Exam 4

physical punishment?

surveys say... 61% of parents approve of spanking, 49% actually spank, 79% have denied privileges, 45% insulted or swore at kids, 49% confined to room.

effects of child care:

can be from relatives, nonrelatives, day care center. kids may learn negative behaviors from other kids in child care.

social conventional judgments

decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization

New York Longitudinal Study (Stella Chess, Alexander Thomas)

interviewing parents, repeatedly and in depth, about their infants' specific behaviors. 9 characteristics of kids were identified like attention span, persistence, quality of mood, adaptability, activity level. classified babies as... 1. easy babies 2. difficult babies 3. slow to warm up babies

gangs

adolescents who join tend to have engaged in antisocial activities, have delinquent friends before joining. being in gang increases delinquency. longer in gang, more likely to engage in behavior. more likely to commit violent crime. because lack of education, gang members have few opportunities to earn money legitimately, therefore behavior often continues into adulthood.

social cognition of aggressive-antisocial children/adolescents

"hostile attribution bias" social interactions more likely to be hostile, inappropriate. tend to imagine fewer possible reactions to a bad encounter, options more likely aggressive, disruptive. evaluate aggressive responses more faorably, competent, prosocial responses = less favorable. they expect aggression to have positive outcome. feel more confident to perform aggression.

positive emotions

1 month olds smile in sleep, sometimes when stroked gently, possibly reflexive. 3-8 weeks, smile in rxn to external stimuli (i.e. high pitched voice). 3rd month social smiles- humans much more likely to make them smile than objects 2 month olds show happiness in social and nonsocial contexts in which they can control a particular event. 7 months, infants smile primarily at familiar ppl. 3-4 months laughter 2 yrs. clowning around, like making ppl laugh

MEMORIZE KOHLBERG'S STAGES:

1. avoid being punished 2. trying to get benefits fro oneself 3. how are ppl going to perceive me? 4. for society to function well, we follow the rules 5. social contract, we reflect on rights of the individual, needs of society when figuring out what to do 6: only for incredibly wise

6 dimensions of infant temperament

1. fearful distress- distress and withdrawal in new situations and how long it takes a child to adjust 2. irritable distress- fussiness, anger, frustration, esp if the child is not allowed to do what he or she wants 3. attention span and persistence- duration of orienting toward objects or events of interest 4. activity level- how much an infant moves 5. positive affect- smiling, laughter, approach to ppl, degree of cooperativeness and manageability 6. rhythmicity- regularity and predictability of the child's bodily functions such as eating and sleeping

3 ways parents socialize prosocial behavior in their children:

1. modeling and teaching prosocial behavior 2. through their arranging opportunities for their children to engage in prosocial behavior 3. through their methods of disciplining their children and eliciting prosocial behavior form them

how do parents typically contribute to their kids' socialization?

1. parents as direct instructors 2. parents as indirect socializers- through their own behaviors w and around children, model attitudes and behaviors towards others 3. parents as social managers- manage their children's experiences and social lives, including their exposure to various ppl, activities, info. especially prominent/influential when kids are young

functions of families:

1. survival of offspring 2. economic function 3. cultural training

the stage of autonomous morality

11-12. (aka moral relativism) no blind obedience. they understand rules are product of social agreement and can be changed if majority of a group agrees to do so. fairness/equality = important. punishment should fit the crime

self conscious emotions: embarrassment, pride, guilt, shame

15-24 months: embarrassment. 3 yrs: pride increasingly tied to level of performance. guilt = associated w empathy for others, feeling remorse, regret about one's behavior, desire to undo consequences. shame = focus on self, feel exposed, feel like hiding. whether a situation elicits shame or guilt can depend on child.

negative emotions

1st: generalized distress 2 months: facial expressions of what appears to be anger/sadness interpretation of neg emotions = complicated. little firm evidence of distinct fear rxns in infant's 1st few months. 4 months: wary of unfamiliar objects, events. anger is usually distinct from other emotions by 4-8 months, also showing sadness in similar situations. when away from parents for extended time without given sensitive care, show prolonged sadness

how many stages of development in children's moral reasoning did Piaget say there was?

2 with a transition period

Good divorce

20-25% kids will have long term emotional problems (compared to 10% of kids from in tact families). is this an acceptable number or problematic? levels of conflict prior to divorce: divorce ends in high conflict? better for kids, but only 1/3 of couples of divorce are high conflict. 2/3 = low conflict, yet get divorce = good divorce, even get along okay before and after divorce.

identifying the emotions of others:

4-7 months: can distinguish certain emotional expressions, like happiness/surprise. 8-12 months: begin to demonstrate that they can relate facial expressions of emotion/emotional tones of voice to events in the environment (social referencing) 14 months: emotion related info obtained through social referencing has an effect on kids' behavior even an hour later. age 3: demonstrate rudimentary ability to label a fairly narrow range of emotional expressions displayed in pics or on puppets' faces

interesting study: Nazi rescuers

44% of those who rescued Jews mentioned generosity and caring for others as valued 21% bystanders mentioned same, twice as likely to cite economic competence as a value learned from their parents, ethical obligations to system, not ppl

transitional period

7-8 to age 10. children typically have more interactions w peers, more involved, more give-and-take than their adult interactions. take one another's perspective

kids of good divorce are more likely to say....

