Exam Three - Chapters Five and Six

What are the differences between Theory Theory and Piaget's Theory? List one claim about cognitive development from Theory Theory that Piaget disagrees with.

- Child does not develop domain-general forms of logic; rather, the child develops domain-specific folk theories. - No stages (no inherited blueprint for development) - No action metaphor.

What Piagetian stage has received the least amount of criticism?

- Concrete Operations Most critics accept that elementary school-age children pass the tests that Piaget said they do.

What are the similarities between Theory Theory and Piaget's Theory? List one claim about cognitive development from Theory Theory that Piaget agrees with.

- Constructivist - Child is a little scientist. Constructs informal theories of different domains (e.g., biology, physics, the mind). - Evolution provides the child with an inherited motivation to make sense of world.

3-year-olds fail false belief tasks not because they are incapable of representing situations in more than one way, but because of other problems. Know the three types of problems he identifies.

- Difficulty keeping track of their own or others' beliefs - Inadequate working memory - Difficulty inhibiting their most recent representation of a situation

Be able to recognize the 5 major contributions of Piaget's theory. Be able to list 3.

- Legitimized the study of children's thinking. - Raised awareness about child's own role in their cog. development. - Introduced many useful tasks and concepts. - His observations tend to replicate. - His claims stimulated advancement in the field.

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Belief

- believe, suppose - know, expect - doubt, suspect

I listed eight animal properties that tend to draw infants' attention. Be able to recognize these properties.

- faces - calls - smells - furriness - spontaneous movement - eye contact - interaction - biological motion

Between 9 and 12 months old, infants develop four behaviors that are important to joint attention. What are they?

- follow gaze - follow points - point at things themselves - show objects to others

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Reaction

- happiness, sadness, anger - surprise, puzzlement - guilt, dismay

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Action

- hit, grab - travel - search - attend to

According to Michael Tomasello, joint attention is the foundation for two achievements that are unique to our species. What are these two achievements?

- language development - cultural learning

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Basic Emotions' Physiology

- love, hate, fear - hunger, thirst - pain, arousal

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Perception

- see, hear, smell - touch, feel

In lecture, I described three developments in symbolic play that tend to occur between 18 and 24 months old and three others that tend to occur between 24 and 36 months. For the exam, just be able to describe three developments in symbolic play that tend to occur sometime between 18 months and 36 months. (Know that sociodramatic play is not one of these development. It tends not to develop until after the 3rd birthday.)

- simple pretend actions (e.g., sleeping or drinking from a cup) - Understand when someone else is pretending - Can use unrealistic props (e.g., pretend a block of wood is a phone.) - Can pretend to be another person (e.g., Mommy) - Can combine multiple pretend actions and pretend objects into a pretend event (e.g., putting baby to bed). - Can interpret the same prop as standing for one thing in one game and a different thing in another game. - Can incorporate the consequences of a pretend act in play (e.g., pretending to spill a drink, then wiping up the spill).

This figure represents how a typical American 4-year-old understands the mind to work. Be able to fill in the words in the blue boxes. Desire

- want, desire - wish, hope - ought, should

Regarding Piaget's theory of the thinking of preschool-age children, what are considered its main negative features?

1) Disagree on the causes of these errors. 2) Disagree with Piaget's claim that preschoolers lack the "readiness" to learn how to avoid these errors. 3) Preschoolers are more intelligent than Piaget proposed.

Between 12 and 18 months old, infants begin to show three signs that they understand action intentionality. What are these signs?

1) Point to an object if they believe the adult is searching for it. 2) More likely to imitate an action if the actor's cues indicate that the action was intentional rather than accidental. Examples: "There!" vs. "Oops" - Slow, visually-guided placement of an object vs. dropping an object in a spot without looking 3) Some ability to infer the goal of an actor's failed attempt to achieve it. Example: An adult pulls on some part of an object, but fails to detach it. Evidence: the child decides to imitate or to offer assistance.

Regarding Piaget's theory of the thinking of preschool-age children, what are considered its main positive features?

1) Preschoolers are more prone to error in symbolic thinking than older children are. 2) Preschoolers show centration, egocentrism, disorganization, lack of precision, and dominance of perception over concepts.

Regarding Piaget's theory of adolescence, what is considered its main negative feature?

