exam 6 - chapter 17
targets liver which then releases somatomedins > liver acts as an endocrine gland > somatomedins go directly to bone and muscle.
Growth hormone does not act directly on bone and muscle to stimulate them to grow, instead, what does it do?
bone and muscles
Growth hormone has metabolic actions which promotes the release of nutrients so that ____ have the energy needed to grow.
Growth hormones has two functions: produces growth in bone and soft tissue (muscle) but it also has metabolic actions.
Growth hormones has two functions: name them
Neurosecretory neurons
____ which are located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus portion of the posterior pituitary are the neurons that produce the two hormones associated with the posterior pituitary
hypocalcemia
_____ - too low calcium that brings about over-excitability of nerves and muscles; severe over-excitability can cause fatal spastic contractions of respiratory muscles
hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
_____ help regulate anterior pituitary hormone secretion
grave's disease
_____ is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies produced attack the thyroid and mimic the effect of TSH which stimulates the thyroid to produce excess thyroid hormones
postnatal growth spurt
_____ is displayed during first two years of life and is affected by GH
hypothyroidism
_____ is lower than normal levels of T3 and T4 ~ underproducing hormone.
hyperthyroidism
_____ is referred to as Grave's disease and is an autoimmune disease in which the body erroneously produces thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) which bind to the thyroid and promote hormone synthesis and release
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
_____ is secreted by the parathyroid glands which are embedded on the pituitary
Zona fasciculata
_____ makes glucocorticoids - Mainly cortisol - Major role in glucose metabolism as well as in protein and lipid metabolism
Zona reticularis
_____ makes sex hormones - Identical or similar to those produced by gonads - Most abundant and physiologically important is dehydroepiandosterone (male "sex" hormone)
cretinism
_____ results from hypothyroidism from birth, severe physical and mental retardation - developmental issues; also referred to as hypothyroidism in neonates
Metabolic actions from GH supply
_____ supply growth to bone and soft tissues
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
______ stimulates secretion of cortisol by adrenal cortex
• Excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac and smooth muscle • NT secretion from nerve cells • Clotting of blood
control of calcium homeostasis plays vital role in a number of essential activities:
bound to plasma proteins is freely diffusible
of the calcium that is in the plasma, half is bound to ___ and cannot participate in chemical reactions whereas the other half is ____ and can pass into the ICF - this free pool of calcium is what is regulate hormonal and accounts for less than 1/1000 of total body calcium
calcium levels
parathyroid glands control ____ levels
sercretes melatonin
pineal gland secretes ____ which is referred to as the hormone as darkness because secretion falls to low levels during light of day
nervous glandular epithelial
posterior pituitary is composed of ____ tissue while anterior pituitary is composed of ____ tissue
Growth hormone (GH)
primary hormone responsible for regulating overall body growth; important in intermediary metabolism
independent; what controls the release of aldosterone is the renin anginotensin system by the kidney
regulation of aldosterone secretion is largely ____ of anterior pituitary control. why?
by one or more hypothalamic hormones
secretion of each anterior pituitary hormone is stimulated or inhibited by _____.
hypothalamus anterior pituitary thyroid
some trigger is going to stimulate the ____ to release TRH. TRH then moves to the ____ and promotes it to release TSH. TSH then goes to ____ and tells it to release T3 and T4 which go to the tissue and carry out the metabolic developments
excess urine with glucose
someone with diabetes mellitus has ___ urine with glucose because the kidney transporters are maxed out and the glucose in the blood can't be reabsorbed.
Symptoms depend on age of individual when abnormal secretion begins
symptoms of growth hormone excess depends on ____.
thyroid gland isthmus
the ___ consists of two lobes of endocrine tissue joined in middle by narrow portion of gland called the ____.
post-absorptive state
the ____ state is referred to as the "fasting state" in which stored energy is broken down to provide energy
absorptive state
the ____ state is referred to as the "fed state" in which glucose is plentiful and serves as major energy source
paranetricular and supraoptic nuclei vasopressin and oxytocin
the _____ and _____ in the hypothalamus contain neurons that produce ___ and ____
plays key role in adaptation to stress
the ability of glucocorticoids / cortisol to facilitate lipolysis plays a key role in ____.