I felt alone life is stressful parents version of truth is different felt like a football kicked back and forth Marguart (studied divorce) said she didn't feel at home til married in her 30s even in good divorce, kids lives are more stressful than intact families. they survive, but still trauma, not just diagnosable stuff

do we get used to conflict?

NO. we become more sensitive to it.lower grades? maybe because less sleep when stressed about parents. why? emotional experience = arousing and hard to ignore. also, mom/dad's current state tells kids things like when to ask for something, or leave the house. kids really focus on it. the more serious the conflict, the more engaged the kid is

oppositional defiant disorder

a disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviors

conduct disorder

a disorder that involves severe antisocial aggression behaviors that inflict pain on others or involve destruction of property or denial of the rights of others

survival of offspring

a function of the family; pertains to ensuring the survival of offspring by providing for their needs

economic function

a function of the family; pertains to providing the means for children to acquire the skills and other resources they need to be economically productive as adults

cultural training

a function of the family; pertains to teaching children the basic values in their culture

emotional intelligence

a set of abilities that contribute to competence in the social and emotional domains. more than IQ, predicts how well ppl do in life, especially socially.

discrete emotions theory

a theory about emotions discussed by Tomkins, Izard, and others in which emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very early in life, and each emotion is believed to be packaged w a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions. distinct emotions are evident from early in life

functionalist approach

a theory of emotion proposed by Campos and others that argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal. In this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment

social competence

ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others

easy babies

adjusted readily to new situations, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm (40% initially)

children's understanding of real and false emotions:

age 3: occasional attempts to mask their negative emotions when they receive a disappointing gift. age 5: kids' understanding of false emotion improves considerably age 4-6 cross culturally: increasingly understand that ppl can be misled by others' facial expressions, understanding related to increases in cognitive capacities. parents' beliefs/behaviors likely contribute to kids' understanding/use of display rules

instrumental aggression

aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal (i.e. conflict over possessions)

peer influence in aggression/antisocial behavior

aggressive children socialize w aggressive children. larger the peer group may influence more than close friends. peer models reinforce antisocial behavior in peer group. children's susceptibility to peer pressure increases in elementary, peaks 8th, 9th grade, declines after. when embedded in traditional culture (i.e. immigrant Mexicans), appear to be less susceptible.

conscience

an internal regulatory mechanism that increases the individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his or her culture

Martin Hoffman

argues that although young children may be able to take others' perspective in terms of feelings of distress, efforts to help are egocentric

normal emotional development in childhood

as language skills increase, preschoolers find verbal jokes funny. fear imaginary creatures, but uncommon by elementary bc they have better understanding of reality. they worry about reality, like school or being harmed by someone. preschool anger no matter whether intentional harm or not, elementary takes motive into account. adolescent experiences mild increase in negative emotions, decrease in positive emotions. minority experience major increase in neg emotions. older adolescents experience less emotional liability.

ethnic dif in parenting style?

asian tiger moms (immigrants w high standards) are authoritarian, more acceptable because associated with love, pushing them to do their best. same in inner city environments. however, ppl wish to be authoritative for adjustment to world

study: Japanese vs American preschoolers

asked to say what they would do in hypothetical situations of conflict/distress. Americans expressed more anger/aggression than Japanese. maybe because American mothers appear to be more likely to encourage their children's emotional expressiveness in situations like these

Carol Gilligan's judgment of Kohlberg

based on justice which is male reasoning, women reason based on caring

aggression

behavior aimed at harming or injuring others

quality of the child's relationships w parents

can influence their emotional development. influence their sense of security, how they feel about themselves/others. these feelings affect children's emotionality. (i.e. securely attached children tend to be more open, honest in expression of emotion, advanced in understanding of emotion, likely to help children to recognize when/how to regulate emotion, etc.)

effects of harmful conflict

caveat- in all cases, we're talking about increased risk for... this is not absolute, but pretty much any negative outcome correlates w high conflict. -lower academic achievement -poorer health and social skills -young kids feel responsible -older kids express anger -girls internalize (depressive symptoms, etc.) -boys externalize (no self control, looks like ADHD)

Kohlberg's stages: conventional

centered on social relationships, focuses on compliance w social duties and laws stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, interpersonal conformity- good behavior is doing what is expected, or close to norm stage 4: social system and conscience orientation- fulfilling duties, laws, motivated to keep social system going

children's behaviors and temperaments influence parenting:

children are active contributors to the parenting process. children can learn to be noncompliant through interactions w their parents that reinforce neg behavior

socialization of prosocial behavior:1 modeling/communication of values

children imitate other ppl's helping/sharing behavior, especially imitating those they have a positive r/ship w. i.e. parents and kids tend to have similar levels of prosocial behavior (heredity may contribute). effective way to teach kids is through discussion w sympathy arousing language (poor children).

