eyesenck

Raymond Novaco (1975) suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts. His argument is that, in some people, anger is often quick to surface, especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety-inducing or threatening. In behaviourist terms, becoming angry is reinforced by the individual's feeling of control in that situation. As such, anger management programmes are a form of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) -t

1. Cognitive preparation: This phase requires the offender to reflect on past experience and consider the typical pattern of their anger. The offender learns to identify those situations which act as triggers to anger and, irrational, the therapist's role is to make this clear. For instance, the offender may view someone looking at them or their partner as an act of confrontation. In redefining the situation as non-threatening, the therapist is attempting to break what may well be an automatic response for the offender.

Hans Eysenck was an important figure in personality and intelligence research during the 1950s and 60s. Eysenck (1947) proposed that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions: introversion/extraversion (E) and neuroticism/stability (N). The two dimensions combine to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits. Eysenck later added a third dimension - psychoticism (P).

According to Eysenck, our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit. Thus, all personality types - including the criminal personality type - have an innate, biological basis. Extraverts have an underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours. They also tend not to condition easily and do not learn from their mistakes. Neurotic individuals tend to be nervous, jumpy and over- anxious, and their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict.

keen et al (2000) has studied the progress made with young offenders aged between 17 and 21 who took part in a nationally recognised anger management programme

Although there were initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously and individuals forgetting routines such as the requirement to bring their diary, the final outcomes were generally positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control.

Curt Bartol (1995) has suggested that, for many offenders, imprisonment can be 'brutal, demeaning and generally devastating'. In the last twenty years, suicide rates among offenders have tended to be around fifteen times higher than those in the general population.This suggests that custodial sentencing is not effective in rehabilitating the individual, particularly those who are psychologically vulnerable.

Although time in prison may be psychologically challenging for many, it cannot be assumed that all offenders will react in the same way. Different prisons have different regimes

. Skill acquisition: In this stage, offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively. Techniques may be cognitive: positive self-talk to encourage calmness; behavioural assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively, and physiological: methods of relaxation and/or meditation. The latter particularly promotes the idea that it is possible for the offender to be in control of their emotions rather than ruled by them.

Application practice: In the final phase, offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully monitored environment. Such role play is likely to involve the offender and the therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated feelings of anger and acts of violence in the past.

The idea of a single criminal type: The idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single personality type has been heavily criticised. For example, John Digman's (1990) Five Factor Model of personality suggests that alongside E and N, there are additional dimensions of openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. From this perspective, multiple combinations are available and therefore a high E and N score does not mean offending is inevitable.

Cultural bias: Curt Bartol and Howard Holanchock (1979) looked into cultural differences. They studied Hispanic and African-American offenders in a maximum security prison in New York and divided these into six groups based on their criminal history and the nature of their offence. It was revealed that all six groups were found to be less extravert than a non-criminal control group. Bartol et al. suggested that this was because their sample was a very different cultural group than that investigated by Eysenck, which questions the generalisability of the criminal personality.

Custodial sentencing involves a convicted offender spending time in prison or another closed institution such as a young offender's institute or psychiatric hospital. There are four main reasons for doing this:

Deterrence: The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual (or society at large) from engaging in offending behaviour. Deterrence works on two levels: general deterrence aims to send a broad message to members of a given society that crime will not be tolerated. Individual deterrence should prevent the individual from repeating the same crime in light of their experience.based on behv punishment stop behaviour.

cognitive distortions are errors or biases in people's information processing system characterised by faulty thinking. We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour (especially if the behaviour was unexpected or out of character) but research has linked this to the way in which criminals interpret other people's behaviour C and justify their own actions. types are Hostile attribution bias and Minimalisation

Evidence suggests that a propensity for violence is often associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people - in other words, to assume others are being confrontational when they are not. Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues (such as being "looked at') and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent, response. Michael Schönenberg and Aiste Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared with a non-aggressive matched control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile. The roots of this behaviour may lie in childhood

The notion that personality can be measured is one that is central to Eysenck's theory. He developed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), a form of psychological test which creates respondents along the E and N dimensions to determine their personality type later scale was introduced that is used to measure psychoticism.