- adrenal cortex-outer portion, secretes steroid hormones - adrenal medulla- inner portion, secretes catecholamines
the adrenal glands are composed of two endocrine glands, name them
hormone-producing cells
the endocrine cells - islets of langerhans - are ____ cells
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)-elevates plasma concentration of Ca2+ 2. Calcitonin- decreases plasma concentration of Ca2+ 3. Vitamin D-necessary for calcium absorption by digestive system
what are the three hormones that regulate plasma concentration of Ca+2 (and PO4-3)
Consists of three layers or zones: • Zona glomerulosa - outermost layer • Zona fasciculata - middle and largest portion • Zona reticularis - innermost zone
what are the three layers / zones of the adrenal cortex?
fetal growth postnatal growth spurt pubertal growth spurt
what are the three phases of growth
- Surgical removal of a portion of the over-secreting thyroid - Administration of radioactive iodine to destroy thyroid - directinhactivity to thyroid due to iodine à followed by synthyroidbecause they have hypothyroidism now
what are the treatment options for hyperthyroidism, / grave's disease?
type 1 = insulin injections; dietary management; exercise type 2 = dietary control and weight reduction; exercise; sometimes oral hypoglycemic drugs
what are the treatments for type 1 vs type 2?
- Gigantism -overproduction of GH in childhood before bone growth plates close - Acromegaly - overproduction of GH after adolescence
what are the two conditions associated with growth hormone excess?
hydrophilic (water soluble) hormones and lipophilic (fat soluble) hormones
what are the two hormone categories and what are they based on?
Type I and Type II
what are the two major types of diabetes mellitus?
absorptive state and post-absorptive state
what are the two metabolic states?
hormones that control another gland / hormones that regulate other hormones
what are tropic hormones?
Due to pituitary defect or hypothalamic dysfunction
what causes growth hormone deficiency?
• Most often caused by tumor of GH-producing cells of anterior pituitary
what causes growth hormone excess?
-Thin stalk connects pituitary gland to hypothalamus
what connects pituitary gland to hypothalamus?
• Secretes both male and female sex hormones in both sexes
what do the adrenal sex steroids secrete?
• Glands secrete hormones which travel through blood to target cells that have receptors for binding with specific hormone and regulates or directs a particular function
what do the endocrine glands do?
- Secrete peptide hormone calcitonin
what do the thyroid gland c cells do?
- Acts directly on bone and soft tissues to bring growth - Stimulates protein synthesis, cell division, lengthening and thickening of bones
what does IGF-1 do?
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine which is secreted into the blood by exocytosis of chromaffin cells
what does adrenal medulla do?
elevates blood glucose levels
what does glucagon do?
decreases blood glucose levels and promotes cellular uptake of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids and enhances their conversion into glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins, respectively - which happens primarily in skeletal muscle, fat, and liver
what does insulin do?
»Producing excess urine (overflow) »Urine is tasteless - mostly water (insipidus)
what does someone with diabetes insipidious experience?
• Consists of ductless endocrine glands scattered throughout body
what does the endocrine system consist of?
• Consists of two anatomically and functionally distinct lobes: 1. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) • Composed of nervous tissue and 2. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) •Consists of glandular epithelial tissue
what does the pituitary gland consist of?
stores and releases two small peptide hormones
what does the posterior pituitary gland do?
excess cortisol / cortisol hyper secretion
what is Cushing's syndrome?
• Adrenogenital syndrome-excess DHEA secretion, symptoms seen only in females or prepubertal males because adult male production of regular testosterone dominates
what is adrenal androgen hypersecreton?
