Final Exam (5/1/18)
What is the formula mass of CO₂? Na₂O?
(12.01) + 2(16.00) = 44.01 amu 2(22.99) + 16.00 = 61.98 amu
Heisenberg's Equation for the Uncertainty Principle
(∆x)(m∆v) ≥ h/4π The product of ∆x and m∆v must be greater than or equal to a finite number
(+/-) is used when an element loses an electron.
+
Rydberg Constant for Hydrogen
- 2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J
Aufbau Principle
-"Building up" -A pattern of orbital filling where 2 electrons with opposing spins can be in each orbital
Heat Capacity
-"C" -The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a system by 1° C -C = q/∆T = J/°C -Extensive property
Specific Heat Capacity
-"C(s)" -The intrinsic capacity to of a substance to absorb heat -The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 gram of a system by 1° C -Intensive property
Naming Ethers
-(R group 1) (R group 2) ether -If R groups differ → alphabetical order (i.e. ethyl propyl ether) -If R groups are the same → di- (i.e. dipropyl ether)
Ethanol is a possible fuel. Use average bond energies to calculate ΔHrxn for the combustion of ethanol. CH₃CH₂OH(g) + 3 O₂(g) → 2 CO₂(g) + 3 H₂O(g) Express your answer as an integer.
-1250 kJ/mol Determine which bonds are broken in the reaction and sum the bond energies: ∑(−ΔH′s of bonds broken) =5 mol(C−H)+1 mol(C−C)+1 mol(C−O)+1 mol(O−H)+3 mol(O=O) =5 mol(414 kJ/mol)+1 mol(347 kJ/mol)+1 mol(360. kJ/mol)+1 mol(464 kJ/mol)+3 mol(498 kJ/mol) =4735 kJ/mol Determine which bonds are formed in the reaction and sum the negatives of the bond energies: ∑(−ΔH′s of bonds formed) =−4 mol(C=O)−6 mol(O−H) =−4 mol(799 kJ/mol)−6 mol(464 kJ/mol) =−5980 kJ/mol Find ΔHrxn: ΔHrxn=∑(ΔH of all bonds broken)+∑(−ΔH of all bonds formed) =4735 kJ/mol−5980 kJ/mol =−1245 kJ/mol
Calculate ΔH(rxn) for the following reaction: 5C(s)+6H₂(g)→C₅H₁₂(l) Use the following reactions and given ΔH′s. C₅H₁₂(l)+8O₂(g)→5CO₂(g)+6H₂O(g), ΔH= -3244.8 kJ C(s)+O₂(g)→CO₂(g), ΔH= -393.5 kJ 2H₂(g)+O₂(g)→2H₂O(g), ΔH= -483.5 kJ Express your answer to four significant figures.
-173.2 kJ
de Broglie Model
-1924 -Wave nature of electrons, seen most clearly in diffraction -Explains the existence of stationary states and prevents electrons from crashing into the nucleus -The wave nature of the electron is the inherent property of individual electrons -λ = h/mv
Schrödinger's Cat
-1935 thought experiment -Cat is put in a steel chamber that contains radioactive atoms -Upon emission of an energetic particle by one of the radioactive atoms, causing a hammer to break a flask of hydrocyanic acid (a poison). If flask breaks, the poison is released, and the cat dies -If the steel chamber is closed, the whole system remains unobserved, and the radioactive atom is in a state where it has both emitted and not emitted the particle (with equal probability); therefore the cat is both dead and undead. When the chamber is opened, it forces it into one state
Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the following balanced equation. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl₂(aq) + H₂(g) When 0.128 g of Zn(s) is combined with enough HCl to make 51.0 mL of solution in a coffee-cup calorimeter, all of the zinc reacts, raising the temperature of the solution from 22.1 °C to 24.4 °C. Find ΔH(rxn) for this reaction as written. (Use 1.0 g/mL for the density of the solution and 4.18 J/g⋅°C as the specific heat capacity.)
-250 kJ/mol
How much work (in J) is required to expand the volume of a pump from 0.0 L to 2.6 L against an external pressure of 1.1 atm? Express your answer using two significant figures.
-290 J
Pentane (C5H12) is a component of gasoline that burns according to the following balanced equation: C₅H₁₂(l)+8O₂(g)→5CO₂(g)+6H₂O(g) Calculate ΔH°(rxn) for this reaction using standard enthalpies of formation. (The standard enthalpy of formation of liquid pentane is -146.8 kJ/mol.) Express your answer using five significant figures.
-3271.5 kJ C5H12(l): ∆fH°liquid = -146.8 kJ/mol CO2(g): ΔfH°gas = -393.51 kJ/mol H2O(g): ΔfH°gas = -241.826 kJ/mol ∆H(rxn) = ∑n∆H(products) - ∑n∆H(reactants) ∆H(rxn) = (5∆H(CO2) +6∆HH2O) - (∆H(C5H12)) ∆H(rxn) = (5*(-393.51 kJ/mol) + 6*( -241.826 kJ/mol)) - (-146.8 kJ/mol) ∆H(rxn) = (-3418.5 kJ/mol) - (-146.8 kJ/mol) ∆H(rxn) = -3271.7 kJ/mol -3272 kJ/mol to four sig figs)
The explosive nitroglycerin (C₃H₅N₃O₉) decomposes rapidly upon ignition or sudden impact according to the following balanced equation: 4C₃H₅N₃O₉(l)→12CO₂(g)+10H₂O(g)+6N₂(g)+O₂(g)ΔH°(rxn)=−5678kJ Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°(f)) for nitroglycerin.
-365.5 kJ/mol
Planck's Constant
-6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J -Symbol: h
The change in internal energy for the combustion of 1.0 mol of octane at a pressure of 1.0 atm is 5084.1 kJ. If the change in enthalpy is 5074.4 kJ , how much work is done during the combustion?