1) are less intelligent than Piaget proposed 2) only achieve formal operational thinking in a particular domain if they receive intensive training in that domain - shows errors that are supposed to only appear in lower age stages - formal operational is domain-specific - lower than adolescents have no domain

Regarding Piaget's theory of infancy, what is considered its primary negative feature?

1) infants are more intelligent than he proposed - infants are able to keep track of statistics, infants stare longer at rare or improbable event - takes longer for an infant to develop representations such as an impossible event

Regarding Piaget's theory of infancy, what are considered its two main positive features?

1) replication of his observations (universal sequences) 2) infants are motivated to understand the world and master new skills - children are alike to little scientists, natural curiosity and desire to understand things

Regarding Piaget's theory of adolescence, what are considered its main positive features?

1) show a greater ability to separate the form of thought from the content of thought than younger children. 2) are better able to use the scientific method than younger children 3) are prone to the egocentrism that Piaget (and Elkind) described

Harris and colleagues conducted an experiment in which they told 4- and 6-year-olds to imagine there was either a bunny or monster in a box (p. 184). How did the results show that although the children understood that imaginary characters are not real, they were not quite certain about this? Why might fear cause a child to question their belief that an imaginary character is not real?

4 year olds acknowledged that it was not real, but did not want... - adult to leave the room (expressed fear over the box) - older kids looked in the box to make sure Fear can cause a child to doubt their belief that something is just pretend because when you become afraid, you start to think it is real. "Maybe because I am afraid, it could be real." Harris and his colleagues (1991) view this contradiction between children's beginning and final beliefs as a reflection of the uncertain state of young children's knowledge of fantasy versus reality.

What is the personal fable, and how does it relate to adolescent egocentrism?

A belief/overestimation in one's uniqueness and invulnerability. This is reflected in the often-reckless behavior of adolescents and the belief that bad things happen only to other people (for example, "I won't get pregnant," or "I can get off the tracks before the train gets here") Distorted sense of one's future. Thinking about their future and their past, very grandiose. May fantasize about having a famous relative/bloodline that they aren't apart. Unrealistically thinking they will do great things (like win a Nobel Peace Prize).

Personal Fable

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them.

Theory Theory claims that children's folk theories are domain specific, but are not modules of knowledge. What does this mean?

A module of knowledge is nearly completely independent of other domains of knowledge. - are not completely independent of one another

What is source monitoring? Be able to recognize the kinds of questions that would be considered tests of source monitoring.

Ability to recall of the source of one's knowledge develops. - Did you see it or just hear about it? - Did you see it or did I just ask you to imagine it? - Did it happen in real life or just in a dream? Source monitoring improves over childhood and so, causes the reliability of children's eyewitness testimony to increase.

Piaget & Egocentrism

According to Piaget, a new kind of egocentrism emerges during adolescence. The child begins to overestimate their uniqueness and invulnerability; experience a heightened self-consciousness.

What is the imaginary audience, and how does it relate to adolescent egocentrism?

Adolescents' self-centered perspectives result in the mistaken belief that other people are as concerned with their feelings and behavior as they are, which only enhances their self-consciousness. Adolescents feel they are constantly "on stage" or playing to an imaginary audience.

Define joint attention. What is another name for a successful act of joint attention? What are the two goals of joint attention?

An attempt by the child to look at what another person is looking at in order to participate in communication about it. - Referential communication - to share an experience with another person and communicate about it.

Know the results & procedures of the studies that have tested whether 3-year-olds understand: that animals can move on their own, but inanimate objects cannot.

Attribute intention and agency to animals. Understand chasing-in-order-to-attack vs. fleeing-from. Understand hiding from. Research by R. Gelman: 3-year-olds were shown unfamiliar kinds of animals. Could not see the animals' feet. Result: They correctly judged that the animals could go up a hill on their own and that inanimate objects (statue, bicycle, golf caddy) could not.

According to Baron-Cohen's Theory of Autism Spectrum Disorders, human beings inherit a tendency to develop what two systems? Know that both systems are the product of natural selection (& what that means).

Both are a product of natural selection. We inherit them because they promoted the survival and reproductive success of our ancestors.