stability of temperament over time

children prone to negative emotion at age 3 tend to be more negative than peers at ages 6 and 8. similar w inhibition or fearful distress. similar w ability to focus attention. however, reaction to unfamiliar situations may change

study:

children who had been identified as aggressive by peers when 8 had more criminal convictions, engaged in more serious criminal behavior at 30 than those who had not been identified as aggressive

stage of the morality of constraint

children younger than 7-8. rules/duties to others are unchangeable "givens". justice is whatever authorities say is right, authorities' punishments are always justified. consequence of action makes it good or bad, not motive/intention

Piaget's theory of moral judgment

children's moral reasoning changes from rigid acceptance to appreciation that moral rules are a product of social interactions, modifiable. interactions w peers, more than adult influence, account for advances in children's moral reasoning

sleeper effects

consequences of marital conflict may not show until years down the road. more negative views towards marriage. this is bad because marriage is really good. more likely to divorce, earlier sex activity, more drug use.

temperament

constitutionally (biologically) based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time. may be caused by prenatal, hormonal, neural development.

critique of Kohlberg's theory

cultural differences? research shows that children and adults often reason at different levels on different occasions, or even same occasion. sex differences in moral judgment? males = justice and rights females = caring, responsibility (however, little evidence to show that boys and girls score differently)

Cole and Tmang 1988

culture doesn't just affect displayed emotions, but experienced emotions. Americans value displaying emotions. STUDY: 2 remote villages in Nepal. Buddhists value social equality and harmony (no one standing out in the group), Hindus valued self and self-discipline. expected different emotional experiences and displays between villages because dif focuses. asked village kids how they would feel if x happened. how would they want others to think they were feeling? -knocked over a tower of rocks -parents call you for bed when you want to keep playing -you want to join a group of kids playing RESULTS: Buddhist kids were less likely to experience strong emotions either positive or negative (okay, at peace). 2/3 Buddhists felt okay, vs. only 13% Hindu kids, more likely to mask emotions. experimenters asked moms when they could no longer identify their kids' emotions. Hindu = 9, Buddhist = 14.5, when they move out. limitations: can't randomly assign ppl to culture. 3rd variable? genetics

moral judgments

decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness, and justice

personal judgments

decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration

goodness of fit

degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible w the demands and expectations of his or her social environment (parent adjusts parenting style to fit child = good!)

longitudinal study by Judy Dunn et al.

degree to which kids are exposed to, participate in, discussions of emotions w family members at ages 2-3 predicts their understanding of others' emotions until at least age 6.

consistency of aggressive and antisocial behavior:

despite decline, most aggressive/ prone to conduct problems children tend to be aggressive in adolescence, more than children who develop conduct disorders at a later age. most at risk for serious problem behaviors; aggression AND antisocial behaviors. aggression not necessarily needed for later problem behavior. early aggression may be bc neurological deficits which can result in troubled relations, further fueling aggressive, antisocial behavior. deficits make it difficult to consider all info before acting aggressively. early-onset conduct problems associated w range of family risk factors. adolescent conduct problems, in contrast, likely associated w being member of ethnic minority or deviant peers (DIF FROM DELINQUENCY). most delinquents don't show aggressive behavior before 11 and stop after late adolescence.

Baumrind 2001

distinguishing bw clear abuse adn "normative physical punishment" methodological concerns, concerned w baseline behavior, spanking correlates w deliquency? we don't know causal factors, 3rd variables. parenting style. compare it ot other disciplinary techniques. sample and design: largely white, middle class, follow kids from preschool- adolescents (longitudinal), data collected via survey/direct observations/interviews FINDINGS: mix spankers and abusers/ correlation like what Straus proposes. just parents using NPP? on average, kids turned out fine. never experience physical punishment, and those who received NPP were equally adjusted. verbal punishment = worst outcome for kids. why? perception of love from parents (kid's perception)

economic stress and parenting

economic stress = strong predictor of quality of parenting/familial interactions/child adjustment- generally negative. help? have supportive relationships with others who can provide material assistance, child care, advice, etc. = more confidence/better parenting. unfortunately, less beneficial for those in poorest, most dangerous neighborhoods.

emotion

emotion is characterized by physiological responses, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action

functionalist approach

emotional expressions are adaptive, understand from child's point of view, understand context. whatever emotional expression child makes serves purpose for him/her. we don't want to tell kids emotional expressions are bad (Horton disagrees)

empathy

emotional reaction to another's emotional state or condition that is similar to that other person's state or condition

reactive aggression

emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perception that other people's motives are hostile

parents' expression of emotion

emotions expressed at home may influence kid's views about self, others. exposed to lot of anger may come to view themselves as individuals who anger ppl, believe most ppl are hostile. parental expression of emotion provides kids w model of when/how to express emotion, any affect kids understanding of what types of emotional expressions are appropriate, effective in interpersonal relations. no emotion in parents? kids may believe talking about emotions is bad. emotions to which kids are exposed may affect their level of distress/arousal. highly aroused kids tend not to attend to/process important information about ongoing social interactions. consistent/open expression of positive or negative emotion in home is associated w specific outcomes for kids. may be reciprocal: difficult kids bring negative emotions out of parents.