-9.7 kJ
Polar Covalent Bond
-A bond with a positive and negative pole -Intermediate between pure covalent and ionic -Most covalent bonds between dissimilar atoms are polar
Functional Groups
-A characteristic atom or group of atoms inserted into a hydrocarbon -A group of organic compounds that all have the same function group → family -Presence alter the properties of the compound -I.e. alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines
Formal Charge
-A fictitious charge assigned to each atom in a Lewis structure that helps us to distinguish among competing Lewis structures -The charge it would have if all bonding electrons were shared equally between the bonded atoms (if we ignored electronegativity) -Small (or 0) formal charges on individuals atoms are better than large ones -FC = number of valence electrons - (number of nonbonding electrons + ½ number of bonding electrons)
Pressure
-A force that pushes against the cylinder divided by the area of a cylinder -Unit: atm
Structural Formula
-A formula that shows not only the numbers of each kind of atoms, but also how the atoms are bonded together -Generally not three dimensional -Connectivity of the atoms
Electron Spin
-A fundamental property of electrons that affects the number of electrons allowed in any one orbital -Two possible orientations: either with the magnetic field or against it -Pauli exclusion principle
Paramagnetic
-A magnetic substance that contains unpaired electrons -Generates a tiny magnetic field -Orientation of electron spin aligns with external magnetic field → magnetic interaction
Molecular Model
-A more accurate and complete way to specify a compound -Can be ball-and-stick or space-filling
Bomb Calorimeter
-A piece of equipment designed to measure ∆E for combustion reactions -Reaction occurs in sealed container (bomb) to ensure it occurs at a constant volume -Heat absorbed by the calorimeter = heat capacity of calorimeter times temperature change → q(cal) = C(cal)∆T -Constant volume
Periodic Properties
-A property that is generally predictable based on an element's position within the periodic table -Quantum mechanical theory explains the electronic structure of atoms, therefore determines the properties of those atoms
Compound
-A pure substance that can be chemically broken down because it is composed of two or more elements in fixed, definite proportions -i.e. water
Elements
-A pure substance that cannot be chemically broken down -i.e. helium
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
-A reaction in which electrons transfer (complete or incomplete) from one reactant to another, meaning there is a change in oxidation states -Occurs both in and out of a solution -Many involve a reaction with oxygen (i.e. combustion reactions), but oxygen is not a requirement -Metal reacts with nonmetal
Gas-Evolution Reaction
-A reaction in which gas forms, resulting in bubbling -Occurs when an anion of one substance combines with a cation of another -Many are acid-base reactions -Some immediately form a gas while others form a gas after reacting and decomposing an unstable intermediate product
Exothermic Reaction
-A reaction with a negative ∆H -Gives off heat to its surroundings -Feels warm to the touch -Weak bonds break and strong bones form
Endothermic Reaction
-A reaction with a positive ∆H -Absorbs heat from its surroundings -Feels cold to the touch -Strong bonds break and weak bonds form
Atomic Radius
-A set of average bonding radii determined from measurements on a large number of elements and compounds -Radius of an atom when it is bonded to another atom -Always smaller than van der Waals
Substance
-A specific instance of matter -i.e. air, water, sand
Probability Distribution Map
-A statistical map that shows where an electron is likely to be found under a given set of conditions -Considers electrons' indeterminacy, meaning it can only be described statistically
Titration
-A substance in a solution of known concentration is reacted with another substance in a solution of unknown concentration -Complete when it reaches its equivalence point, which is shown through an indicator
Electromagnetic Radiation
-A type of energy embodied in oscillating electric and magnetic fields -In a vacuum, travels at 3.00 x10⁸ m/s
Interference
-A wave interaction that results in them building each other up or canceling each other out depending on their alignment -Constructive or destructive
Mass Spectrometry
-A way to measure the masses of atoms and the percent abundances of isotopes of elements by separating particles according to mass -A mass spectrometer ionizes atoms and molecules with a high-energy electron beam and then deflects the ions through a magnetic field based on the mass-to-charge ratio of the ion, m/z -The mass spectrum of a sample shows relative abundance of each ion on the y-axis and m/z start fraction, m, divided by, z, end fraction along the x-axis.
Dipole Moment
-A way to quantify the polarity of a bond -Occurs any time there is a separation of positive and negative charge -Magnitude is created by separating two particles of equal but opposite charges of magnitude "q" by a distance "r" is given by the equation p=qr -Unit: debye (D) -1 D = 3.34 x 10⁻³⁰ Cm
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
-A weighted linear sum (weighted average) of the valence atomic orbitals of atoms in the molecule -Bonding orbital: σ₁s; lowest in energy -When electrons occupy bonding orbitals, the energy of the electron is lower than it would be if they were occupying atomic orbitals -A molecule has more than 1 molecular orbital, even though they may not all be filled -Anti/bonding orbitals
Naming Amines
-According to the hydrocarbon groups attached to the nitrogen -Assign ending -amine
Oxyacids
-Acids containing hydrogen and an oxyanion (anion containing a nonmetal and oxygen) -Number of H⁺ ions depends on the charge of the oxyanion -Oxyanions ending with -ate are named (oxyanion base name + -ic) acid; i.e. nitric acid -Oxyanions ending with -ite are named (oxyanion base name + -ous) acid; i.e. sulfurous acid
Binary Acids
-Acids containing only two elements → hydrogen and a nonmetal -Named hydro(base name of nonmetal + -ic) acid -I.e. hydrochloric acid
Strong Acids
-Acids that completely ionize in solutions -Are also strong electrolytes
Weak Acids
-Acids that do not completely ionize in water -Are also weak electrolytes
Alkanes
-Aliphatic -Saturated hydrocarbons -C−C bonds (all single bonds) -C(n)H(2n+2) -I.e. ethane
Alkynes
-Aliphatic -Unsaturated hydrocarbon -C≡C bonds (one or more triple bonds) -C(n)H(2n-2) -I.e. ethyne
Alkenes
-Aliphatic _Unsaturated hydrocarbon -C=C bonds (one or more double bonds) -C(n)H(2n) -I.e. ethene
Atomic Theory
-All matter is made of atoms, which are indivisible. -All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties. -Compounds are combinations of two or more different types of atoms. -A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
Law of Definite Proportions
-All samples of a given compound have the same proportions of their constituent elements -Applies to samples of the same compound -Ratio of atoms and mass is the same
Carbon's Ability to Form Double and Triple Bonds
-Allows a variety of different compounds to be formed -Double bonds = trigonal planar geometry -Triple bonds = linear geometry
Stoichiometry
-Allows us to predict the amounts of products that will form in a chemical reaction based on the amounts of reactants that react -Allows us to determine the amount of reactants necessary to form a given amount of product -Mass A to mole A to mole B to mass B conversion
Ionic Compound Formulas
-Always contain positive and negative ions -The sum of the charges of the cations and anions must equal each other in a chemical formula -The formula reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of ions
Nuclear Model of an Atom
-An atom consists of a very small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by the negatively charged electrons -Based on the number of α particles deflected in his experiment, Rutherford calculated that the nucleus took up a tiny fraction of the volume of the atom.