According to Baron-Cohen's Theory of Autism Spectrum Disorders, human beings inherit a tendency to develop what two systems? Know that both systems are modular (& what that means)

Both are modular systems. This means that they are fairly independent of individual differences in human intelligence.

The two most common tests of children's understanding of false belief are the change-of-location task and the surprising contents task. What are the procedures followed in each test, including the final questions that are posed? Know how the typical 3-year-old and typical 4-year-old differ in their answers to the final questions. Surprising contents

Child is shown a familiar kind of container, such as a box of crayons. Tester: "What do you think is inside?" Child: "Crayons." Tester opens it to reveal surprising contents, such as plastic army men. Tester: "What's inside?" Child: "Army men." Tester then asks two critical questions: - "Before we opened the box, what did you think was inside?" - "If another child came in the room and saw it (the closed box with the army men inside), what would he think was inside?" Results: 4-year-olds correct: "Crayons" to both questions. 3-year-olds incorrect: "Army men" to both questions.

Hala and Chandler's task pp. 211 -213.

Children were introduced to a hiding task involving several containers placed on a white surface made of a washable oilcloth material. A puppet hid various pieces of "treasure," making footprints on the cloth from the start box to the container in which the treasure was hidden. A sponge was available that could be used to wipe up the puppet's footprints. After ensuring that the children understood the basics of the game, one of two experimenters (El) left the room, and the remaining experimenter explained to the child that he or she should help the puppet hide the treasure so that El wouldn't be able to find it. The hide-and-seek game went on for several trials, with the sponge being taken away on later trials so that the puppet's footprints could not be wiped off. If children didn't think of it themselves on these later trials, they were shown how false tracks could be made (that is, tracks leading to the wrong container). The question of interest was the extent to which children would use a variety of deception strategies to make it difficult for El to find the treasure.

In lecture, we discussed several functions that play might serve for the child. Be able to describe two functions.

Composed to have a lot of functions. - promotes self-regulation and executive function - to learn - refine a concept - self-expression - understand different perspectives - safe way to express trauma

Regarding Piaget's theory of infancy, what is the main objection of Core Knowledge theory?

Critiques, infants need to construct principles.

Regarding the Mindreading system, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which the Mindreading system's four mechanisms develop. Eye-Direction Detector

Detects the presence of eyes or eye-like stimuli, determines whether the eyes are looking toward it or toward something else. Develops by 9 months. Infers that the organism is seeing what its eyes are looking at.

Regarding the Mindreading system, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which the Mindreading system's four mechanisms develop. Shared-Attention Mechanism

Establishes that they themselves and another person are jointly attending to the same thing and so, are both seeing the same thing. Develops from 9 to 18 months.

Know the procedures that Southgate and Vernetti (2014) used to test whether 6-month-olds have an implicit understanding of false belief. This was the experiment that started with the infant and an adult looking at either a box that had a ball in it or a box that was empty. Know the results and why these results were considered evidence that the infants understand false belief.

Experiment: Varied the nature of the false belief formed in the change-of-location paradigm. Two conditions... FB-that-Ball-is-in-Box - Both infant and adult see that a ball is in a box. Adult's view is then blocked. Next, only the infant sees the ball leave the box. So, adult should still believe (falsely) that the ball is in the box. FB-that-Box-is-Empty - Both see that a box is empty. Adult's view is then blocked. Next, only the infant sees a ball go into the box. So, adult should still believe (falsely) that the box is empty.

What were the results of the two studies below and how do these results support the main negative criticism above? College students reasoning about the pendulum problem, a political science problem, and a problem in literary analysis?

Expertise and formal operations. College students show the greatest command of formal-operational thought in the subject area most related to their major. Pre-language cultures have no formal-operational thought, not important to their group.

What is the difference between an implicit and an explicit understanding of something?

Explicit describes something that is very clear and without vagueness or ambiguity. Implicit often functions as the opposite, referring to something that is understood, but not described clearly or directly, and often using implication or assumption.

In what ways, does the play of girls tend to differ from that of boys?

Girls' play > Boys' play in ... 1) complexity and duration of play episodes 2) frequency of domestic themes Boys' play > Girls' play in ... 1) frequency of physical conflict themes (e.g., battles, superheroes) 2) frequency of rough-housing

What were the main results of the study examining the relation between egocentrism and the use of tanning beds in adolescents?