self conscious emotions

emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us. believed to emerge in 2nd year, when child gains understanding that they are distinct from other ppl, develop sense of self. emergence fostered by child's growing sense of what adults/society expect of them.

the development of prosocial behavior

empathy, sympathy = ability to take perspective of others. it is clear that children have some ability to understand others' perspectives as young as 6 months (interestin a peer's distress by leaning or gesturing, etc) by 10-14 months, children sometimes become disturbed and upset when they view other ppl who are upset. may be because they cannot differentiate distress of others and their own. 2 yrs- start to differentiate more clearly bw another's emotional distress and their own. young children do not regularly act in prosocial ways. 2-3 generally ignore siblings' distress, sometimes making situation worse. children's prosocial behaviors such as helping, sharing increase in frequency from preschool to adolescence

parental discussion of emotion:

family conversations about emotion are important for kids' emotional socialization. will teach them about meanings of emotions, when to be expressed, consequences of... parents can coach kids about ways of coping w their emotions and expressing them appropriately result: kids tend to display better emotional understanding. parental coaching leads to more socially competency w peers, less likely to exhibit problem behaviors

separation anxiety

feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached. may be because they cannot escape potentially dangerous situations, must rely on parent to protect them. increases fro 8-13 or 15 months, then declines

longitudinal study in New Zealand

found that children who were neg/unregulated as young kids tended to have more problems w adjustment in adolescents/adulthood, more likely to not get along, engage in illegal behavior, more unemployment. children's adjustment and social competence are predicted by combination of their temperament and their parents' child rearing practices/socialization efforts.

contact w noncustodial parents:

frequency of contact is not significant for adjustment. quality of contact! competent, supportive, authoritative fathers = better adjustment than frequent superficial or disruptive contact. less is known about noncustodial moms.

understanding simultaneous and ambivalent emotions:

hard for kids to grasp that ppl can feel several emotions at once, including ambivalent emotions. until age 4-5, kids tend not to realize that multiple feelings can exist at same time. 5-7: they come to realize that they can feel 2 compatible emotions simultaneously. mid-late childhood: realize tey and others can simultaneously experience positive and negative eotions related to the same source

altruistic motives

helping others for reasons that initially include empathy or sympathy for others and, at later ages, the desire to act in ways consistent w one's own conscience and moral principles

King and Furrow 2004

how do we measure religiosity? simple yes/no answers = same between xians and nonxians. however, if you measure behavior, those who engage in more religious behaviors vs. less. study interested in religiosity and desirable outcomes. emphasizes role of social capital, focusing on 3 dimensions (social capital: richness of social networks). Dimensions: 1. structural- how frequent there's contact bw members of community 2. relational- to what degree is there trust/obligation/expectation within community 3. cognitive- shared beliefs and values positive outcomes; altruism and empathy. religiosity and moral outcomes do not correlate. religiosity predicts social capital. religiosity relates to moral outcomes through social capital!

individual differences in prosocial behavior: biological factors

humans evolved the capacity for empathy because increase likelihood of an individual's genes being passed on to next gen. helpful ppl more likely to be helped and vice versa. genetic factors do contribute. twin study: own empathy/prosocial behavior = more similar in identical than fraternal twin. heredity appeared to play smaller role in toddlers' prosocial behavior than it seems to in adults. heredity in dif temperaments? i.e. child who experience emotion without getting overwhelmed are especially likely to experience sympathy. assertiveness: perspective taking is more likely to lead to prosocial action

Kohlberg's stages: postconventional

ideals, focuses on moral principles stage 5: social contract or individual rights- upholding rules that are in best interest of group stage 6: universal ethical principles- commitment to self chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice

lesbian and gay parents:

in many cases, child born in heterosexual relationship, divorce, or artificial insemination, adoptive/foster moms. gays get a lot of difficult to place foster kids. kids = pretty similar to heterosexually parented kids. not teased more than others.

Karl Popper moment

in the 70s divorce meant losing a father, kids were at greater risk for everything. divorce seemed more harmful than the death of a father. increased risk for negative outcomes usually began before divorce. problem= parental conflict. divorce doesn't end conflict. now share kids? if parents could handle sharing ids bw 2 homes, they could probably handle marriage. IF high conflict marriage and if conflict ends w divorce, divorce is better for kids than if they stayed together. couples who fall out of love, but stay together are happier in 5 years than those who divorced (common when kids go to college). all couples have conflict about similar things. presence of conflict is unimportant, its the handling of conflict that's important

ineffective discipline and family coercion

inconsistent parenting are more likely to have aggressive, delinquent kids. and parents who fail to monitor their children's behavior, activities. monitoring reduces likelihood that older children will be associated w antisocial peers. but if already troubled kids, monitoring leads to conflict, forcing them to back off. aggression often unintentionally reinforced by parents, give in to kid's fits, especially w out of control boys.

socialization of prosocial behavior: 2 opportunities for prosocial activites

increases their willingness to take on prosocial tasks later on. also provides opportunity to feel emotional reward for helping others.