Band Gap
-An energy gap in semiconductors and insulators -Insulators: large; electrons don't move to conductor band at ordinary temperatures → no electrical conductivity -Semiconductors: small; some electrons move to conductor band at ordinary temperatures → limited conductivity; can be increased by adding dopants
The Angular Momentum Quantum Number
-An integer that determines the shape of the orbital -Possible values: any integer up to n-1, including 0 -Symbol: l
The Magnetic Quantum Number
-An integer that specifies the orientation of the orbital -Possible values: integers (including 0) -l to +l -Symbol: ml
Polyatomic Ion
-An ion composed of two or more atoms -Named the same way as binary, but the ion name is used whenever it occurs
Oxyanions
-Anions containing oxygen and another element -Name them according to the number of oxygen atoms in the ion -Ion with more oxygen atoms has the ending -ate; one with fewer ends in -ite -If there are more than two ions, use either hypo- or per-
Semiconductors and Band Theory
-Applies to both metallic and covalently bonded crystalline solids -Delocalized over the entire crystal -No longer discrete energy levels → form a band of energy levels -Electrons become mobile when they make a transition from the highest occupied molecular orbital into higher energy empty molecular orbits -Above 0 K, electrons can move from valence to conduction band
Chemical Potential Energy
-Arise from electrostatic forces between the electrically charged particles (protons/electrons) that compose atoms and molecules -Changes particle arrangement
Bonding Orbital
-Arises from constructive interference -Lower energy than antibonding -Increased electron density in the internuclear region
Antibonding Orbital
-Arises from destructive interference resulting in a node in the internuclear region -Electrons here have higher energies than they had in their respective atomic orbitals and therefore tend to raise the energy of the system (relative to unbonded atoms)
Threshold Frequency Condition
-As the frequency of the light increases over the threshold frequency, the excess energy of the photon transfers to the electron in the form of kinetic energy -hv = ∅
Metallic Character
-As we move right, metallic character decreases -As we move down, metallic character increases -An atom or ion's metallic tendencies
One Dimension Vector Addition
-Assign one direction as positive and add other positives and negatives as needed -Sum the vectors
Erwin Schrödinger
-Austrian physicist -1887 to 1961 -1935: paper that contained a thought experiment about a cat
Mole
-Avogardo's number -The amount of material containing 6.02214 x 10²³ particles -Anything can be measured in moles -The value of the mole is equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12g of pure carbon-12 -1 mole = 6.022 x 10²³ atoms
Naming Alkanes
-Base chain (longest continuous chain of carbon atoms) determines the base name of the compound -Root depends on number of carbon atoms -Base names end in -ane -Branches are names as substituents (atoms substituted for hydrogen)
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
-Base chain is longest one with the carbonyl group -Base name ends in -al for aldehydes (i.e. butanal) and -one for ketones (i.e. 2-pentanone) -Ketones: number the chain to give the carbonyl group the lowest number possible
Naming Carboxylic Acids
-Base chain is the longest chain with the COOH functional group -Base name ends in -oic acid (i.e. pentanoic acid)
Naming Esters
-Base chain is the longest chain with the alkyl group -R group forms the base name, which ends in -yl -ate (i.e. methyl propanoate)
Naming Alcohols
-Base chain is the longest one with the -OH functional group -Base name ends with -ol -Assign the -OH to the lowest possible number -Insert number indicating the location of the -OH
Aldehydes
-Base chain is the longest one with the carbonyl group -One R group and a hydrogen atom of each side of the carbonyl (exception: fermaldehyde has 2 hydrogen)
Ketones
-Base chain is the longest one with the carbonyl group -R group on both sides of the carbonyl
Atom
-Basic submicroscopic particles -Constitute the building blocks of fundamental matter -Basic particles that compose ordinary matter
Formula Unit
-Basic unit of an ionic compound -Not a molecule -Does not exist as a discrete entity, but rather as a part of a larger lattice
Ionic Bonds
-Bonds formed between metals and nonmetals -Metals have a tendency to lose electrons while nonmetals gain them -Metal becomes cation and nonmetal becomes anion -Form an ionic compound -Nondirectional and hold together an entire array of ions
Visible Light
-Can be seen with naked eye -Correspond to different wavelengths/frequencies -Violet (highest energy) to Red (lowest energy) -Can't damage biological molecules, but does affect sight -10⁻⁶ to 10⁻⁷
Carbon's Tendency to Catenate
-Can bond itself to form chained, branched, and rings structures more than any other element -Strong bonds allow them to exist peacefully in oxygen-rich environments
X-Rays
-Can pass through many substances that can block visible light -Can damage biological molecules and increase cancer risk -10⁻⁹ to 10⁻¹¹ nm
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
-Causes sunburn/tan -Not as damaging as Gamma and X-rays, but still can damage biological molecules and increases risk of cataracts, skin cancer, and premature wrinkles -10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁹ nm
Three Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
-Central atom has 3 electron groups (0-1 lone and 2-3 bonded) -Electron geometry: trigonal planar -Molecular geometry: trigonal planar or bent
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
-Central atom has 4 electron groups (0-2 lone and 2-4 bonded) -Electron geometry is tetrahedral -Molecular geometry is tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal or bent
Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
-Central atom has 5 electron groups (0-3 lone and 2-5 bonding) -Electron geometry: trigonal bipyramidal -Molecular geometry: seesaw, T-shaped, linear, or trigonal bipyramidal -Lone pair does not occupy axial position
Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
-Central atom has 6 electron groups (0-2 lone and 4-6 bonded) -Electron geometry: octahedral -Molecular geometry: octahedral, square pyramidal or square planar
Ions
-Charged particles -Occur in chemical changes when an atom gains or loses an electron -Positively charged → cations -Negatively charged → anions
Characteristics of a Liquid
-Closely packed particles with weaker attraction -Particles move relative to one another -Fixed volume; not a fixed shape -Liquid at room temperature -i.e. water, alcohol, gasoline
Energy Diagram
-Compares the internal energy of the reactants and the products -Vertical axis is the internal energy -Higher internal energy is higher up on the diagram -∆E < 0 if reactants have more energy (negative), and ∆E > 0 if products have more energy (positive)
