Final A&P Comprehensive Chapters 1-15
Describe the process of DNA replication.
* DNA helices begin unwinding from the nucleosomes * helicase untwists the double helix and exposes complementary strands * the site of replication is the replication bubble * each nucleotide strand serves as a template for building a new complementary strand * the replisome uses RNA primers to begin DNA synthesis * DNA polymerase III continues from the primer and covalently adds complementary nucleotides to the template * Since DNA polymerase only works in 1 direction: - a continuous leading strand is synthesized - a discontinuous lagging strand is synthesized - DNA ligase splices together the short segments of the discontinuous strand - 2 new telomeres are also synthesized - this process is called semiconservative replication
Name and describe the structure and function of cytoskeletal elements.
* The "skeleton" of the cell * Dynamic, elaborate series of rods running through the cytosol. * Consists of micro tubules, micro filaments, and intermediate filaments.
Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport processes. Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to substances transported, direction, and mechanism.
* passive membrane transport: diffusion -- simple diffusion which is NONpolar and lipid-soluble substances - diffuse directly throughout the lipid bilayer - diffuse through channel proteins * facilitated diffusion - transport of glucose, amino acids, and ions - transported substances bind carrier proteins or pass through protein channels * Passive Membrane Transport: Osmosis - occurs when the concentration of a solvent is different on opposite sides of a membrane - diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane - osmolarity - total concentration of soluble particles in a solution - tonicity - how a solution affects cell volume * Passive Membrane Transport: Filtration - the passage of water and solutes through a membrane by hydrostatic pressure - pressure gradient pushes solute-containing fluid from a higher-pressure area to a lower-pressure area * Active transport - Uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane. - Requires carrier proteins. - symport system: 2 substances are moved across a membrane in the same direction - antiport system: 2 substances are moved across a membrane in opposite directions - primary active transport: hydrolysis of ATP phosphorylates the transport protein causing conformational change - secondary active transport: use of an exchange pump (such as the Na+ - K+ pump) indirectly to drive the transport of other solutes.
Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions.
* separates intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids * plays a dynamic role in cellular activity * Glycocalyx is a glycoprotein area abutting (next to) the cell that provides highly specific biological markers by which cells recognize or another. * differ in the kind and amount of lipids they contain. * Glycolipids are found only in the outer membrane surface. * 20% of all membranes lipid is cholesterol.
1.8 Describe how negative and positive feedback maintain body homeostasis
***In negative feedback, a sensor detects a change in the internal environment and alerts the control center of this change. The control center then starts a reaction, such as a hormone or sweating to regulate the conditions. When the sensor no longer detects the change it sends a signal to the control center to alert it to stop sending out the hormone or making the body sweat. Positive feedback is is a system where the stimulus produces a response that results in greater stimulus. i.e. (Labor contractions).
1.13 Name the four quadrants or nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity and list the organs they contain.
**Right Upper Quad (RUQ) Left Upper Quad (LUQ) Right Lower Quad (RLQ) Left Lower Quad (LLQ)
List several roles of membrane receptors and that of voltage-gated membrane channel proteins
- contact signaling: important in normal development and immunity - electrical signaling: voltage-regulated "ion gates" in nerve and muscle tissue - chemical signaling: neurotransmitters bind to chemically gated channel-linked receptors in nerve and muscle tissue - G protein-linked receptors - ligands bind to a receptor which activates a G protein, causing the release of a second messenger, such as cyclic AMP. * operation of a G protein - an extracellular ligand (first messenger), binds to a specific plasma membrane protein - the receptor activates a G protein that relays the message to an effector protein - the effector is an enzyme that produces a second messenger inside the cell - the second messenger activates a kinase - the activated kinase can trigger a variety of cellular responses
Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria.
- double membrane structure with shelflike cristae - provide most of the cell's ATP via aerobic cellular respiration - contain their own DNA and RNA
Briefly describe tissue changes that occur with age.