Life after "good divorce"

kids are no longer the center of family. 2/3 kids in intact families say they were center of attention growing up, vs. only 1/3 divorced kids. often report feeling like little adults, more responsible, emotional support for parents (esp mom). home? may feel strangers in either home. may not have access to friends when at 1 home, always know they could be sent to other house, not applicable for intact families. SECRETS: 27% divorced kids were expressly told to keep secrets from their parents and know there are things they shouldn't tell their parents vs. 10% intact kids. values: intact kids watch parents work out conflicts in values, not in divorce. big and small values differ bw parents. kids are put in confusing place where parents don't agree and say what is right. kids have to figure it out earlier and on their own, have to reconcile different values on their own

Horton disagrees w functionalist approach

kids often misbehave during parental conflict bc mad at him is better than at each other. need to learn emotional self regulation. infants can't do so much, but in 2 ways: if overstimulated, look away, or suck on things. early childhood: cover eyes or ears. adolescence: problem focused- try to directly change situation, emotion focused; try to change how we feel about it. also includes generating motivation ad emotion (i.e. Horton Rabinowitz Day)

parental punitiveness: aggression, antisocial behavior

kids w verbally harsh parents prone to problem behaviors in early years, aggression in childhood, criminality in adolescence. physical punishment and children's antisocial behavior varies. abusive punishment is likely associated w antisocial tendencies regardless of culture. promotes expectations of aggressive behavior to result in positive outcomes. abusive parents are imitated by kids. reciprocal: children high in antisocial behavior tend to elicit harsh parenting, vice versa. may be genetic.

socioeconomic influences on parenting

low SES parents are more likely to use authoritarian/punitive child rearing style, higher SES more authoritative, accepting, democratic. high SES moms talk more, elicit more talk from, their kids, follow up more directly on what their children say. - may foster better communciation between child and higher SES mom. low SES parents more likely to promote conformity. high SES want kids to become self directed/autonomous. (perhaps because parents value what is valued in their job i.e. blue vs white collar) higher educated parents hold a more complex view of development than less educated. low SES parents may be authoritarian to protect child from dangerous neighborhoods, high SES less worried.

socioeconomic status and children's antisocial behavior

low SES tend to be more antisocial, aggressive. when family escapes poverty, 4-7 yr olds become less aggressive, antisocial. long term likely to become aggressive,antisocial. why? greater stressors, neighborhood violence, unplanned pregnancy, exposed to parenting deficits, more likely to have parents using threatening discipline, lax in supervising, model more aggression, gangs, few opportunities, etc.

depression

many show symptoms, even if not enough to be diagnosed. higher for females, poorer children, Hispanics more. also have conduct disorders, substance abuse, ADHD, aggression. low levels of family engagement, support, high levels of negative feedback associated w depression.

changes in families in the united states

marriage age has risen, more moms work, and the average age at which women bore children increased, especially within marriages. upsurge in divorce, increase in unwed moms. single parent households = 28%.

effects of maternal employment:

maternal employment may be associated w negative outcomes for kids under certain circumstances and w positive outcomes under other circumstances. involved vs. uninvolved. infants whose moms were working by time infants were 9 months old tended to score lower on a school readiness scale at 36 months of age. especially pronounced when moms worked long hours, not sensitive caregivers. working moms had kids with higher academic competence than kids of full time homemakers, also more assertive/independent. higher social adjustment, competence. why? mothers = authoritative. same in low income families, full time = better outcome. african american daughters of working moms are more likely to stay in school. poor paying jobs may become less supportive parents, less stimulating home environment. reject gender roles.

quality of child care:

minimum standards: 1. child to caregiver ratio of 3:1 for kids aged 6-15 months, 4:1 for 2 year olds, 7:1 for 3 year olds 2. maximum group sizes of 6 for kids aged 6-15 months, 8 for 2 year olds, 14 for 3 year olds 3. formal training for caregivers (including certification or a college degree) in child development, early childhood education, or a related field

differences in moms' and dads' interactions with their children:

moms spend more times with kids, no matter what ethnicity. fathers spend more time w sons, moms w daughters. fathers spend greater proportion playing w their children than mothers, dif type of play than mothers- outdoors vs. inside.

Kohlberg's theory of moral judgment

moral development proceeds through specific stages, discontinous and qualitatively different. he made the stages: preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, postconventional moral reasoning. Kohlberg believes that all ppl move through his stages in order, although may attain different stages

Steinberg

moral reasoning is typically post-hoc (do it and figure out after the fact how it was okay). competing neural networks, cognitive control network's key = prefrontal cortex which isn't fully myelinated til 25. socioemotional network's key = amygdala kicks in with emotions or with peers, concerned with immediate gratification. what can happen is someone suggests something dumb, you do it and regret when too late, despite being smart people

potential impact of divorce:

more likely to experience depression, sadness, lower self esteem, less socially responsible/competent. boys have higher externalizing problems like aggression. more drop outs, delinquency, substance abuse, having kids out of wedlock. greater risk for divorce themselves. most, however, do not suffer enduring consequences

parental conflict

more parental conflict, more antisocial aggressive behavior in kids. parents model aggressive behavior. believe violence is acceptable, natural part of family interaction. embattled parents tend to be less skilled at parenting, more hostile w kids. divorce also correlates. after divorce, mom less supportive toward children, more inconsistent, authoritarian, less effective. insecure about their own relationships w their parents, will parents desert them?