Organic Compounds
-Composed of carbon and hydrogen, and a few other elements including nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur -Simplest organic compound is methane (CH₄) -Key element is carbon, which forms bonds with itself to form chain, branched, or ring structures -Simplest organic compounds are called hydrocarbons
Ionic Compound
-Composes a lattice (regular 3D array) in a solid state of altering anions and cations -Can be one that creates 1 type of ion or multiple types of ions
Heterogeneous Mixtures
-Composition varies -Does not mix uniformly -i.e. water and sand
Matter
-Compound of microscopic particles (i.e. atoms, molecules, subatomic particles) -Assembly dictates physical properties -Has mass and occupies space -Particulate -Composed by atoms
Amines
-Compounds containing nitrogen derived from ammonia with one or more hydrogen atoms replaced with alkyl groups
Hydrocarbons
-Compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen -Simplest organic compounds -Many different kinds exist -Used as fuel (i.e. candle wax, oil, gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gases, etc.) -Starting materials in the synthesis of many consumer products -Types: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrated Ionic Compounds
-Contain a specific number of water molecules associated with each formula unit -For example, in MgSO⁴(7H²O), the 7H²O associated with the formula unit are waters of hydration, which can be removed with heat -Named as other compounds except (#)hydrate is added at the end
Alcohols
-Contain hydroxyl group (-OH) -General form of R-OH -i.e. methanol, isopropyl alcohol, ethanol, 1-butanol
Binary Compounds
-Contain two different elements -Naming: name of cation (metal) + base name of anion (nonmetal) + -ide
Law of Conservation of Mass
-Dalton -In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed -Total mass is the same
State of Matter
-Depends on the relative position of the particles and how strongly they interact with one another -Relative to temperature -Its physical form
Dilution
-Dilute by adding more solvent -M₁V₁ = M₂V₂, where M₁V₁ are the initial concentrated solution, and M₂V₂ are the final diluted solution
Doping
-Doped semiconductors contain small amounts of impurities that result in the conduction band or electron holes in the valence band -N-type semiconductors → holes act as a positive charge
Two or More Dimension Vector Addition
-Draw a parallelogram in which two vectors form two adjacent sides -Draw other sides -Draw middle extending vector
Main Group Electronegativity Trends
-Electronnegativity increases across a period -Decreases down a column
Expanded Octets
-Elements in 3rd row and beyond; never the 1st or 2nd -Up to 12 electrons (sometimes 14) -Lowers the formal charge
Bond Energy
-Energy required to break 1 mole of the bond in the gas phase -Always positive -More bond energy = stronger bond and more chemically stable -Varies by type of bond, kind of atoms in the molecule, etc -Can calculate the average -Triple is strongest bond -kJ/mol -Correspond to the energy emitted when bond is broken
Enthalpy of Reaction (Heat of Reaction)
-Enthalpy change for a reaction (∆H(rxn)) -Extensive property -The magnitude is for the stoiciometric amounts of reactants and products for the reaction as written
Chemical Behavior in a Chiral Environment
-Enzymes catalyze reactions in living organisms and provide this environment -Optical isomers exhibit different chemical behavior -Usually, only one or the other isomer is active in biological systems
Random Error
-Error that has equal probability of being too high or too low -Almost all measurements have this -Can average out with enough trials
Systematic Error
-Error that tends toward being either too high or too low -Does not average out with repeated trials
Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry
-Five electron groups around the central atom -3 groups lie in a single plane, one above, one below -Angles are not the same (equatorial positioned groups are at 120°; axial positioned groups are at 90°)
Standard State
-For gas: the pure gas at pressure of exactly 1 atmosphere -For liquid or solid: the pure substance in its most stable form at a pressure of 1 atm and at the temperature of interest (often 25°C) -For substance in solution: a concentration of exactly 1 M
Covalent Bond
-Forms between nonmetals -Nonmetals have higher ionization energies, so they share electrons rather than transfer them -Form molecules and molecular compounds -Highly directional and hold one specific pair of atoms
Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry
-Four electron groups about the central atom -3D -109.5° bond angle
Ethers
-General formula of ROR -R groups may be identical or different
Molecular Chemical Formula
-Gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound -Always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula (keeps ratio) -Can be the same as empirical -Empirical formula x n i.e. hydrogen peroxide → H₂O₂
Condensed Structural Formula
-Groups hydrogen atoms with the carbon atom they are bonded to -May show some of the bonds or none at all
Infrared Radiation (IR)
-Heat-based radiation -Invisible to naked eye, but it can be seen on infrared sensors to see in the dark -10⁻³ to 10⁻⁶
Acid-Base Reactions
-H⁺ in acids combine with the OH⁻ in bases to form water and usually an ionic compound (a salt) -Salt usually remains dissolved in solution -Net equation: H⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq) → H₂O (l) OR acid + base → water + salt
Hess's Law
-If a chemical equation can be expressed as the sum of a series of steps, the ∆H(rxn) for the overall equation is the sum of the heats of reactions for each step A + 2B → C ∆H₁ C → 2D ∆H₂ A + 2B → 2D ∆H₃ = ∆H₁ + ∆H₂
Electromagnetic Spectrum
-Includes all the wavelengths of light -Ranges from 10⁻¹⁵ m (gamma rays) to 10⁵ m (radio waves) -Short wavelength/high frequencies on the right, long/low on the left
Chemical Formula
-Indicates the elements present in a compound and the relative number of atoms or ions of each -Subscript indicates the relative number of atoms of the element -List metallic first -Types: empirical, molecular, and structural
Penetration
-Inner electrons unable to shield the outer, and it penetrates 1s level -Experiences a greater nuclear charge and a lower energy
The Principal Quantum Number
-Integer that determines the overall size and energy of an orbital -Possible values: 1,2,3,... -For a hydrogen atom, En = - 2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J (1/n²) -Higher values of n = greater (less negative) energies -As n increases, spacing between levels becomes smaller -Symbol: n
What happens in terms of electronegativity when two nonmetals bond?