Higher egocentrism is correlated to higher risk taking actions. Individual differences predict risk-taking (e.g., use of tanning beds) The results indicated that there was a direct relationship between an adolescent's attitudes and intentions toward tanning salons and his or her imaginary audience ideations. Adolescents who felt more strongly that they were always "onstage" before an audience of peers were more motivated to use indoor tanning and seemed to be more strongly influenced by the behavior of their peers in terms of their own attitudes and intentions toward tanning. Similarly, the extent to which adolescent participants felt invulnerable predicted their association with friends who used tanning beds as well as their own intentions to engage in indoor tanning.

What is the difference between an imperative point and a declarative point?

Imperative (requesting an object) Declarative (conveying information about an object)

What were the results of the two studies below and how do these results support the main negative criticism above? Shoppers' decisions about which of two purchases is the better deal?

In general, formal operational reasoning was not observed for a majority of these women. This does not mean that these adults would not have displayed formal reasoning under some other conditions, but it does suggest that formal operations are not typical of adult thought in general.

The following are also predictors of success on false belief tests. For each predictor, know why it is believed to be a predictor. whether the false belief task involves intentional deception -

In tasks in which children are asked to "trick" someone by changing the location of the person's possession (or by replacing what's inside a container with surprising contents), more 3-year-olds show an understanding of how the other person will form a false belief and make mistakes because of it.

Gopnik and colleagues introduced 3- and 4-year-olds to a machine that played music whenever a "blicket" was placed on it. The children observed a series of events in which one or both objects in a pair were placed on the blicket detector. Why was the One Cause condition less likely than the Two Cause condition to decide that both objects were blickets?

In the one-cause condition, children see the cube activate the blicket detector, whereas the cylinder has no effect. Children correctly reason that the cube is a blicket and the cylinder is not. In the two-cause condition, the cube activates the machine three times, whereas the cylinder activates the machine only two out of three times. Children reason that both objects are blickets.

In the second experiment, children were asked to make the blicket detector stop playing music. Why did children in the One Cause condition always remove just one of the objects, but the children in the Two Cause condition always remove both objects.

In the one-cause condition, the cylinder is placed on the machine, and the machine does not activate. The cube is then used to activate the machine and the cylinder is placed next to the cube. Children correctly reason that removing the cube will deactivate the machine. In the two-cause condition, children view the cylinder activate the detector. When the cylinder is removed, the detector is deactivated. Children then view the cube activate the machine, and the cylinder is placed next to the cube.

How do Piaget's criticisms relate to the results of studies of the groups below (p. 175): Bushman hunters

Indeed, Steven Tulkin and Melvin Konner (1973) found that preliterate Bushman hunters who fail Piaget's problems often do reason at the formal level on at least one task—tracking prey. Clearly, this is an activity of great importance to them that requires the systematic testing of inferences and hypotheses.

Know the procedures that Onishi & Baillargeon (2005) used to test whether 15-month-olds have an implicit understanding of false belief. This was the experiment that started with the infants watching an adult hide and retrieve an object from a green box. Know the results and why these results were considered evidence that the infants understand false belief.

Infant watches adult hide and retrieve object from green box Infant sees adult see object stay in green box. Adult should have true belief that object is in green box. Infant sees adult see object move to yellow box. Adult should have true belief that object is in yellow box. Infant sees the adult search in the green box. Infant sees the adult search in the yellow box. Results: The infants showed this very pattern regardless of whether the adults' belief was true or false. Thus, they represented the adult as forming a false belief and acting based on it.

Gopnik and colleagues argued that children's performance in this 2nd experiment could not be explained by imitation, associative learning, or other mechanisms, but could only be explained by what?

Instead, these results imply that children, as young as 30 months, formed a mental representation of the causal connection between the blicket and the blicket machine and were able to reflect on this representation to make inferences about how to "undo" the cause-effect relationship and deactivate the machine. These mental representations allow children to engage in a kind of counterfactual reasoning to consider alternative situations such as, "What would happen if the cube were not on the machine?" The researchers argued it could not be explained by imitation or associative learning, but because they had to use causal reasoning, which involved considering counterfactual conditions.

Regarding the Mindreading system, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which the Mindreading system's four mechanisms develop. Intentionality Detector

Interprets moving objects as having some volition or intention. Develops by 9 months.