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Classify general sensory receptors by structure, stimulus detected, and body location
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Classify joints by structure and function.
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Classify neurons by structure and by function.
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Compare and contrast eccrine and apocrine glands.
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Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis in terms of function and direction.
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Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.
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Compare and contrast intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
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Compare and contrast light and dark adaptation.
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Compare and contrast pinocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
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Compare and contrast stretch, flexor, crossed-extensor, and tendon reflexes.
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Compare and contrast the common types of arthritis.
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Compare and contrast the contractile mechanisms and the means of activation of skeletal and smooth muscles.
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Compare and contrast the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on skeletal muscles and on other body systems.
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Compare and contrast the events and importance of slow-wave and REM sleep, and indicate how their patterns change through life.
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Compare and contrast the four bone classes and provide examples of each class.
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Compare and contrast the major functions of the cranium and the facial skeleton.
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Compare and contrast the motor endings of somatic and autonomic nerve fibers.
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Compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision.
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Compare and contrast the stages and categories of memory.
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Compare and contrast the structures and body locations of the three types of muscle tissue.
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Compare and contrast the three basic types of muscle tissue.
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Compare the gross and microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle cells to that of skeletal muscle cells.
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Compare the locations and remodeling functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
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Compare the roles of the cerebellum and basal nuclei in controlling motor activity.
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Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems relative to effectors, efferent pathways, and neurotransmitters released.
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Compare the structure and locations of sweat and oil glands. Also compare the composition and functions of their secretions.
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Compare the structures and functions of bursae and tendon sheaths.
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Contrast the disorders of bone remodeling seen in osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget's disease.
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Contrast triplets, codons, and anticodons.
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Define EEG and distinguish between alpha, beta, theta, and delta brain waves.
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Define EPOC and muscle fatigue. List possible causes of muscle fatigue.
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Define absolute and relative refractory periods.
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Define autonomic nervous system and explain its relationship to the peripheral nervous system.
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Define autophagy and indicate its major cellular function.
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Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers, and list the different types of their receptors.
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Define ganglion and indicate the general body location of ganglia
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Define joint or articulation.
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Define lever, and explain how a lever operating at a mechanical advantage differs from one operating at a mechanical disadvantage.
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Define motor unit and muscle twitch, and describe the events occurring during the three phases of a muscle twitch.
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Define neuron, describe its important structural components, and relate each to a functional role.
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Define neurotransmitter and name several classes of neurotransmitters.
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Define plexus. Name the major plexuses and describe the distribution and function of the peripheral nerves arising from each plexus
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Define resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis.
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Define saltatory conduction and contrast it to continuous conduction.
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Define synapse. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses by structure and by the way they transmit information.
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Define the bony boundaries of the orbits, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses.
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Describe and attempt to explain the causes of changes that occur in the skin from birth to old age.
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Describe autonomic nervous system controls.
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Describe common patterns of neuronal organization and processing.
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Describe consciousness clinically.
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Describe embryonic development of muscle tissues and the changes that occur in skeletal muscles with age.
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Describe factors that influence the force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle contraction.
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Describe how an action potential is generated.
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Describe how meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain barrier protect the CNS.
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Describe how neurons develop and form synapses.
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Describe how space constraints affect brain development.
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Describe how synaptic events are integrated and modified.
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Describe how the skin accomplishes at least five different functions.
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Describe how the two main types of cell extensions, cilia and microvilli, differ in structure and function.
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Describe receptor and generator potentials and sensory adaptation.
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Describe several effects of aging on the autonomic nervous system.
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Describe the cause (if known) and major signs and symptoms of cerebrovascular accidents, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
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Describe the cause and consequences of Lyme disease.
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Describe the clinical importance of drugs that mimic or inhibit adrenergic or cholinergic effects.
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Describe the development of the brain and spinal cord.
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Describe the developmental relationship between the segmented arrangement of peripheral nerves, skeletal muscles, and skin dermatomes.