-Intermediate electronegativity difference -Polar covalent bond
Combustion Reaction
-Involves the reaction of a substance with O₂ to form one or more oxygen-containing compounds, often water -Emit heat
Spectator Ions
-Ions that don't change in a chemical reaction -Can be emitted for clarity
State Function
-It value depends only on the state of the system, not on how the system arrived at that state -The value of change is always the difference between its final and initial values -Does matter how it get there, just that it gets there
What was different about Einstein's view of light?
-It was lumpy -Packets of light -A beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but a shower of particles (photons), each with energy hv
What happens in terms of electronegativity when a metal and nonmetal bond?
-Large difference -Electron from metal is almost completely transferred to the nonmetal -Ionic bond
Which laws solidified Atomic Theory?
-Law of conservation of mass -Law of definite proportions -Law of multiple proportions
First Last of Thermodynamics
-Law of energy conservation -The total energy of the universe is constant -We cannot get something from nothing -∆E = q + w; energy leaving the system through heat or work (-), and (+) for entering
Chemical Equation
-Left side = reactants -Right side = products -State of each substance is generally represented in parentheses next to it → (g), (l), (s) -Coefficients indicate number of each product
Bond Length
-Length of a bond between two particular atoms -Varies based on type of bond and kind of atoms in the molecule -Triple is shortest bond -pm
How do electrons vary between Valence Bond Theory and Lewis Theory?
-Lewis represent valence as dots -VBT treat valence as residing in quantum mechanical atomic orbitals (standard or hybrid)
Metalloids
-Lie along the zigzag that divides metals and nonmetals -Several are classified as semiconductors (temperature-dependent conductivity) -Used a lot in technology
Nonmetals
-Lie on the upper right side of the periodic table -Varied properties, but as a whole tend to be poor conductors -Tend to gain electrons during chemical changes to gain noble gas configuration
What are the 5 types of electron groups?
-Lone pair -Single bond -Double bond -Triple bond -Single electron
Electron Groups
-Lone pairs -Single bonds -Multiple bonds (still counts as one electron group) -Single electrons
Radio Waves
-Longest wavelengths -Used to transmit AM/FM radio, cell phone, TV, and other communication signals
Metals
-Lower left side and middle of periodic table -Good conductors of heat and electricity -Can be pounded into flat sheets (malleable) -Can be drawn into wires (ductility) -Often shiny -They tend to lose electrons when they undergo chemical changes to attain noble gas configuration (transition metals do this, but generally don't attain noble gas configuration)
Pure Substances
-Made up of only one type of particle -Invariant composition -Particles can be individual atoms or groups of atoms joined together -i.e. helium, water, salt
What are the simplest hydrocarbons?
-Methane -Ethane -Propane
Elemental Organization by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
-Modern periodic table -Listed according to increasing mass and saw repeating patterns; similar properties fell in vertical columns
Acids
-Molecular compounds that ionize to form H⁺ ions which dissolve in water -Characterized by their sour taste and ability to dissolve many metals -Present in foods -Can be binary or oxyacids
Organic Molecules
-Molecules containing carbon combined with several other elements (hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) -Responsible for smell
Stereoisomer
-Molecules in which the atoms have the same connectivity but a different spatial arrangement -Geometric or optical
Second-Period Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
-Molecules made up of two atoms of the same kind -Have between 2 and 16 valence electrons -Approximate the next higher energy molecular orbitals as linear combinations of 2p orbitals taken pairwise -Assign internuclear axis to be the x direction
Incomplete Octets
-Molecules or ions that don't fill an octet -Accepted as incomplete
Odd-Electrons Species
-Molecules or ions with an odd number of electrons in their Lewis structures -Free radicals
Structural Isomer
-Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures -I.e. butane and isobutane
Electrons
-Negatively charged, low massed particle present within all atoms -Stabilizers of atoms via charges -Dispersed over a large volume
Neutron
-Neutral particles -Similar mass to protons -No electrical charge
Bonding Atomic Radius (Covalent Radius)
-Nonmetals: ½ the distance between two of the atoms bonded together -Metals: ½ the distance between two of the atoms next to each other in a crystal of the metal
Calorie (C)
-Nutritional calorie -1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1000 cal
Hydroxyl Group
-OH functional group
Pressure-Volume Work
-Occurs when the force is caused by a volume change against external pressure -Work (w) = force (F) x distance (D) while pressure (P) = force (F)/area (A) → w = PAD → w = PA x expansion (∆h) → w = P∆V →→ final equation comes to w = -P∆V
Pauli Exclusion Principle
-One consequence of electron spin that means a maximum of two electrons can occupy any given orbital, and the two electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spin -No two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers
sp² Hybridization
-One leftover unhybridized p orbital, which sits perpendicular to the hybridized orbitals -sp² indicates mixture of one s orbital (s) and three p orbitals (p²) -Trigonal planar geometry with 120° angles
Orbital Hybridization
-Orbitals in a molecule are not necessarily the same as the orbitals in an atom -Standard atomic orbitals are combined to form new atomic orbitals called hybrid orbitals that correspond more closely to the actual distribution of electron in chemically bonded atoms
Molecular Orbital (MOs) Theory
-Orbitals results from theoretically solving Scrodinger's equation -Using an educated guess of what the solution could be -Start with a trial mathematical function, and testing it to see how it works → must calculate its energy to do this -The best possible orbital is the one with the minimum energy
Bohr's Model
-Orbits exist only at specific, fixed distances from the nucleus -Orbit is fixed and quantized -Stationary states → mechanically explainable stability -No radiation is emitted by an electron orbiting the nucleus in a stationary state, only when an electron is excited and jumps -Electrons are never absorbed between states -The photon energy emitted in a transition is the difference between the two stationary states
Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2A)
-Outer electron configuration ns² (2 electrons beyond noble gas configuration) -Form 2+ ions after chemical changes
Halogens (Group 7A)
-Outer electron configuration ns²np⁵ (1 electrons away from noble gas configuration) -Form 1- ions after chemical changes
Alkali Metals (Group 1A)
-Outer electron configuration ns¹ (1 electron beyond noble has configuration) -Form 1+ ions after chemical changes
What are some limitations to the Lewis model?