The following are also predictors of success on false belief tests. For each predictor, know why it is believed to be a predictor. language ability -

Language provides a way of expressing differences in representations of the same situation.

Clements & Perner (1994) told children a story about a mouse who was about to look for a piece of cheese that another mouse had moved to a new location. The tester asked, "I wonder where he's going to look?" They measured the child's eye gaze and verbal response. What was the evidence that an implicit understanding of false belief develops before an explicit understanding of false belief?

Many of the children who were close in age to their third birthday looked at the correct spot (where Sam had left the cheese) even though they said the name of the incorrect spot (where the cheese had been moved). So their looking behavior suggested that they had an implicit understanding of false belief

Know the procedures that researchers used to test whether newborns are more attentive to human movement than other kinds of movement. This study involved point light displays. Also, know the results and why they are considered evidence that newborns are especially attentive to human movement.

Newborns preferentially look at point light displays that depict a person walking over an upside-down person walking or a random display of moving lights. By 12 months, infants will follow the gaze of a point light figure.

How do Piaget's criticisms relate to the results of studies of the groups below (p. 175): the Micmac tribe

No difference was found in how the European and Micmac children performed the tasks when tested in their "home" language—European children in English and Micmac children in Micmac. When the Micmac children were tested in English by a European examiner, however, they gave much shorter and less complete answers, and they were significantly less likely to be classified as conservers than their European counterparts. These results bolster Piaget's contention that certain aspects of cognitive development are universal and that concepts such as conservation develop on a predictable schedule in all cultures.

Children who have an older sibling tend to develop an understanding of false belief at an earlier age than other children do. Know the two leading explanations for this correlation.

One explanation: stimulates pretend play, which helps younger children learn how to represent counterfactual states of affairs (Ruffman et al., 1998). Passing a false belief task requires this ability. Another explanation: Understanding of false belief helps them to compete with a more powerful sibling for scarce resources (Cummins, 1998)

Regarding the Empathizing System, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which these four mechanisms develop The Empathizing System

Permits an empathic reaction of another person's emotions and assumes that there is an associated drive to help other people. Develops by 14 months.

The following are also predictors of success on false belief tests. For each predictor, know why it is believed to be a predictor. interacting with a greater number of adults daily -

Possible explanation - adults teach theory-of-mind interpretations of their own and others behaviors through modeling, correction, and explanation.

Know the procedures that were used in the Charlie-and-the-candy study. Also, know the results and why they are considered consistent with Baron-Cohen's theory.

Presented this drawing of "Charlie" to 4-year-olds who were either typically developing (TD) or diagnosed with ASD. Asked them, "Which candy is Charlie looking at?" Result: Both groups passed. Requires EDD (Eye-Direction Detector) Also asked them, "Which candy does Charlie want?" Result: Only the typically developing children passed. Requires SAM (Shared Attention Mechanism) and ToMM (Theory of Mind Module)

Regarding the Empathizing System, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which these four mechanisms develop. The Emotion Detector

Represents affective or emotional states between two people. Develops by 9 months.

What are the cultural differences in play discussed on p. 182?

Rich Western democratic cultures, such as our own, tend to consider play to be more important to child development than most other cultures do. Children from traditional cultures are more likely to include real or toy tools and imitation of real adult work in their symbolic play than children from developed countries. In some traditional societies, children are given toy tools, often made by their parents, to use in play.

According to Baron-Cohen, which of these 6 mechanisms is impaired in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders?

SAM - Shared Attention Mechanism ToMM - Theory of Mind Module TESS - The Empathizing System Calls this deficit "Mindblindness"

According to Perner's Representational Deficit theory, it is not until 4 years old that most children can represent the same situation in more than one way. Each of the tasks below requires children to represent a situation in more than one way. Describe the pair of representations that are required for each task. Appearance & Reality -

Shown a sponge that looks like a rock, and asked, "To your eyes right now, what does it look like?" and "What is it really and truly?" 4-year-olds answer correctly, but 3-year-olds say "sponge" to both questions.

