not standardized), Indecisive to introduce cognitive concepts to account for individual differences in behavior (can't correct people's thoughts with cognitive approach), no single model to organize and guide theory and research (all look at different things and no one has come up with a way to summarize them all).