• Hormone produced by C cells of thyroid gland • Secreted in response to increase in plasma Ca2+ • Unimportant except during hypercalcemia which is rare • May play a role in protecting skeletal integrity during times of calcium demand (pregnancy and lactation)
what is calcitonin?
- condition associated with a decrease in the amount of ADH produced - means overflow tasteless
what is diabetes insipidus?
type 1 = none or almost none type 2 = may be normal or exceed normal
what is level of insulin secretion in type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
reproductive hormone that stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection during breast-feeding
what is oxytocin?
modified part of sympathetic nervous system
what is the adrenal medulla?
type 1 = autoimmune destruction of B cells type 2 = reduced sensitivity of insulin's target cells
what is the basic defect for type 1 and type 2?
it IS a true endocrine gland as it make and releases 6 hormones
what is the big picture when it comes to the anterior pituitary?
- Type I diabetes; insulin dependent DM (IDDM) • Characterized by lack of insulin secretion - Type II diabetes; non-insulin dependent DM (NIDDM) • Characterized by normal or increased insulin secretion but reduced sensitivity of target cells
what is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
• Major hormone is dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
what is the major adrenal sex steroid / hormone?
• Secretion controlled by circulating levels of free calcium - Calcium levels fall, PTH secretion stimulated - Calcium levels rise, PTH secretion inhibited
what is the parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion controlled by?
Tiny, pinecone-shaped structure located in center of brain
what is the pineal gland?
•Small gland located in bony cavity just below hypothalamus
what is the pituitary gland?
insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1)
what is the primary somatomedin?
• Primary stimulus for secretion is increase in blood glucose concentration
what is the primary stimulus for insulin secretion?
• Primary stimulus for medullary secretion is through the activation of sympathetic nervous system by acute stress
what is the primary stimulus for medullary secretion?
• Principal action site is on distal and collecting tubules of the kidney, cells reabsorb sodium, ECF volume increases
what is the principle action site of mineralcorticoids?
elevated blood glucose = prominent feature
what is the prominent feature of diabetes mellitus?
type 1 = childhood type 2 = adulthood
what is the typical age of onset with type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
- conserves water during urine formation, makes the collecting ducts more permeable to water which increases the amount of water reabsorbed - decreased urine production. ADH decreases urine production to conserve water - conserves water during urine formation
what is vasopressin/ADH and what does it do?
during the absorptive state
when is secretion of insulin increased?
ACTH levels are elevated hyperpigmentation
when it comes to adrenocortical insufficiency, since the gland is the problem, ACTH levels are ____ as pituitary attempts to stimulate the gland. when ACTH is released, so is another hormone that causes skin _____ so people with Addison's disease show this symptom
primary = when the actual gland is not working correctly; secondary = when another structure is not working correctly and effects gland function
when it comes to endocrine dysfunction, when does the primary and secondary disease occur?
cortisol
when it comes to glucocorticoids, the major hormone is ____
not the same
when it comes to growth rate and growth hormone, factors responsible for promoting growth are ____ throughout growth period
aldosterone
when it comes to mineralcorticoids, major hormone is ____
colloid
when it comes to storage, thyroid hormones remain in ___ until they are split off and secreted; usually enough thyroid hormone stored to supply body's needs for several onhts
follicular cells and c cells
when it comes to the thyroid gland, there are two types of cells ___ and _____.
phagocytize
when it comes to thyroid hormone secretion, follicular cells ____ colloid particles; this process frees T3 and T4 to diffuse across plasma membrane and into the blood
Basic ingredients: - Tyrosine-synthesized in sufficient amounts by body - Iodine-obtained from dietary intake
when it comes to thyroid hormone synthesis, what are the basic ingredients?
most common = hyperthyroidism / grave's disease
which is more common: hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism?