attachment and the parent child relationship

no evidence that kids in child care are less securely attached than other kids, or display less positive behavior in interactions w their moms. minority of cases extensive child care is associated w negative effects on attachment, these cases tend to involve other risk factors, like poor quality care at home. non-maternal care fare is much more strongly related to characteristics of the family like income, education, etc. child care effect on development is limited.

response to emotion theories...

no one theory is definitive. young infants show emotions, w partial or complete facial expressions, anger and sadness appear as early as 2 mon. not clear to what degree facial expressions, esp negative, can be reliably differentiated. not clear to what degree children's basic emotions are innate or develop as consequence of experience

cognitive and language deevlopment

not highly consistent studies. higher quality kid care linked to better cognitive and language development in first 3 years of life. by 4.5, scored higher on tests of preacademic cognitive skills and academic achievement than those in lower quality care.

emotional display rules

not until age 3 kids can hid emotions. reasons? avoid punishment, or social harmony (= higher level of social skills than 1st reason)

older parents:

older first time parents tend to have more education, higher status, higher incomes, more likely to have planned birth, fewer kids overall. mom does less housework. more positive in their parenting of infants than younger parents. older moms report greater gratification from their interactions w the baby, displayed more positive emotion toward the baby, greater sensitivity to baby's cues. true for fathers also

Piaget's argument for the stage of the morality of constraint

parental control of children is coercive and unilateral, leading to children's unquestioning respect. = social aspect children's cognitive inmaturity causes them to believe that rules are "real" things, like chairs = cognitive aspect

Burt et al 2008

parental divorce predicts delinquency? not always, but increased risk factor. as divorce becomes more common (and accepted), risk factor is strengthened. why? possibilities: common genes (ppl who can't get along, have bad genes who have bad kids = esp bad/delinquent kid) or divorce itself is cause. study tries to tease out which cause is true. bad genes? shouldn't matter when divorce happens because kid still gets common genes. study; look at ppl's adolescents in 3 categories based on parent status. 1. parents never divorced (still married) 2. divorced before child was born 3. divorced after child is born what are the rates of delinquency? only group w elevated risk = #3. 1 & 2 are the same? NOT COMMON GENES, therefore experience of going through the divorce predicts later delinquency.

Mexican-American families and parenting styles:

parental warmth w their kids and harsh control tended to go together in spanish speaking mex american families, but were unrelated to one another in english speaking mex american families. although harsh control was associated w more conduct problems for both families, parental acceptance was related to fewer problem behaviors only for spanish speaking mex americans. thus, parental warmth and acceptance, andharsh control, seemed to have different meanings in acculturated and less acculturated families

parenting styles

parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interactions, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness

attractiveness

parents are more affectionate/playful w attractive infants than unappealing faces. mothers of unappealing infants spend more time w other ppl, rather than infant, higher likelihood to report infant interferes w their lives.

Baumrind's parenting style

parents don't always fit into one style all of the time. they vary in demandingness and responsiveness/warmth. authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

shift from caregiver regulation to self-regulation:

parents help infants regulate emotional arousal by controlling exposure to stimulating events. parent soothes/distracts. by 6 months: show 1st signs of emotional self regulation, may reduce their distress by indiscriminately averting their gaze, self soothe, distract 1-2 years: increasingly distract themselves from distressing stimuli by selectively averting their attention. as language ability improves, child is more likely to discuss upsetting emotional situations w parents rather than simply crying. why? increasing maturation of neurological systems, due to changes in what adults expect of children. 9-12 months: begin to show awareness of adults' demands, begin self regulating. 2 yrs: increases in ability to inhibit their motor behavior (i.e. "slow down")

stress and divorce

parents lose established social networks when divorcing, especially in laws, who take sides. custodial moms usually experience substantial drop in income, minority receive full child support payments. moms can be stressed, angry, hurt, depressed too. less warmth, consistency, supervision of kids than if two parent family. best adjusted before and after divorce if parent is authoritative.

contribution of long standing characteristics and divorce:

parents may have difficulty coping w stress/forming positive social relationships. factor in divorce? any of these characteristics would be likely to undermine the quality of parenting the child receives. children whose parents divorce tend to be more poorly adjusted prior to the divorce than are children from non divorced families- may be due to stress in home, poor parenting, etc. may be due to inherited characteristics like lack of self regulation

parents' reactions to children's emotions:

parents who dismiss/criticize their kids' expressions of sadness/anxiety communicate that their feelings aren't valid. same when reacting to kids' anger w threats or dismissal. result: kids tend to be less emotionally/socially competent, less sympathy. supportive parents help regulate emotional arousal, kids tend to be more competent w peers and academics

development of aggression/other antisocial behaviors:

physical aggression can begin around 18 months, increases until 2-3. bc growth of language skills, physical aggression decreases, verbal aggression increases. relational aggression is seen in preschoolers. drop in physical aggression in preschool bc relational aggression, also resolve conflicts, control own emotions/actions. young childre use instrumental, elementary aggression is often hostile, wanting to hurt another. overt aggression decreases for most teenagers. males are much more aggressive

how conflict harms

poorer parenting compensatory hypothesis; maybe it's better if parents have bad marriage = better for kids. compensate by putting more into parenting relationship. NOT TRUE spillover: from marital conflcit to parenting, making parent and child relationship bad. moms are more likely to be authoritarian post divorce. dads are more permissive. conflict like mom, "I always have to be the one to say no" parents post divorce are inconsistent, makes secure attachment difficult, directly causes stress/anxiety. even babies show stress responses to parents arguing angrily. harms emotional security (kids wonder whether divorce will result in conflict)

culture and children's emotional development

ppl in different racial/ethnic groups may tend to have somewhat dif temperaments. American infants react more strongly and quicker to unfamiliar stimuli than Chinese. contributor of cross cultural dif in infants' emotion expression is diversity of parenting practices. Chinese culture strongly emphasizes the need to be aware of oneself embedded in a larger group, maintain positive image w/in that group. Chinese frequently try to induce shame in their preschool kids, judging for bad behavior. Black mothers in dangerous neighborhoods valued/promoted their daughters' readiness to express anger/aggression in situations related to self-protection

socialization of prosocial behavior: 3 discipline and parenting style

prosocial behavior associated w supportive/constructive parents. authoritarian tends to lack sympathy, etc. if punished when not prosocial, may only do so to avoid punishment. same if rewarded. involve reasoning about consequences of child's behavior for others! parental warmth AND parenting practices = effective.

understanding the causes of emotion:

rapid development over preschool/school yrs in children's understanding of the kinds of situations that typically evoke dif emotions in others. even at age 2, they fairly accurately identify happy situations. by age 3, quite good at identifying happy situations, but not accurate at identifying sat situations until age 4. age 7: ability to understand the circumstances that evoke complex social emotions like pride, guilt, shame, jealous. age 4-6: give accurate explanations for why their peers expressed negative emotions in their preschool. with age, kids understand that ppl can feel emotions based on reminders of past events.

Kohlberg's stages: preconventional

self centered, focuses on getting rewards, avoiding punishment. stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation- what is right is in one's own best interest, or involves equal exchange between ppl

difficult babies

slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively, intensely to novel stimuli/events, were irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions (10% initially)

social smiles

smiles that are directed at ppl. they first emerge as early as 6-7 weeks old

display rules

social group's informal norms about when, where, how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotion should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions

adjustment and social behavior

some find that kids who are in child care don't differ in problem behavior from those reared at home. but, another study indicates that many hours a day in child care or number of changes in caregiver in first 2 years of life predicted lower social competence and more noncompliance w adults at age 2. by 4.5, externalizing problems. more hours = bad, but doesn't apply for kids in very low income families. long hours is actually positively related to adjustment of young low income kids, unless quality of care is very poor. Canada: physical aggression was less common among kids who were in group day care than those looked after by own families.

slow to warm up babies

somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact w new objects, ppl, situations (15% initially)

sibling relationships

source of support, instruction, security, assistance, caregiving. can also be rivals. can contribute to development of a sibling's undesirable behaviors. low quality sibling relationships also are associated w higher levels of siblings' depression. if both siblings have similar, good temperaments, get along well. sibling r/ships tend to be less hostile, more supportive when their parents are warm and accepting of them, and if their parents treat them similarly. siblings get along better if their parents are getting along w each other (parents model positive behavior). and vice versa. rivalry higher in divorced families.

Straus's position on physical punishment:

spanking is always abusive. evidence: consider 300 societies, r = .32 between physical punishment and wife beating link bw physical punishment and delinquency. straus says there are some good reasons we miss this. it takes time to develop/effects to accumulate. if spanked? abused, they we'd have to admit we were abused, parents were abusers.

Larzelere's position on spanking

spanking is not inherently abusive. evidence: straus combined clear-cut abuse to see effects. delinquency? only for kids who were spanked 155+ xs a year, fewer than that? not actually connection

alternative to divorce: ongoing marital conflict

sustained marital conflict has negative effects on children at all ages. can cause mom to be less supportive/warm. preschoolers/older kids especially likely to fee threatened and helpless when there is ongoing parental conflict- even more so if conflict involves high levels of verbal/physical aggression. sustained marital conflict can make children hostile,depressed, anxious, esp if leads to parental hostility towards them

role of temperament in children's social skills and adjustment

temperament plays important role in determining children's social adjustment. difference bw difficult and easy temperament has been associated w differences in children's social competence and adjustment

behavioral inhibition

temperamentally based style of responding characterized by the tendency to be particularly fearful and restrained when dealing w novel or stressful situations

temperament and personality of aggressive- antisocial children/adolescents

tend to frequently express intense negative emotions, demand attention. preschoolers who exhibit lack of control, irritability, etc. are prone to delinquency, etc. 9-15. some tend not to feel guilty, empathy, sympathy. often charming but insincere, callous. combination of above = especially likely to predict.