The two most common tests of children's understanding of false belief are the change-of-location task and the surprising contents task. What are the procedures followed in each test, including the final questions that are posed? Know how the typical 3-year-old and typical 4-year-old differ in their answers to the final questions. Change-of-location

The child is told a story about two girls, Sally and Anne. Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts her ball in her basket, then leaves the room. Anne takes the ball out of the basket and puts it in her box. Sally returns and wants to find her ball. Where will she look for it? Results: 4-year-olds: In the basket 3-year-olds: In the box.

During which period of adolescence is this egocentrism the strongest?

The peak of the imaginary audience begins in early adolescence and declines as formal operations are developed, and become more realistic and careful in their decisions.

Children who show more advanced executive function also show more advanced understanding of false belief. How does the Theory-of-Mind Module theory and the Representational Deficit theory explain this correlation?

Theory-of-Mind Module theory: The "other problems" that are the causes of false belief task failures are essentially break-downs in executive function. Representational Deficit theory: Executive function is needed to carry out the processes by which the child constructs more sophisticated representations.

Know the results & procedures of the studies that have tested whether 3-year-olds understand: that animals grow, but inanimate objects do not.

Understand that animals grow. Research by S. Gelman: Showed 3-year-olds pictures of baby animals and brand new artifacts. "I have a picture of it after it was around for a very long time. Can you pick which one it is?' Result: picked the bigger version of the animal over one that was same size. Not quite sure whether artifacts would also be bigger. 5-year-olds were sure artifacts would not be bigger.

Know the results & procedures of the studies that have tested whether 3-year-olds understand: that animals and inanimate objects have different insides

Understand that animals have similar, vital insides. Research by S. Gelman: Asked 3-year-olds, "What's inside this?" Result: For animals: blood, bones, and heart. For inanimate objects (even dolls): just have material inside (rock, stuffing, etc.)

According to Theory Theory, what is the main development in children's theory of mind that occurs around 4 years of age?

Understanding Multiple Representation Evidence: Passing False Belief Tasks

Regarding the Mindreading system, know what the following mechanisms do. Also, know the order in which the Mindreading system's four mechanisms develop. Theory-of-Mind Module

Understanding of multiple representation. Also known as belief-desire reasoning. Required to pass false-belief tasks. The fourth component develops betw. 24 and 48 months

In some circumstances, older children are more likely than younger ones to believe that a fantasy character is real. Know how this claim is supported by the results of the Candy Witch and Princess Alice experiments that are described on p. 185.

When these children who had actually been visited by the Candy Witch (much as they are visited by the Tooth Fairy) were later interviewed, older preschoolers (average age of 5.3 years) were more likely to express belief in the Candy Witch than younger preschoolers (average age of 3.7 years). Only the older children attributed the unexpected events to Princess Alice doing something to communicate to the child (for instance, "Princess Alice did it because I chose the wrong box"). Thus, similar to the findings in the study about children's belief in the Candy Witch, only the older children attributed intention to Princess Alice, suggesting that mature, not immature, cognition is associated with how imaginary (and supernatural) agents behave.

According to Baron-Cohen's Theory of Autism Spectrum Disorders, human beings inherit a tendency to develop what two systems?

a Mindreading System and an Empathizing System

Which of these distinctions between fantasy and reality is the LAST to develop? a. A person cannot control what they dream about when sleeping. b. Pretend actions are not real actions. c. Other people cannot see what you are dreaming or imagining.

a. A person cannot control what they dream about when sleeping.

Leslie's Theory-of-Mind Module theory of children's understanding false belief is an example of a ___________ theory. a. Core Knowledge b. Theory c. Piagetian d. Information Processing

a. Core Knowledge

Which of these theories proposes that infants have extensive innate knowledge? a. Theory Theory b. Piaget's Theory c. Core Knowledge Theory

a. Theory Theory

Although children sometimes believe that fantasy characters are real (e.g., Santa Claus), they sometimes make the opposite mistake. How is this claim supported by the results of the study in children watched a character on Dora the Explorer speaking Spanish?

after Dora the Explorer spoke some Spanish, most 3-year-olds judged that the words were "just pretend" or "made up for the show." - about half of the 4 yos and a minority of the 5 yos thought so too.