vascular connection / blood
while the posterior pituitary is connected with a stalk, the anterior pituitary is connected via a _____
The reason the posterior pituitary is called the neuronal hypothesis is due to the outgrowth of the brain. The posterior pituitary is not a true endocrine gland - it is really just an extension of the hypothalamus
why is the posterior pituitary called the neurohypophysis?
in one of three ways: - permissiveness - synergism - antagonism
•Hormone can influence activity of another hormone at given target cell in one of three ways:
- Hypothalamic hormones - Feedback by target-gland hormones
•Two most important factors that regulate anterior pituitary hormone secretion: _____ _____
glucose uptake
glucocorticoids / cortisol inhibits ____ uptake and use by many tissues, excluding the brain
facilitates lipolysis
glucocorticoids facilitates ____ which is the breakdown of fats which effects sugar, amino acids, and fats
protein degradation
glucocorticoids stimulates _____ in many tissues, especially muscle - waste proteins
diurnal rhythm
glucocorticoids/cortisol display a characteristic ____ rhythm,
directly
growth hormone ____ controls metabolism
• Secretion is increased by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
how can mineralcorticoid secretion be increased?
- it has a relationship to the hypothalamus who sends signals to the AP to tell it to release hormones. - AP and hypothalamus are connected to each other via a vascular connection. - there are neural secretory neurons in the hypothalamus that release their chemicals into the blood. The blood carries them down through the HHPS which is a blood system that carries the hormones from hypothalamus to the AP to tell it to either release or stop releasing a hormone.
how does anterior pituitary know when to release hormones?
- Prevents fatal consequences of low blood calcium
how is parathyroid hormone (PTH) essential for life?
neuromuscular excitability
Plasma Ca2+ must be closely regulated to prevent changes in _____.
exopthalmous which is eyes bugging out
hyperthyroidism is characterized by ____
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
in females, responsible for ovulation and luteinization; regulates ovarian secretion of female sex hormones; males, stimulates testosterone secretion
into the cells
in the presence of insulin, nutrients in the blood are driven ___.
pancreas not making target cells are not sensitive to insulin
in type 1 diabetes, ____ is not making insulin while in type 2 diabetes, ____ are not sensitive to insulin so they don't respond
anterior pituitary
TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone is secreted from ____ and stimulate thyroid hormone secretion by thyroid gland
T4 T3
The majority of what the thyroid produces is ___ although ____ is the more active of the two. Once t4 is released, cells can easily convert T4 to T3 by removing one of the iodines
neural anatomical
The relationship between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary is a ____ relationship - direct neural connection.
stimulates and maintains
tropic hormones _____ and _____ their endocrine target issues
10-20% 80-90%
type 1 diabetes accounts for ____% while type 2 accounts for ____%.
type 2 = cured type 1 = cannot be cured
Type ___ can be cured while type ___ cannot be
calcium absorption
Vitamin d indirectly aids in increasing blood calcium levels by promoting ____ from digestive tract
permissiveness
____ = one hormone must be present in adequate amounts for full exertion of another hormone's effect
hypercalcemia
____ = too high calcium which reduces excitability
growth hormone and prolactin
____ and _____ are the only hormones considered to have both a releasing and an inhibiting hormone
ACTH (S41)
____ driven release of cortisol (S41)
Zona glomerulosa
____ makes mineralocorticoids - Mainly aldosterone - Influence mineral balance, specifically Na+ and K+ balance
pubertal growth spurt
____ occurs during adolescence, is affected by GH and sex steroids, and is associated with Synergism
synergism
____ occurs when actions of several hormones are complimentary; combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects
antagonism
____ occurs when one hormone causes loss of another hormone's receptors - reduces effectiveness of second hormone
glucose
brain can only use ____ for energy source.
• Precocious (early) puberty
what are the symptoms of adrenal androgen hypersecretion in prepubertal males?