-Oversimplification -Electrons appear equally shared -Fails to predict magnetic properties
Characteristics of a Gas
-Particles are so weakly attracted that they don't clump together -Free moving for long distances -Compressible into a smaller volume so they are close together -Assume the shape and volume of their container -Gases at room temperature -i.e. helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
Characteristics of a Solid
-Particles attract one another strongly and are in fixed locations -Particles can only vibrate, not move -Has a fixed volume and rigid shape -Solid at room temperature -i.e. ice, aluminum, diamond
Rotation of Polarized Light
-Planed polarized light is directed through a sample containing only one of two optical isomers → plane of polarization is rotated -Dextrorotory isomer → rotates it clockwise -Levorotary isomer → rotates it counterclockwise
Alpha Radioactive Charges
-Positively charged -Most massive
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
-Predicts and accounts for molecular shape and properties -Based on the idea that electron groups repel one another through coulombic forces -Repulsions between electron groups on interior atoms of a molecule determine the geometry of the molecule -The preferred geometry is the one where electron groups have the maximum separation (minimum energy) possible
Rydberg's Equation
-Predicts the wavelengths of hydrogen emission spectrum -1/λ = R(1/m²-1/n²) R = Rydberg's Constant = 1.097 x 10⁷ m⁻¹ m/n are integers
Complimentary Properties
-Properties that exclude one another -The more we know about one, the less we know about the other
Microwaves
-Radar and microwave ovens -Efficiently absorbed by water, and can heat substances containing water -10⁻¹ to 10⁻³
Atomic Mass
-Represented by "A" -Number of protons + number of neutrons -An average mass of an element
Atomic Number
-Represented by "Z" -Number of protons an element has
Ball-and-Stick Molecular Model
-Represents atoms as balls and chemical bonds as sticks -How the two connect represent a molecule's shape -Balls are typically color-coded to specific elements
Joule
-SI unit of energy -(kg)(m²s²)
Homogeneous Mixtures
-Same composition throughout -Mixes uniformly -i.e. sweet tea
Gamma Rays (γ)
-Shortest wavelength -Highest frequency -Produced by the sun, other stars, and certain unstable atomic nuclei on Earth -Excessive exposure is dangerous to humans because it can damage biological molecules -10⁻¹¹ to 10⁻¹⁵ nm
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
-Showed particles didn't deflect, some even bounced back -The positive charge must be localized over a very tiny volume of the atom, which also contains most of the atom's mass -Since most of the α particles passed straight through the gold foil, the atom must be made up of mostly empty space!
Carbon Skeleton (Line) Formula
-Shows carbon-carbon bonds only as lines -Each end or bend represents a carbon atom bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as necessary to form a total of 4 bonds
Molecular Orbital Diagram
-Shows the atomic orbitals of the atoms, the molecular orbitals of the molecule, and their relative energies -Higher on the diagram → higher energy -Bond order = (# of electrons in bonding MOs - # of electrons in antibonding MOs)/2
Electron Configuration
-Shows the particular orbitals that electrons occupy for that atom -Example: H 1s¹ s = orbital ¹ = Number of electrons in orbital
Orbital Diagram
-Similar to an electron configuration, but it symbolizes the electron as an arrow and the orbital as a box -Arrow direction indicates orientation of electron spin (+½ = ↑; −½ = ↓)
Absorption Spectrum
-Similar to emission spectrum, but it has dark lines on a bright background -More commonly used for identification purposes -White light passed through a sample and missing wavelengths are observed -Plot the intensity of absorption as a function of wavelength
sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization
-Similar to expanded octets in Lewis Models -sp³d indicates one s orbital (s), three p orbitals (p³), and one d orbital (d) -Trigonal bipyramidal geometry -sp³d² indicates one s orbital (s), three p orbitals (p³), and two d orbitals (d²) -Octahedral geometry
Order-of-Magnitude Estimation
-Simplifying the numbers so that they can be easily manipulated -Focus only on exponential values and round up or down accordingly (i.e. in 5.982 x 10⁷, 5.982 turns into 10, making it 10 x 10⁷, or 10⁸; in 2.7 x 10⁻³, you would drop the 2.7 and only use 10⁻³)
Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry
-Six electron groups around the central atom -4 groups in a single plane, one above, one below -90° angles -Highly symmetrical
Electronegativity Difference Values
-Small: 0-0.4; covalent bond -Intermediate: 0.4-2.0; polar covalent -Large: 2+; ionic
The Spin Quantum Number
-Specifies the orientation of the spin of the electron, a fundamental property of an electron -Possible values: spin up → +½; spin down → ⁻½ -Symbol: ms
What are the 3 standards for enthalpy?
-Standard state -Standard enthalpy change -Standard enthalpy of formation
What are the two classifications of matter?
-State -Composition
Normal Alkanes (n-Alkanes)
-Straight-chain isomers -As the number of carbon atoms increase, so does boiling point
Mixtures
-Substances made up of two or more particles in proportions that can vary from one sample to another -i.e. sweet tea is a mixture because it is water mostly, but can have varying sweetness
Enthalpy
-Symbol: H -The sum of its internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume (H = E + PV) -State function -Change in enthalpy (∆H) = ∆E + P∆V → ∆H = constant pressure (q(p)) -Change only occurs under constant pressure
What is work function?
-Symbol: Φ -The minimum amount of energy required to induce photoemission of electrons from a metal surface -The value of Φ depends on the metal
Why is carbon unique?