Evidence supporting Eysenck's theory: Sybil Eysenck and Hans Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 male prisoner's scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls. Groups were subdivided into age groups, ranging from 16 to 69 years. On measures of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism - across all age groups -prisoners recorded higher scores than controls which accords with the predictions of the theory.. However, David Farrington et al. (1982) reviewed several studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on P measures, but not for E and N. There is also very little evidence of consistent differences in EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts, which casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck's theory.

According to John Braithwaite (2004) 'crime hurts, justice should heal.' Restorative justice is a process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on the related principles of healing and empowerment. A supervised meeting between the two parties is organised - attended by a trained mediator - in which the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them. Similarly, the offender is able to see the consequences of their actions, including the emotional distress it causes

Focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm others; less emphasis on punishment. Not restricted to courtrooms; survivors (the term 'victims' is avoided) and those responsible for harm may voluntarily choose to meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting. Other relevant community members may also have a role in the process involvement of all parties in the process wherever possible. Focus on positive outcomes for survivors and those who have engaged in wrongdoing.

Bowlby's 44 thieves study has been heavily criticised. He has been accused of researcher bias insofar as his preconceptions of what he expected to find may have influenced the responses of his interviewees.

Hilda Lewis (1954) analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending

trend is summarised by Blackburn (1993) who points out that, whilst anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short term, there is very little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term.

Historically, a person convicted of a criminal offence would have been regarded as having committed a crime against the state. In contrast, restorative justice programmes switch the emphasis from the needs of tthe needs of the individual victim (to come to terms with the crime and move on). As such, victims are encouraged to take an active role in the process, whilst offenders are required to take responsibility and face up to what they have done.

The criminal personality type is neurotic-extravert - a combination of all the characteristics and behaviours described above for both neuroticism and extraversion. In addition, Eysenck suggested that the typical offender will also score highly on measures of psychoticism -a personality type that is characterised as cold, unemotional and prone to aggression.

In Eysenck's theory, personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation processes. Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature, in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - they are impatient and cannot wait for things. The process of delayed gratification is one in which children are taught to become more able to wait for pleasure and are more socially orientated. Eysenck believed that people with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition. As a result, they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety. Consequently, they would be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself.

John Bassett and Edward Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost after staff applied the techniques inconsistently due to factors such as lack of appropriate training of staff or high staff turnover.

In the words of Ronald Blackburn (1993), behaviour modification has little rehabilitative value' and any positive changes in behaviour that may occur whilst the offender is in prison may quickly be lost when they are released. The token economy system is at its best when establishing appropriate conduct within prison

Gibbs argued that Kohlberg's post-conventional level should be abandoned because it was culturally biased (towards Western culture) and did not represent a 'natural' maturational stage of cognitive development.

John Gibbs (1979) proposed a revised version of Kohlberg's theory comprising two levels of reasoning: mature and immature. In the first level, moral decisions are guided by avoidance of punishment and personal gain; in the second level, by empathy, social justice and one's own conscience.

awrence Kohlberg was the first researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. Kohlberg proposed that people's decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in theory of moral development - the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. Kohlberg based his theory on people's responses to a series of moral dilemmas, such as the Heinz dilemma.

Many studies have suggested that criminals tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-criminals. Kohlberg et al. (1973), using his moral dilemma technique, found that a group of violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youths - even after controlling for social background.

recidivism refers to reoffending. Statistics produced by the Ministry of Justice in 2013 suggest that 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of release. In 2007, 14 prisons in England and Wales recorded reoffending rates of over 70%.

Norwegian prisons are very different to the system that operates in this country. Penal institutions are much more 'open' in Norway an there is much greater emphasis placed on rehabilitation and skills development than there is in the UK.

offender may also learn particular techniques for committing crime. These might include how to break into someone's house through a locked window or how to disable a car stereo before stealing it. As well as offering an account of how crime may 'breed' amongst specific social groups and in communities, Sutherland's theory can also account for why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend. It is reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other, more experienced criminals that they may be eager to put into practice upon their release. This learning may occur through observational learning and imitation or direct tuition from criminal peers.