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
1.in females, _____ stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles; promotes secretion of estrogen by ovaries; males required for sperm production
an increase in the breakdown of triglycerides
In the presence of GH, there is ____ in the breakdown of ___ to release fatty acids into blood; therefore, more GH leads to fat loss --> you burn fat to release fatty acids into the blood to supply the bones and soft tissue with nutrients / energy.
- Goiter possible - very enlarged thyroid - Edema around eyes mucusy edema, weight gain, lethargy, decreased body temperature, overall sluggish metabolism
Myxedema symptoms are associated with hypothyroidism; what are they?
kidney
adrenal glands are embedded above each ____ in a capsule of fat
peptide hormones water soluble topic and non-tropic (5:1)
all 6 hormones made by the anterior pituitary are ___ hormones that are ___ soluble and can be divided into two groups: ___ and ____.
dwarfism - stature issue and bone issue
although Hyposecretion of GH in children is one cause of ___, deficiency in adults produces relatively few symptoms
no
are there any known clinical abnormalities caused by glucagon deficiency or excess?
anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects
at pharmacological levels, glucocorticoids can have ____ and ____ effects
- forms as a functional unit called a follicle - hollow spheres filled with colloid in which the thyroid hormones are produced - produce two iodine-containing hormones derived from amino acid tyrosine
describe follicular cells
- Raises free plasma Ca2+ levels by its effects on bone kidneys, and intestines - Also lowers free phosphate so the calcium does not form new bone, but can remain free in the plasma
describe how the parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a primary regulator of Ca+2?
- Only adrenal sex hormone that has any biological importance -Overpowered by testicular testosterone in males - Physiologically significant in females where it governs -- Growth of pubic and axillary hair -- Enhancement of pubertal growth spurt -- Development and maintenance of female sex drive
describe the characteristics / importance of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
• Can be synthesized from cholesterol derivative when exposed to sunlight • Stimulates Ca2+ and PO43- absorption from intestine • Rise in both leads to bone formation • Amount supplemented by dietary intake • Must be activated first by liver and then by kidneys before it can exert its effect on intestines
describe the characteristics of vitamin D?
- Activation of sympathetic nervous system accompanied by epinephrine secretion; Prepares body for fight-or-flight response - Activation of CRH-ACTH-cortisol system; Helps body cope by mobilizing metabolic resources - Elevation of blood glucose and fatty acids via cortisol - Maintenance of blood volume and blood pressure by increased activity of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and increased vasopressin secretion
describe the generalized stress response
1. Increases urinary reabsorption of calcium 2. Promotes urinary excretion of PO43- to prevent calcium precipitation 3. If steps 1 and 2 do not result in normal calcium then steps 4 and 5 are activated including dissolving of bone 4. Under chronic release promotes dissolving bone and release of calcium 5. Enhances kidney activation of Vitamin D
describe the parathyroid hormone actions
• All steps occur on thyroglobulin molecules within colloid • Tyrosine-containing thyroglobulin is exported from follicular cells into colloid by exocytosis • Thyroid captures iodine from blood and transfers it into colloid by iodine pump • Within colloid, iodine attaches to tyrosine • Coupling process occurs between iodinated tyrosine molecules to form thyroid hormones
describe thyroid hormone synthesis
hepatic gluconeogeneisis
gluccocorticoids / cortisol stimulates _____ which is the ability of the liver to make glucose from non-card sources (i.e., amino acids and fats); it increases sugar level
1. The paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei contain neurons that produce vasopressin and oxytocin. 2. The hormone is synthesized in the neuronal cell body in the hypothalamus. 3. The hormone travels down the axon to be stored in the neuronal terminals within the posterior pituitary. 4. On excitation of the neuron, the stored hormone is released from these terminals into the systemic blood for distribution throughout the body.
discuss how hormones get from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary
anterior pituitary releases TSH, TSH stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones, once there's enough thyroid hormones, they go to the anterior pituitary and turn it off to stop the demand for TSH.
discuss the negative feedback loop with TSH
Axon terminals end in the posterior pituitary. In a normal nerve cell, axons release neurotransmitters that are released into synapses to influence other cells - in this particular case, the axons in the PP store the two hormones. Under proper stimulation, axon terminals release one of the two hormones into the blood.
discuss the significance of axons when it comes to the posterior pituitary.