-Tendency to form 4 colvalent bonds -Ability to form double and triple bonds -Tendency to catenate (form chains)
sp³ Hybridization
-Tetrahedral geometry with 109.5° angles -sp³ indicates mixture of one s orbital (s) and three p orbitals (p³)
Mass Percent Composition
-That element's percentage of the compound's total mass -Acts as a conversion factor Mass % of X = (mass of X in 1 mol of compound/mass of 1 mol of the compound) x 100%
Electronnegativity
-The ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself in a chemical bond -Results in polar and ionic bonds
Carbon's Tendency to Form Four Covalent Bonds
-The ability to form these and form them with different elements results in the potential for many compounds -4 valence electrons → 4 bonds -4 single bonds = tetrahedral
Hybridization
-The actual structure that exists -Delocalized for stabilization -An intermediate between that of the contributing resonance structures
Calorie (c)
-The amount of energy it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1° C -1 cal = 4.184 J -Larger than a joule
Actual Yield
-The amount of product actually produced by a chemical reaction -≤ theoretical yield
Molarity (M)
-The amount of solute in moles divided by the volume of solution in liters -Ratio of solute per liter of solution -Can be used as a conversion factor
Formula Mass
-The average mass of a molecule of a compound (a formula unit) -The sum of the atomic mass of all the atoms in the chemical formula a.k.a molecular weight; molecular mass Formula mass = (number of atoms in 1st element x atomic mass of 1st element) + (number of atoms in 2nd element x atomic mass of 2nd element)
How can enantiomers differ from each other?
-The direction they rotate polarized light -Their chemical behavior in a chiral environment
Wavelength
-The distance between adjacent crests -Measured in units such as meters/micrometers/nanometers -Symbol: λ
Sigma (σ) Bond
-The end to end overlap of bonds -Only one sigma bond forms between any two atoms -More difficult to break -Free rotation
Chemical Energy
-The energy associated with relative positions of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules -Form of potential energy
Lattice Energy
-The energy associated with the formation of crystalline lattice of alternating cations and anions from the gaseous ions -Formation of an ionic compound is an exothermic process -The transfer of an electron absorbs energy, but energy is emitted when the lattice forms
Electron Affinity (EA)
-The energy change associated with the gaining of an electron by the atom in a gaseous state -Usually negative because an atom or ion usually releases energy when it gains an electron -Most groups do not exhibit any definite trend
Ionization Energy (IE)
-The energy required to remove an electron from the atom or ion in the gaseous state -Always positive because it is removing an electron (endothermic) -Energy to remove first electron is called the first ionization energy (IE₁)
When experiments were performed to look at the effect of light amplitude and frequency, what results were observed?
-The kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases with light frequency. -Electric current remains constant as light frequency increases. -Electric current increases with light amplitude. -The kinetic energy of photoelectrons remains constant as light amplitude increases.
Oxidation State (Number)
-The number given to each atom based on the electron assignments -The charge it would have if all shared electrons were assigned to the more electronegative atom -While charges are written #+ or #-, oxidation numbers are written +# or -#
Frequency
-The number of cycles that pass through a stationary point in a given period of time -Measured in cycle/s (s⁻¹) or Hz -Proportional to the speed the wave is traveling -Inversely proportional to λ -Symbol: v
Photoelectric Effect
-The observation that many metals emit electrons when light shines upon them -Energy transfers from light to an electron, which dislodges it -Light has threshold frequency, which means below it, no electrons are emitted from the metal -Intensity of light does not affect it, but frequency (wavelength) does -E = hv
Pi (π) Bond
-The overlap between the half-filled p orbitals -Electron density is above and below the internuclear axis -Generally weaker -Rotation restricted when with a sigma bond
Why does valence bond theory propose that electrons in some molecules occupy hybrid orbitals instead of the standard atomic orbitals?
-The overlap of orbitals lowers the potential energy of the electrons in those orbitals -The greater the orbital overlap, the lower the energy, the stronger the bond -Hybrid orbitals allow greater overlap and minimize energy
Percent Yield
-The percentage of the theoretical yield that was actually attained -% = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100%
Coulomb's Law
-The potential energy (E) of two charged particles depends on their charges (q₁ and q₂) and on their separation (r) -Potential energy is positive for interactions of the same sign, and negative for opposite signs -Magnitude depends on inversely on the separation between the charged particles E = (1/4πε₀)(q₁q₂/r)
Molar Heat Capacity
-The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 mole of a system by 1° C -J/mol°C -Intensive property
Percent Ionic Character
-The ratio of a bond's actual dipole moment to the dipole moment it would have if the electron were completely transferred from one atom to the other, multiplied by 100% -Over 50% is ionic
Limiting Reactant (Reagent)
-The reactant that limits the amount of product in a chemical reaction -The reactant that makes the least amount of product
Shielding
-The repulsion of one electron by another -Any one electron experiences both the positive charge of the nucleus and the negative charge of the other electrons -Inner electrons shield the outer electron of ions from the full nuclear charge
Emission Spectrum
-The series of bright lines separated by a prism -The es of a particular element is always the same
Internal Energy (E) of a System
-The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all of the particles that compose the system -A state function -∆E = E(final) - E(initial) or ∆E = E(products) - E(reactants)
Empirical Formula Molar Mass
-The sum of the masses of all the atoms in an empirical formula -Molar mass (M) = empirical formula molar mass x n -n = M/empirical formula M
Valence Bond Theory
-The valence electrons of the atoms in a molecule reside in standard or hybrid quantum-mechanical atomic orbitals -A chemical bond results from the overlap of two half-filled orbitals and spin-pairing of the two valence electrons -The geometry of the overlapping orbitals determines the shape of the molecule
Positive Bond Order
-There are more electrons in bonding molecular orbitals than in antibonding molecular orbitals -Electrons have lower energy than they had in the orbitals of the isolated atoms -Chemical bond forms
Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry
-Three electron groups about the central atom -120° bond angle, but can vary slightly based on bond type
Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