sympathy

the feeling of concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to that other person's (or animal's) emotional state or condition; often an outcome of empathizing w another's negative emotion or situation

bidirectionality of parent-child interactions

the idea that parents and their children are mutually affected by each other's characteristics and behaviors

personality

the pattern of behavioral and emotional propensities, beliefs and interests, and intellectual capacities that characterize an individual. personality has its roots in temperament (and thus has a constitutional basis) but is shaped by interactions w the social and physical world. possibly genetically based (twin study suggests that heredity plays moderate role in individual variation in negative emotions, but smaller role in positive emotions).

emotional self-regulation

the process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating the following aspects of functioning: 1. internal feeling states- subject experiences of emotion 2. emotion related cognitions- i.e. thoughts about what one wants/interprets of a situation 3. emotion related physiological processes- i.e. heart rate, hormones 4. emotion related behavior- i.e. actions or facial expression related to one's feelings. infants = bad at it, takes years to develop ability.

socialization

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future role in their particular culture. parents socialize their children's emotional development through: 1. their expression of emotion w their kids and other ppl 2. their reactions to their children's expression of emotion 3. discussions w kids about emotion and emotional regulation

family dynamics

the way in which the family operates as a whole

Kagan's work

threshold of emotional reactivity: how much novelty does it take to overwhelm/excite? depends on the person (high or low threshold). physiological response is hardwired into us. STUDY: presents toddlers w 10 novel tasks, has them do things like fall backwards onto mattress, meet clown, etc. some kids love all of them = unhibited = high threshold (10-15%). some kids don't like any = inhibited= low threshold (10-15%). if we know what the child is like at 2, we know what the child won't be like.

biological factors of aggression:

twins suggest antisocial behavior runs in families partially due to genes. heredity seems to pay stronger role in aggression in early childhood and adulthood than in adolescence, when environment factors are major contributor. genetic temperament? possibly hormones? high testosterone? neurological deficits like ADHD. children who are not well regulated are likely to have difficulty controlling tempers

proactive aggression

unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire

factors affecting children's adjustment in stepfamilies

very young kids tend to accept stepparents more easily than older. generally adjust better when all the children are full siblings. stepfathers feel less close to their stepchildren than fathers. at first, they r polite/ingratiating, not as involved in monitoring/controlling them. conflict bw stepfathers and stepchildren is greater than biological offspring. stepchildren contribute to this conflict-expressing defiance, hostility. esp preadolescent girls. involved stepfather can bring benefits like finance, emotional support for custodial parent. stepson has male role model. AUTHORITATIVE ALWAYS BETTER

Gardner and Steinberg 2005

video game w destination. the faster you get there, the more points you get. if you run a red light and get hit, you die and lose your points. teens, college students, and adults in their 30s were studied. within each group, randomly assigned to play by them self or with peers watching. results: teens take a lot more risks when in presence of peers. same for college, but to a lesser degree. 30 year olds had no difference bw peer and non peer interactions xian consideration: some rules actually make sense, they do get annoying, though. brain development doesn't occur in vacuum. rules may serve good developmental purpose

prosocial behavior

voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, and comforting of others (DO WE NEED TO KNOW LEVELS?)

big picture

when to use NPP? parents don't use it as 1st line of defense, but in cases of willful defiance. when not to use? in anger. successful parents remember punishment should fit the crime, sometimes there is no crime despite frustration. teach what is desired. this is more effective than only complaining when they do something wrong. be planful, kids misbehave when tired, hungry, thirsty, bored. parents should plan ahead

illusion of transparency: GCC ARM study

when trying to follow display rule, the incorrect feeling that one's true emotion leaked out. kindergarten - 3rd grade participants. responses to yummy and yucky kool aide, rated faces made by kids w scale, yucky, neutral, yummy, told kids to make no face. asked what they thought they expressed despite trying no face. RESULTS: some kids thought they made unpleasanter or more pleasant faces than observer thought. why behave differently? kids probably have more experience needing to hide negative emotions, therefore more illusion of transparency

evaluation of Piaget's theory

while mostly true, there is little evidence that peer interaction stimulates moral development, rather, the QUALITY of peer interactions. also, it is clear that young children do not believe some actions, like hurting others, are right even when adults say they are

Harmful conflict

wife starts harshly to get husband to not withdraw, get him to engage. but, husband doesn't want to engage so there's no argument. this can be cyclical. if part of husband in particular = bad. physical abuse, attacks, unresolved conflicts, triangulation (get kid to pick sides), child focused conflict tends to induce feeling of guilt/anger in kids

selection of appropriate regulatory strategies:

with age, kids are more aware that appropriateness of particular coping behavior depends on their specific needs/goals, nature of problem. increasing ability to distinguish bw stressors that can be controlled or not.

age of child and divorce:

younger kids may have more trouble understanding causes/consequences of divorce, more anxious about abandonment, blame themselves. older children better understand, but still risk for problems w adjustment, especially if in low SES, dangerous neighborhoods. younger kids more negatively affected by remarriage.