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Describe the elbow, knee, hip, jaw, and shoulder joints in terms of articulating bones, anatomical characteristics of the joint, movements allowed, and joint stability.
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Describe the events that convert light into a neural signal.
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Describe the factors that normally contribute to skin color. Briefly describe how changes in skin color may be used as clinical signs of certain disease states.
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Describe the functional properties of the three types of cartilage tissue.
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Describe the functions of prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators.
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Describe the general function of the basal nuclei (basal ganglia).
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Describe the general structure of a nerve.
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Describe the general structure of a spinal nerve and the general distribution of its rami.
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Describe the general structure of cartilaginous joints. Name and give an example of each of the two common types of cartilaginous joints.
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Describe the general structure of fibrous joints. Name and give an example of each of the three common types of fibrous joints.
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Describe the gross anatomy of a typical flat bone and a long bone. Indicate the locations and functions of red and yellow marrow, articular cartilage, periosteum, and endosteum.
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Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord.
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Describe the gross structure of a skeletal muscle.
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Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone.
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Describe the importance of ubiquitin-dependent degradation of soluble proteins.
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Describe the location of the diencephalon, and name its subdivisions and functions.
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Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of smell and taste receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated.
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Describe the main aspects of sensory perception.
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Describe the microscopic structure and functional roles of the myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules of skeletal muscle fibers.
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Describe the process of long bone growth that occurs at the epiphyseal plates.
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Describe the roles of the major brain structures believed to be involved in declarative and procedural memories.
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Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.
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Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the internal ear, and follow the auditory pathway from the spiral organ to the temporal cortex.
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Describe the structural characteristics of synovial joints.
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Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye layers, the lens, and humors of the eye.
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Describe the structure and function of cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes.
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Describe the structure and general function of the outer, middle, and internal ears.
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Describe the structure of nails.
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Describe the structure of the vertebral column, list its components, and describe its curvatures
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Describe the timing and cause of changes in bone architecture and bone mass throughout life.
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Describe three types of skeletal muscle fibers and explain the relative value of each type.
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Describe three ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction.
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Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System
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Differentiate between (1) a nerve and a tract, and (2) a nucleus and a ganglion.
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Differentiate between commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.
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Differentiate between isometric and isotonic contractions.
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Differentiate true from false ribs.
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Discuss factors that promote or disturb joint homeostasis.
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Discuss the chemical composition of bone and the advantages conferred by its organic and inorganic components.
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Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra and describe regional features of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.
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Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
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Distinguish between flaccid and spastic paralysis, and between paralysis and paresthesia.
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Distinguish between serial and parallel processing.
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Distinguish between unitary and multi unit smooth muscle structurally and functionally.
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Explain how a muscle's position relative to a joint affects its action.
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Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons.
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Explain how cartilage grows.
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Explain how cerebrospinal fluid is formed and describe its circulatory pathway.
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Explain how hormones and physical stress regulate bone remodeling.
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Explain how muscle fibers are stimulated to contract by describing events that occur at the neuromuscular junction.
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Explain how smooth, graded contractions of a skeletal muscle are produced.
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Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and the vestibule help maintain equilibrium.
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Explain how we are able to differentiate pitch and loudness, and localize the source of sounds.
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Explain lateralization of hemisphere function.
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Explain the effects of aging on the brain.
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Explain the importance of the myelin sheath and describe how it is formed in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
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Explain the relationship of some types of hypertension, Raynaud's disease, and autonomic dysreflexia to disorders of autonomic function.
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Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.
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Explain why serious burns are life threatening. Describe how to determine the extent of a burn and differentiate first-, second-, and third-degree burns.
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Follow the events of excitation-contraction coupling that lead to cross bridge activity.
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Follow the process of nerve regeneration.
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For the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions, describe the site of CNS origin, locations of ganglia, and general fiber pathways.
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Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement to the function of this girdle.