Perner's Representational Deficit theory of children's understanding false belief is an example of a ___________ theory. a. Core Knowledge b. Theory c. Piagetian d. Information Processing

b. Theory

Suppose a 24-month-old is looking at one of two novel objects and hears an adult say a novel name. The children will a. assume the novel name is the name of that object b. check to see whether the adult is looking at or pointing at that object.

b. check to see whether the adult is looking at or pointing at that object.

If preschool-age children have seen some character or some phenomenon on TV (or video), but have never seen it in real life a. they tend to believe it is real. b. they tend to believe it is not real.

b. they tend to believe it is not real.

Theory Theory claims that children's folk theories are a. domain-specific b. modules of knowledge ala Chomsky c. Both a & b d. Neither a nor b

c. Both a & b

Baron-Cohen's Theory of Autism Spectrum Disorders is most similar to a. Piaget's Constuctivist theory b. Perner's Representational Deficit theory c. Leslie's Theory-of-Mind Module theory. d. Information Processing theory

c. Leslie's Theory-of-Mind Module theory.

What is sociodramatic play? This type of play becomes less and less frequent after age 7. What activity tends to replace it?

collaborate in performing mini-dramas that have settings, props, roles, and story lines (e.g., "going to the store.") Replaced by conventional games and sports.

Sodian and Kristen-Antonow (2015) found that 12-month-olds' frequency of______________ pointing predicted their performance as 4-year-olds on various theory-of-mind tasks (including understanding of false belief).

declarative pointing

Chomsky does/does not view children's knowledge of language as highly dependent on their other domains of knowledge.

does not

According to Perner's Representational Deficit theory, it is not until 4 years old that most children understand how a false belief can lead someone to do something that __________________________________________ .

does not satisfy their desires.

Know these general criticisms of Piaget's theory: Ability is more (choose: domain-general domain-specific) than he proposed.

domain-specific

Know these general criticisms of Piaget's theory: Ability is more (choose: consistent inconsistent) than he proposed.

inconsistent

Know that the results of the studies in Question 1 and 2 were considered by the researchers who conducted them to support Core Knowledge theory. According to this theory understanding of false belief is _______________ knowledge that even infants possess.

innate

According to Leslie's Theory-of-Mind Module theory, we have a _________ domain-specific ability to represent a situation in more than one way. According to Leslie, this ability emerges around 18 months of age due to _______________________. it is first evident when a child understands that when another person is _________________.

innate; physical maturation of the brain; pretending

Fill in the blanks. According to Theory Theory, by the time they are 18 months old, children have an informal theory of themselves and others as ____________________________ (as doing some things on purpose) and as ____________________ (as interpreting the things they see, hear, touch, etc.)

intentional agents; perceivers

Theory Theory claims that children have more/less innate knowledge than Core Knowledge Theory does.

more

Know these general criticisms of Piaget's theory: He does not give __________ its due. Culture, language, and training have a larger impact on cognitive development than he proposed.

nurture

According to Perner's Representational Deficit theory, it is not until 4 years old that most children can represent the same situation in more than one way. Each of the tasks below requires children to represent a situation in more than one way. Describe the pair of representations that are required for each task. Surprising contents -

requires a similar dual representation Example: In reality, army men are in the box. Before opening the box, I expected crayons to be in the box.

According to Perner's Representational Deficit theory, it is not until 4 years old that most children can represent the same situation in more than one way. Each of the tasks below requires children to represent a situation in more than one way. Describe the pair of representations that are required for each task. Change-of-location -

requires representing the situation as being one way in reality (e.g., the ball is in the box), but a different way in Sally's mind (e.g., the ball is in the basket).

Representational Deficit theorists offer alternative explanations for the results of these studies. They have argued that other mechanisms such as _________________ learning and a bias to attend to _____________________ can explain these findings (Ruffman, 2014).

statistical; faces and motion

According to Representational Deficit Theory, the child gradually constructs a theory of mind that can represent situations in more than one way and can understand false belief. Two important activities promote the construction of this theory are reflecting on ______________ behaviors or events and reflecting on ____________________ language (e.g., "I know that" vs. "I think that.")

surprising; representational

The main objection of Probabilistic Learning theorists is...

that Piaget underestimated infants' ability to keep track of event frequency. This ability causes them to focus on events that have a low or moderate probability.

According to Theory Theory, cognitive development involves adding, subtracting, revising, and reorganizing what?

the beliefs that make up one's folk theory in a domain.