The hormones that the posterior pituitary releases are NOT made in the posterior pituitary - they are made in the hypothalamus. The job of the posterior pituitary is to store and then release.
discuss the what happens in hypothalamus versus in the posterior pituitary
a different
each layer of the adrenal cortex produces ____ steroid hormone
- Genetic determination of an individual's maximum growth capacity - An adequate diet - Freedom from chronic disease and stressful environmental conditions - Normal levels of growth-influencing hormones
endocrine control of growth depends on growth hormone but other factors as well - such as: _____, _____, _____, and _____.
Most commonly result from abnormal plasma concentrations of a hormone caused by inappropriate rates of secretion - Hyposecretion - too little hormone is secreted - Hypersecretion - too much hormone is secreted
endocrine dysfunction most commonly results from ____
TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone
give an example of a tropic hormone
directly controls metabolism: - Increases fatty acid levels in blood by enhancing breakdown of triglyceride fat stored in adipose tissue - Increases blood glucose levels by decreasing glucose uptake by muscles; growing muscle/bones uses fats as energy source; allows glucose to be saved for brain called glucose sparing
name ways in which growth hormone directly controls metabolism
Prolactin (PRL)
non-tropic hormone; enhances breast development and milk production in females - direct effect on breast tissue
somatomedins
the growth hormone primarily promotes growth indirectly by stimulating liver's production of ______
99% in crystalline form in bone and teeth 0.9% found in ICF of soft tissue 0.1% fun in ECF including plasma
the plasma calcium pool is tightly regulated with 99% of Ca+ in ____ whereas the other remaining 1% is split with 0.9% found in ____ and 0.1% found in ___
between the: hypothalamic TRH, anterior pituitary TSH, and thyroid gland T3 and T4 constant
the secretion of thyroid hormone is regulated by negative-feedback system between ___, ___, and ___. the feedback loop maintains thyroid hormones relatively ____.
insulin and glucagon
these pancreatic hormones are the most important in regulating fuel metabolism
diabetes mellitus - means overflow sweet
this disorder is the most common of all endocrine disorders
growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
this hypothalamic hormone inhibits the release of growth hormone and TSH
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
this hypothalamic hormone inhibits the release of prolactin
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
this hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of ACTH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
this hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of FSH and LH
Thyrotropin-Releasing hormon e (TRH)
this hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of TSH
growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
this hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of growth hormone
prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
this hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of of prolactin
phase of growth = fetal growth plays no role in fetal development
this phase of growth is promoted largely by hormones from placenta - GH plays no role in _____.
thyroid hormone
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the secretion of ____
over or under production of a hormone
what are endocrine disorders usually caused by?
• Secretion regulated by negative-feedback loop involving hypothalamic CRH and anterior pituitary ACTH
what are glucocorticoids / cortisol secretion regulated by?
transport of glucose into cells for utilization for energy production or for storage as glycogen through glycogen's or as triglycerides urinary excretion of glucose
what are some factors that decrease blood glucose?
- glucose absorption from digestive tract - hepatic glucose production through glycogenolysis (glycolysis) and gluconeogenesis (liver production of glucose)
what are some factors that increase blood glucose?
- Reinforces sympathetic system in mounting general systemic "fight-or-flight" responses - Maintenance of arterial blood pressure - Increases blood glucose and blood fatty acids to help deal with stress
what are some of epinephrine's responsibilities?
- Addison's disease = autoimmune disease that affects entire gland - aldosterone deficiency = low sodium, low blood pressure - cortisol deficiency = poor response to stress, hypoglycemia (low blood glucose), overall decreases in metabolic activities
what are some of the adrenocortical insufficiencies?