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Identify important bone markings on the pectoral girdle.
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Identify or name the bones of the upper limb and their important markings.
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Identify the three major regions of the brain stem, and note the functions of each area.
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Indicate a common function of the spinal curvatures and the intervertebral discs.
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Indicate several maternal factors that can impair development of the nervous system in an embryo.
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Indicate the embryonic origin of each tissue class.
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Indicate the general characteristics of nervous tissue.
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List and describe seven important functions of bones.
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List and explain several techniques used to diagnose brain disorders
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List changes that occur in the special sense organs with aging.
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List four important functions of muscle tissue.
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List possible causes and symptoms of otitis media, deafness, and Ménière's syn-drome.
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List the basic functions of the nervous system.
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List the changes that occur in the peripheral nervous system with aging.
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List the criteria used in naming muscles. Provide an example to illustrate the use of each criterion.
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List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
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List the major spinal cord tracts, and classify each as a motor or sensory tract.
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List the parts of a hair follicle and explain the function of each part. Also describe the functional relationship of arrector pili muscles to the hair follicles.
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List the types of neuroglia and cite their functions.
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List three natural factors that stabilize synovial joints.
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Locate the limbic system and the reticular formation, and explain the role of each functional system.
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Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect
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Name and describe (or perform) the common body movements.
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Name and describe the bones of the thoracic cage (bony thorax).
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Name and describe the composition of extracellular materials.
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Name and identify the muscles described in Tables 10.1 to 10.17. State the origin, insertion, and action of each.
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Name and locate the ventricles of the brain.
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Name and provide examples of the six types of synovial joints based on the movement(s) allowed.
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Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves; indicate the body region and structures innervated by each.
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Name the bones contributing to the os coxae, and relate the pelvic girdle's strength to its function.
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Name the common patterns of muscle fascicle arrangement and relate them to power generation.
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Name the components of a reflex arc and distinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes.
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Name the major parts of the axial and appendicular skeletons and describe their relative functions.
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Name the major regions of the skeleton and describe their relative functions.
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Name the most common joint injuries and discuss the symptoms and problems associated with each.
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Name the regions of a hair and explain the basis of hair color. Describe the distribution, growth, replacement, and changing nature of hair during the life span.
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Name the three types of lever systems and indicate the arrangement of effort, fulcrum, and load in each. Also note the advantages of each type of lever system.
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Name the tissue types composing the epidermis and dermis. List the major layers of each and describe the functions of each layer.
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Name the two phases of protein synthesis and describe the roles of DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in each phase.
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Name, describe, and identify the skull bones. Identify their important markings.
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Outline the causes and consequences of astigmatism, myopia, hyperopia, and presbyopia.
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Outline the causes and consequences of cataracts and glaucoma.
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Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception.
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Outline the process of tissue repair involved in normal healing of a superficial wound.
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Outline the three levels of the motor hierarchy.
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State the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs: heart, blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, adrenal medulla, and external genitalia.
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Summarize the characteristics of the three major types of skin cancers.
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Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused for distant and close vision.
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Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex, and briefly describe the steps in visual processing.
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1.3 Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain their relationships.
1) Chemical Level-Atoms combine to form molecules 2) Cellular level-Cells are made up of molecules 3)Tissue level-Tissues consist of similar types of cells 4)Organ level-Organs are made up of different types of tissues 5)Organ system level-Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely 6) Organismal level-The human organism is made up of many organ systems.
1.4 List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the major function(s) of each system.
1. Integumentary system: The organ system that provides a barrier between the body's internal organs and the outside environment. 2. Skeletal system: Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. 3. Muscular system: Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat. 4. Nervous System: As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands 5. Endocrine system: Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. 6. Cardiovascular system: blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, etc. *The heart pumps the blood* 7. Lymphatic system/immunity: The organ system that regulates fluids in the body and defends the body against disease 8. Respiratory system: Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. 9. Digestive system: Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. 10. Urinary system: Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood. 11. Reproductive system: system of organs involved in producing offspring
Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate their characteristic functions.