One of the great strengths of differential association theory is its ability to account for crime within all sectors of society. Whilst Sutherland recognised that some types of crime, such as burglary, may be clustered within certain inner-city, working-class communities, it is also the case that some crimes are more prevalent amongst more affluent groups in society. Sutherland was particularly interested in so-called 'white-collar' or corporate crime (indeed he coined the term white-collar crime himself) and how this may be a feature of middle-class social groups who share deviant norms and values.

Minimalisation is an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence and has elsewhere been referred to as the application of a 'euphemistic' label for behaviour (Bandura 1973). For instance, burglars may describe themselves as doing a 'job' or 'supporting my family' as a way of minimising the seriousness of their offences. Studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation. Howard Barbaree (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning between 201 female and 122 male non-offenders, and 126 convicted offenders.delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent group which is consistent with Kohlberg's predictions. Ronald Blackburn (1993) suggests that delinquents may show poor moral development due to a lack of role playing opportunities in childhood. Such opportunities to develop moral reasoning should therefore be provided.

Institutionalisation: Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life the criminal may be unable to function on the outside

Prisonisation refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an inmate code. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution

An implicit assumption within Freudian theory is the idea that girls develop a weaker superego than boys. Martin Hoffman (1975) found hardly any evidence of gender differences, and when there was, little girls tended to be more moral than little boys.

Psychodynamic explanations in general suffer from a lack of falsifiability. The many unconscious concepts within Freudian not open to empirical testing. In the absence of supporting evidence, arguments such as the inadequate superego can only be judged on their face value rather than their scientific worth.

Not all restorative programmes involve face-to-face encounters between offender and victim. Occasionally, the offender may make some financial restitution to the victim, which may reflect the psychological damage done - or the actual, physical damage done, in the case of a break-in for instance. Other variations of the scheme may involve the offender repairing damaged property themselves.

RJC is an independent body whose role it is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice (or restorative practice as the RJC refers to it) and to support victims and specialist professionals in the field. The RJC advocates the use of restorative practice in preventing and managing conflict in many areas including schools, children's services, workplaces, hospitals and communities - as well as prison.

Incapacitation: The offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation is likely to depend upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. For instance, individuals in society will require more protection from a serial murderer or rapist than an elderly person who refuses to pay their council tax

Retribution: Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime.

Rehabilitation: Upon release offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society. Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes for drug addiction

Stress and depression: Suicide rates are considerably higher in prison than in the general population, as are incidents of self-mutilation and self-harm. The stress of the prison experience also increases the risk of psychological disturbance following release.

Tom Hobbs and Michael Holt (1976) introduced a token economy programme with groups of young delinquents across three behavioural units (and a fourth unit acted as a control'). They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group. A similar effect was found with offenders in an adult prison (Allyon et al. 1979).

The appeal of behaviour modification rests largely upon the ease with which it can be administered. There is no need for expertise or specialist professionals as there would be for other forms of treatment such as anger management. Rather, token economy systems can be implemented by virtually anyone in any institution. They are also cost- effective and easy to follow

The weak superego - If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification. This would make immoral or criminal behaviour more likely.

The deviant superego- If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. For instance, a boy that is raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing .

The dominant approach in the rehabilitation of sex offenders is cognitive behaviour therapy which encourages offenders to 'face up' to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. Studies suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending (as 'acceptance of one's crimes is thought to be an important aspect of rehabilitation) and this is a key feature of anger management.

The level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence. David Thornton (1982) found that individuals who committed crimes for financial gain, such as robbery, were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes such as assault where reasoning of any kind tended not to be evident. Pre- conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment.

strengths of restorative justice is that- unlike custodial sentencing, which tends to adopt a 'one size fits all approach, there is a degree of flexibility in the way in which programmes can be administered, and the term itself covers a wide range of possible applications (including schools and hospitals). This is positive in the sense that schemes can be adapted and tailored to the needs of the individual situation

The success of the restorative justice programme may hinge upon the extent to which the offender feels remorse for their actions. However, there is a danger that some offenders may 'sign up' for the scheme to avoid prison, or for the promise of a reduced sentence, rather than a genuine willingness to want to make amends to the victim.

Criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's model (stages 1 and 2), whereas non-criminals have generally progressed to the conventional level and beyond. The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning. Thus, adults and adolescents who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect, etc.

This assumption is supported by studies which suggest that offenders are often more egocentric (self-centred) and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offender peers (e.g. Chandler 1973). Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence.

Offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through the processes of learning. This learning occurs most often through interactions with significant others that the child associates with, such as the family and peer group. Criminality arises from two factors: learned attitudes towards crime, and the learning of specific criminal acts.

When a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law. Some of these values will be pro-crime, some of these will be anti-crime. Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend. The learning process is the same whether a person is learning criminality or conformity to the law (or anything else for that matter.) Differential association suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit crime if we have knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration of which they have been exposed to deviant and non-deviant norms and values.

Anger management works on a number of different levels. It includes cognitive preparation in order to identify the precursors to anger in phase one. It applies a behavioural perspective when developing techniques of self-management in phase two. Finally, a social approach is adopted in phase three when offenders are required to demonstrate what they have learnt during role play. This multidisciplinary approach acknowledges that offending is a complex social and psychological activity

anger management tries to tackle one of the causes of offending. Rather than focusing on superficial surface behaviour, it attempts to address the thought processes that underlie offending behaviour. Experience of treatment programmes offer offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality enabling them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting

The rehabilitation model is based on the argument that offenders may become better people during their time in prison, and their improved character means they are able to lead a crime-free life when back in society. Many prisoners access education and training whilst in prison increasing the possibility they will find employment upon release.

it should be possible to encourage the unlearning of behaviour by applying the same principles that brought it to be learnt. Behaviour modification programmes are designed with the aim of reinforcing obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience, in the hope that the former continues and the latter dies out (becomes extinct

The over-harsh superego - A healthy superego is like a kind but firm internal parent it has rules, but it is also forgiving of transgressions. In contrast, an excessively punitive or overly harsh superego means the individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment.

john bowl-by proposed that maternal deprivation can lead to criminality 12 out 44 thieves suffered pro long separation from mother.the development of a particular personality type, known as affectionless psychopathy, characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and feeling for others. Such maternally deprived individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency

Not everyone who is exposed to criminal influences goes on to commit crime. Even though Sutherland took great care to point out that crime should be considered on an individual case-by-case basis,

superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage of development when children resolve the Oedipus complex. The superego works on the morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt for wrongdoing, whilst rewarding it with pride for moral behaviour. Ronald Blackburn (1993) argued that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id is given 'free rein' and not properly controlled. Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed.

sutherland was successful in moving the emphasis away from early biological accounts of crime, such as Lombroso's atavistic theory, as well as away from those that explained offending as being the product of individual weakness or immorality. Differential association theory draws attention to the fact that dysfunctional social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for criminality, than dysfunctional people

sutherland suggested that the response of the family is crucial in determining whether the individual is likely to engage in offending. If the family is seen to support criminal activity, making it seem legitimate and reasonable, then this becomes a major influence on the child's value system.It was also the case in the study by Mednick et al. (1984) that boys who had criminal adoptive parents and non-criminal biological parents were more likely to go on to offend than boys whose biological and adoptive parents were non-criminal (14.7% compared to 13.5%)

Based on operant conditioning, token economy involves reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token that can then be exchanged for some kind of reward. Within the walls of the prison, desirable behaviour may take many forms but is likely to include avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping one's cell orderly, and so on. Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive their value from their association with a reward. The reward may include exchanging tokens for a phone call to a loved one,

with all behaviour modification programmes, the desirable behaviour is identified (let's say, avoiding confrontation), broken down into small steps (called increments) and a baseline measure is established. The behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon and all those who come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of selective reinforcemen