1. Main determinant of basal metabolic rate 2. Influences synthesis and degradation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein 3. Increases target-cell responsiveness to catecholamines - NE, Epinepherine 4. Increases heart rate and force of contraction 5. Essential for normal growth - tied to #6 6.Plays crucial role in normal development of nervous system - PARTICULARLY IN NEONATAL PERIOD - FIRST YEAR OR TWO OF BEING ALIVE AS A HUMAN
what are some of the effects of thyroid hormone?
Accelerated metabolism, weight loss, agitation, increased blood pressure, tachycardia - fast heart rate à very revved up all the time
what are some symptoms of hyperthyroidism / grave's disease?
- Replacement therapy (artificial thyroid, drug synthyroid - synthetic thyroid medicine) - Dietary iodine
what are some treatment options for hypothyroidism?
1.Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 2.Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 3.Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 4.Luteinizing hormone (LH) 5.Growth hormone (GH) 6.Prolactin (PRL)
what are the 6 hormones the anterior pituitary gland makes?
- acute = sudden onset meaning you've never been diabetic then you turn into it; 1. Hyperglycemia = blood glucose elevated 2. Glucosuria = glucose in urine 3. Polyuria = excess urine production due to glucose in urine holding onto water 4. Polydipsia = excessive thirst; lots of urine = lots of thirst 5. Polyphagia = hungry à cells being starved
what are the acute symptoms of diabetes mellitus?
- Overstimulation of adrenal cortex by excess CRH and ACTH - Adrenal tumors uncontrollably secrete cortisol independent of ACTH - ACTH-secreting tumors located in places other than the pituitary ( e.g., some lung cancers produce ACTH)
what are the causes of Cushing's syndrome / excess hypersecretion?
• Secreted in response to a direct effect of a fall in blood glucose on pancreatic α cells • Stimulates liver to dump glucose into blood via glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis • Generally opposes actions of insulin
what are the characteristics of glucagon?
Chronic: symptoms that happen over a period of time; 1. Increased fat metabolism, ketosis, metabolic acidosis (type I only) 2. Micro-vascular disease affecting nerves, heart, eye, loss of pain perception - neuropathy (peripheral nerves don't work very well), kidney
what are the chronic symptoms of diabetes mellitus?
B (beta) cells - site of insulin synthesis and secretion A (alpha) cells - produce glucagon D (delta) cells - pancreatic site of somatostatin synthesis
what are the different type of endocrine cells and what do each produce?
•Helps keep body's circadian rhythms in synchrony with light-dark cycle •Promotes sleep •Influences reproductive activity, including onset of puberty •Acts as antioxidant to remove free radicals •Enhances immunity
what are the functions of pineal gland?
• Regulate organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte balance • Induce adaptive changes to help body cope with stressful situations • Promote smooth, sequential growth and development • Control reproduction • Regulate red blood cell production • Along with autonomic nervous system, control and integrate both circulation and the digestion and absorption of food
what are the functions of the endocrine system?
• Tetraiodothyronine (T4 or thyroxine) • Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
what are the hormones produced by follicular cells?
vasopressin and oxytocin
what are the peptide hormones the posterior pituitary releases?
- Primary: failure of thyroid gland - Secondary: • due to a deficiency of TRH, TSH, or both - can't tell thyroid what to do •Inadequate dietary supply of iodine
what are the primary and secondary causes of hypothyroidism?
-Peptide hormones / protein hormones -Catecholamines
what are the subcategories of hydrophobic hormones?
-Steroid hormones à derived from cholesterol -Thyroid hormone
what are the subcategories of lipophilic hormones?
-Adult females • Hirsutism-male pattern of body hair • Deepening of voice, more muscular arms and legs • Breasts become smaller and menstruation may cease
what are the symptoms of adrenal androgen hypersecretion in adult females?
• Have male-type external genitalia
what are the symptoms of adrenal androgen hypersecretion in newborn females?