1. Mesenchyme forms during the early weeks of embryonic development from the mesoderm layer and eventually differentiates into all other connective tissues. 2. Loose connective tissue is one of the two subclasses of connective tissue proper. *Areolar connective tissue serves to bind body parts together while allowing them to move freely over one another, wraps small blood vessels and nerves, surrounds glands, and forms the subcutaneous tissue. *Adipose (fat) tissue is a richly vascularized tissue that functions in nutrient storage, protection, and insulation. *Reticular connective tissue forms the internal framework of the lymph nodes, the spleen, and the bone marrow. 3. Dense connective tissue is one of the two subclasses of connective tissue proper. *Dense regular connective tissue contains closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction and makes up tendons and ligaments. *Dense irregular connective tissue contains thick bundles of collagen fibers arranged in an irregular fashion, and is found in the dermis. 4. Cartilage lacks nerve fibers and is avascular. *Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage, providing firm support with some pliability. *Elastic cartilage is found where strength and exceptional stretchability are needed, such as the external ear. *Fibrocartilage is found where strong support and the ability to withstand heavy pressure are required, such as the intervertebral discs. 5. Bone (osseous tissue) has an exceptional ability to support and protect body structures due to its hardness, which is determined by the additional collagen fibers and calcium salts found in the extracellular matrix. 6. Blood is classified as a connective tissue because it developed from mesenchyme, and consists of blood cells and plasma proteins surrounded by blood plasma.
Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
1. Tight Junction: impermeable (not loose) junction that encircles (surround) the cell. 2. Desmosome - anchoring (to be held, surround, or secure) junction scattered along the sides of cells. "strong" 3. Gap Junction - a nexus (connection) that allows chemical substances to pass between cells.
2.6 Define molecule, and distinguish between a compound and a mixture.
A molecule is two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. When the two or more atoms are different, this is called a molecule of a compound(H20). Mixtures are when two or more components are physically intermixed.
Explain the roles of ATP in cell metabolism.
ATP is a source of energy that cells can immediately use. It is the primary energy-transferring molecule in cells.
2.15 Define acid and base, and explain the concept of pH.
Acids and Base: Acids release H ions(H+) or protons into a solution. Bases accept them. pH measures the relative concentration of H+ in the solution. A low pH means it is acidic. A high pH means it is basic. A pH of 7 is neutral.
Indicate common characteristics of connective tissue, and list and describe its structural elements.
All connective tissue arises from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme. Connective tissue ranges from avascular to highly vascularized. Connective tissue is composed mainly of nonliving extracellular matrix that separates the cells of the tissue. Structural Elements of Connective Tissue 1. Ground substance is the unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers. 2. Fibers of the connective tissue provide support. Collagen fibers are extremely strong and provide high tensile strength to the connective tissue. Elastic fibers contain elastin, which allows them to be stretched and to recoil. Reticular fibers are fine, collagenous fibers that form networks. 3. Each major class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature forms.
1.1 Define anatomy and physiology and describe their subdivisions.
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms. Physiology is the study of the function of living organisms. Subdivisions of anatomy are gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy (cytology and histology), regional, systemic, developmental anatomy(embryology). The subdivisions of physiology are renal physiology, neurophysiology, and cardiovascular physiology
Indicate the value of apoptosis to the body.
Apoptosis is programmed cell death. Its function is t dispose of damaged or unnecessary cells.
2.5 Define atomic number, atomic mass, atomic weight, *isotope, and radioisotope.*
Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in the nucleus Atomic Mass: The sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons. Some elements have isotopes. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. For example, there is Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. Both has 6 protons, but they have different weights because of a difference in the number of protons. Atomic Weight: The average of all the isotopes of a certain element taking into account the abundance of each isotope.
2.8 Explain the role of electrons in chemical bonding and in relation to the octet rule.
Atoms want to have a full valence shell with eight electrons so they will be stable. To do this atoms will share or exchange electrons.
Define cell.
Basic unit of life. Makes up all living organisms. Made up of macromolecules that are formed inside the cell. Other macromolecules control the formation of these macromolecules.
1.10 Describe the anatomical position.
Body erect; feet flat, facing forward; eyes facing forward; arms to the side, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing out.
2.3 Define chemical element and list the four elements that form the bulk of body matter.
Cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods. Elements act as the building blocks of chemistry. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up 96% of our body weight.
Discuss some theories of cell differentiation and aging.
Cellular aging may reflect chemical insults, progressively disorders of immunity, or a genetically programmed decline in the rate of cell division with age.
Describe the roles of centrioles in cell division and in formation of cilia and flagella.
Centrioles * small barrel-shaped organelles located in the centrosome near the nucleus * pinwheel array of 9 triplets of microtubules * organize mitotic spindle during mitosis * form the bases of cilia and flagella Cilia * whiplike, motile cellular extensions on exposed surfaces of certain cells * move substances in 1 direction across cell surfaces. Flagella * when the projections formed by centrioles are substantially longer, they are called flagella. Ex: sperm "tail". * NOTICE that cilia propel other substances across a cell's surface, where a flagellum propels the cell itself. *
2.2 Describe the major energy forms.
Chemical energy: energy is stored in the bonds of chemical substances like ATP Electrical energy: results from the movement of charged particles like in the nervous system Mechanical energy: directly involved in moving matter like your legs pedaling on a bike Radiant/Electromagnetic energy: travels in waves like light and radio waves
1.2 Explain the principle of complementarity.
Complementarity states that an organ's function (Physiology) is related to its structure (Anatomy)
2.4 Define atom. List the subatomic particles, and describe their relative masses, charges, and positions in the atom.
Each element contains atoms which are more or less identical particles or building blocks. Each atom is made up of protons and neutrons which are housed in the nucleus and electrons which surround the nucleus. Protons have a +1 charge and weigh 1amu. Electrons have a -1 charge and weigh 0amu. Neutrons have a 0 charge and wiegh 1 amu.
Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands, and between multicellular and unicellular glands.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones by exocytosis directly into the blood or lymph. Exocrine glands have ducts and secrete their product onto a surface or into body cavities. Exocrine glands may be unicellular or multicellular. Exocrine secretions in humans may be merocrine, which are products released through exocytosis, or holocrine, which are synthesized products released when the cell ruptures.
Define gene and genetic code and explain the function of genes.
Gene - as a segment of a DNA molecule that carries instructions for creating 1 polypeptide chain. * the 4 nucleotides bases (A,G, T and C) are the "letters" used in the genetic dictionary, and the information of DNA is found in the sequence of these bases. Genetic Code- RNA codons code for amnio acids according to a genetic code.
1.7 Define homeostasis and explain its significance.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of normal internal conditions. i.e.: sweating to maintain body temperature; releasing stored sugar to maintain blood sugar levels.
Locate the major cartilages of the adult skeleton.
Hyaline- Ribs to sternum, Bone surfaces at synovial joints, nasal septum, trachea & bronchi and END OF LONG BONE
Explain the role of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis in the formation and breakdown of organic molecules.
In dehydration synthesis, one monomer donates a H while another donates an OH in order to join together. In other words, two join two pieces, the two pieces kick off a water molecule because an OH+H->H2O. In hydrolysis, the opposite takes place. In order to break apart the monomers, a water molecules is shoved back into them. One monomer takes the H, the other takes the OH.
Differentiate between primary and secondary active transport
In primary active transport, energy comes directly from ATP, whereas secondary active transport uses energy from the "downhill" movement of molecules that had previously been moved against their gradient, in order to "hitch a ride" up their gradient.
2.9 Differentiate among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
Ionic: Atoms transfer electrons from one atom to another. This causes one atom to be negative and another to be positive. Because they have opposite charges, the atoms will bond together. Covalent: Atoms share an electron Hydrogen bonds are not true bonds like ionic and covalent. Hydrogen bonding is when a molecule with H is attracted to a negative part of another molecule.
List the steps involved in preparing animal tissue for microscopic viewing.
It must be fixed (preserved) and then sliced into sections thin enough to transmit light or electrons. It must also be stained to enhance contrast.
Compare the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes.
Lysosomes: * spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes * digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins * degrade nonfunctional organelles * breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone * breakdown nonuseful tissue * breakdown bone to release Ca2+ * secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells, immune cells, and melanocytes Peroxisomes * mebranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases * detoxify harmful or toxic substances * neutralize dangerous free radicals * free radicals- highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons (i.e., O2-)
2.1 Differentiate between matter and energy and between potential energy and kinetic energy.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Energy is the capacity to do work, or to put matter into motion. Potential energy is the capability to do work or move(like a ball sitting at a top of a ramp) and kinetic energy is doing work through movement(like a ball rolling down the ramp).
Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained.
Membrane Potential: Voltage across the plasma membrane - resting membrane potential - the point where K+ potential is balanced by the membrane potential - ranges from -20 to -200 mV (millivolts) - results from Na+ and K+ concentration gradients across the membrane - differential permeability of the plasma membrane to Na+ and K+ - steady state: potential maintained by active transport of ions
List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the key events of each phase.
Mitotic (M) phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis, and interphase, during which the cell grows and duplicates its chromosomes. Interphase, usually lasting 90% of the cell cycle, includes the G1 phase the first growing phase, the S phase is the DNA synthesis, and the G2 phase the 2nd gap that makes proteins to divide and gear up from mitosis Phases of mitosis: Prophase is the first phase is when the two sister chromatids pair up and the nucleoli disappears. Prometaphase is the second phase where the microtubules begin to separate from each other, each pair of microtubules attach to the kinetochores and some nonkinetohore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole of the spindle. Metaphase is the third phase where the chromosomes are lined up on the invisible line of the metaphase plate. Anaphase is the fourth phase where the two daughter chromosomes begin to separate from each other to opposite poles. Telophase is the last phase where the two daughter nuclei form creating two identical nuclei.
Outline the structure and function of the nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin.
Nuclear Envelope * selectively permeable double membrane barrier containing pores * encloses jellylike nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes * outer membrane is continuous with hte rough ER and is studded with ribosomes * inner membrane is lined w/ the nuclear lamina, which maintains the shape of the nucleus * pore complex regulates transport of large molecules into and out of the nucleus Nucleoli (Nucleolus) "little nuclei" * dark-staining spherical bodies with the nucleus * site of ribosome production Chromatin * threadlike strands of DNA and histones * arranged in fundamental units called nucleosomes * form condensed, barlike bodies of chromosomes when the nucleus starts to divide
1.6 List the survival needs of the body.
Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate Atmospheric Pressure.
List the three major regions of a generalized cell and their functions.
Plasma Membrane: the outer boundary of a cell Cytoplasm: The intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures that perform specific cell functions Nucleus: An organelle that controls cellular activities.
2.10 Compare and contrast polar and nonpolar compounds.
Polar: Created by the unequal sharing of electrons. The result is a molecule with a positive end and a negative end. Nonpolar: The molecule is electronically equal.
Indicate the functional importance of bone markings.
Projections, depressions and openings serve as sites of muscle, ligament and tendon attachment, joint surfaces or conduits for blood vessels and nerves
Discuss the structure and function of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles.
Ribosomes * granules containing protein and rRna * site of protein synthesis * free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins * membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) * interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing cisternae * continuous with the nuclear membrane * 2 varieties - rough/smooth ER Golgi Apparatus * stacked & flattened membrane sacs * functions in modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins * transport vessels from the ER fuse with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus to the trans face * secretory vesicles leave the trans face of the Golgi stack and move to designated parts of the cell
Name, classify, and describe the various types of epithelia, and indicate their chief function(s) and location(s)
Simple epithelia: consist of a single cell. Found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occurs. Stratified epithelia: composed of 2 or more cell layers stacked on top of each other, common in high abrasion areas where protection is important.
2.7 Compare solutions, colloids, and suspensions.
Solution: Solute particles are very tiny, do not settle out or scatter light(mineral water). Colliod: Solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light, do not settle out.(gelatin) Suspension: Solute paricles are very large, settle our and may scatter light(blood)
2.11 Define the three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and exchange. Comment on the nature of oxidation-reduction reactions and their importance.
Synthesis: Atoms or molecules combine to form larger complexes. A+B->C Decomposition: When a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules. AB->A+B Exchange: Involves synthesis and decomposition. AB+C->AC+B Oxidation-reduction reactions (redox reactions): A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.
2.13 Describe factors that affect chemical reaction rates.
Temperature: increase kinetic energy and force of collisions Concentration: more reacting molecules are present Particle Size: smaller particles react faster because they move faster Catalysts: increase the rate without being involved
1.12 Locate and name the major body cavities and their subdivisions and associated membranes, and list the major organs contained within them.
The body contains 2 major closed cavities. The dorsal cavity subdivided into the cranial and spinal cavities, contains the brain and spinal cord. The ventral cavity is subdivided into the thoracic cavity which houses the heart and lungs and the abdominopelvic cavity which contains the liver, digestive organs and reproductive structures
List several structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue.
The covering, lining, and glandular tissue of the body. Protects, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory receptors.
Describe the role of the glycocalyx when cells interact with their environment.
The glycocalyx enables certain bacteria to resist phagocytic engulfment by white blood cells in the body.
2.14 Explain the importance of water and salts to body homeostasis.
Water: It makes of 60-80% of the volume of most living cells. It has a high heat capacity(the temperature doesn't drastically change), high heat of vaporization(cools the body), and polar solvent properties(ionic compounds break apart in it like salt). Salt: Salts control things like nerve impulses and muscle contractions. The kidneys are important to keeping this ionic balance. When one thing is not in balance, it causes others to be imbalanced as well, resulting in the stopping of crucial biological processes.
2.12 Explain why chemical reactions in the body are often irreversible.
When products of a reaction are continuously taken away from the sight of the reaction it is unable to present for the reverse reaction. Furthermore, reaction involving energy release will not go backwards unless energy is put into them.
1.9 Describe the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease.
When your homeostatic is imbalance it can cause homeostatic failure that can result into illness/disease.
Define gland.
cell or group of cells that can make or discharge (secrete or excrete) substances. Derived from epithelial tissue.
Describe the composition of the cytosol.
cytosol: largely water with dissolved protein, salts, sugars, and other solutes * inclusions - chemical substances such as glycosomes, glycogen granules, and pigment
Name the major regions of the adult brain.
diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum, cerebrum
1.5 List the functional characteristics necessary to maintain life in humans
maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth
1.11 Use correct anatomical terms to describe body directions, regions, and body planes or sections
transverse: Horizontally (Top/bottom; superior/Inferior) plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts; this is a "cross-section" sagittal plane: Vertical (right/left) frontal or coronal: Vertical (anterior/posterior) Anterior/Posterior: Front surface/back surface Superior/Inferior: above/below Ventral: equivalent to the "anterior" side when referring to the human body; belly-side on animal (Inferior) Dorsal: equivalent to the "posterior" side when referring to the human body; aka Superior on animals. Medial: toward the midline Lateral: away from the midline Proximal: toward an attached base; e.g., the thigh is proximal to the foot Distal: away from an attached base; e.g., the fingers are distal to the wrist Superficial/deep: External/Internal; towards or at the body surface/away from the body surface.