-Two different atoms -When 2 atomic orbitals are identical and of equal energy, weighting of each orbital in forming a molecular is identical; when different, the weighting may be different
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry
-Two electron groups about the central atom -180° bond angle -Rare because they don't follow the octet rule
Optical Isomer
-Two molecules that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of one another -Seen in any carbon atom with four different substituents in a tetrahedral arrangement -Also known as enantiomers or chiral -Some physical and chemical properties are indistinguishable from one another; some differ in the direction the rotate polarized light and their chemical behavior in a chiral environment
Precipitation Reaction
-Two solutions are mixed resulting in a solid forming -Does not always form when aqueous solutions mix → only formed with insolubles -Cations form with anions to form precipitates
Geometric (Cis-Trans) Isomer in Alkenes
-Type of stereoisomerism -Cis = same side -Trans = opposite side -Common
Combustion Analysis
-Unknown compound undergoes combustion in the presence of pure oxygen -When burned, all carbon is converted to CO₂ and all hydrogen to H₂O. Everything is then weighed -Numerical relationships between moles inherent in formulas are used to determine the amounts of C and H in the original sample -The difference is taken to find the mass of the other elements
Coffee-Cup Calorimeter
-Used to measure ∆H(rxn) for aqueous reactions -q(soln) = m(slon) x C(s,soln) X ∆T -Constant pressure
Structural Chemical Formula
-Uses lines to represent covalent bonds and shows how atoms in a molecule are connected or bonded to each other -Can also be written to give a sense of the molecule's geometry i.e. hydrogen peroxide → H−O−O−H
Lewis Model
-Valence electrons represented as dots -Used to predict whether or not a stable molecule will be formed and what it will look like -Maximum 2 dots per side -Main group elements -Octet rule: stable configurations have 8 dots -Anion is written with brackets after electron transfer with the charger in the upper right hand corner outside the brackets
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
-We can never both see the interference pattern and simultaneously determine which hole the electron goes through -We can never simultaneously observe both the wave nature and the particle nature of the electron (complimentary properties) -We cannot simultaneously measure its position and its velocity with infinite precision
Electron Sea Model
-When metal atoms bond together to form a solid, each atom donates 1+ electrons to an electron sea -Metals have a tendency to lose electrons → low ionization energies -Metal is conductive (electricity and heat) because electrons are free to move and create an electric current or thermal energy -Explains malleability and ductility due to no localized or specific bonds
Triple Bond
-When two atoms share three electron pairs -Generally shorter than single and double bonds
Double Bond
-When two atoms share two electron pairs -Generally shorter than single bonds
The Law of Multiple Proportions*
-When two elements form two different compounds, the masses of element B that combine with 1 g of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers -Applies to different compounds
Resonance
-When two or more valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the same compound -Double headed arrow between structures -Same skeletal formula, but in different electron arrangements
Density
-d -Ratio of mass to volume -Physical and intensive property -Dependent on temperature or g/cm³ or g/mL -Unit: kg/m³
s Orbitals
-l = 0 -Lowest energy orbital -Spherically symmetrical -3D plot of ψ²
p Orbitals
-l=1 -3 (ml = -1,0,1) contained in each principal level n=2 or greater; each is different indirection, but mutually perpendicular (orthogonal) -Not spherically symmetrical; 2 lobes of electron density on either side of the nucleus -1 node at the nucleus
d Orbitals
-l=2 -5 (ml = -2,-1,0,1,2) contained in each principal level n=3 or greater -Clover leave shape with 4 lobes of electron density and 2 perpendicular nodal planes
f Orbitals
-l=3 -7 (ml = -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3) contained in each principal level n=4 or greater -More lobes and nodes than d orbitals
Halogen Reactions
-ns²np⁵ electron configuration → easily gains an electron, making them most active nonmetals -Form metal halides that contain ionic bonds -Form hydrogen halides that contain covalent bonds -Form interhalogen compounds that contain covalent bonds
Alkali Metal Reactions
-ns¹ outer electron configurations → easily removed, making them the most active metals -Exothermic and can spark/be explosive
sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds
-sp indicates one s orbital (s) and one p orbital (p), leaving two leftover unhybridized p orbitals -Linear geometry with 180° angle -Unhybridized are perpendicular to hybridized -2 π and 1 σ bonds
Standard Enthalpy of Formation (Standard Heat of Formation)
-∆H(f)° -For pure compound: when 1 mole of the compound forms from its constituent elements in their standard states -For pure element in its standard state: ∆H(f)° = 0 -Negative indicate decomposition of a compound into its constituent elements -Calculate by subtracting enthalpies of formation of the products multiplied by their stoichiometric coefficients → ∆H(f)° = ∑(np)∆H(f)° (products) - ∑(nr)∆H(f)° (reactants)
Standard Enthalpy Change
-∆H° -The change in enthalpy for a process when all reactants and products are in their standard states -Degree sign indicates standard states
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: The oxidation of an atom in a free element is _____.
0
The probability of finding an electron at a node is _____.
0
The sum of all formal charges in a neutral molecule must be _____.
0
Calculate the molarity of 0.34 mol of LiNO₃ in 6.48 L of solution. Express your answer using two significant figures.
0.052 M
How many moles in 25.7g Ta?
0.142 mol
What is the mass of 2.79 x 10²² helium atoms?
0.185 g
What is the mass of 2.3 x 10⁻³ mol Sb?
0.28 g
How many moles in 11.6g Ar?
0.29 mol
How many moles (of molecules or formula units) are in each sample? 37.75 g CF₂Cl₂ 20.4 kg Fe(NO₃)₂ 0.2536 g C₈H₁₈ 147 kg CaO
0.3122 mol 113 mol 2.22 x 10⁻³ 2620 mol
If 123 mL of a 1.2 M glucose solution is diluted to 450.0 mL, what is the molarity of the diluted solution? Express your answer using two significant figures.
0.33 M
Use the drawing of the MO energy diagram to predict the bond order of Li₂⁺ and Li₂⁻. Which molecules are predicted to exist in the gas phase?
0.5 0.5 Both
Zinc(II) sulfide reacts with oxygen according to the reaction: 2ZnS(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO₂(g). A reaction mixture initially contains 4.6 mol ZnS and 7.4 mol O₂. Once the reaction has occurred as completely as possible, what amount (in moles) of the excess reactant is left?
0.5 mol O₂
Calculate the molarity of 71.0 g C₂H₆O in 2.41 L of solution. Express your answer using three significant figures.
0.640 M
The average U.S. farm occupies 435 acres. How many square miles is this? (1 acre = 43,560 ft², 1 mile = 5280 ft).
0.68 mi²
If a reaction is carried out at constant volume, then ∆V = _____ and w = _____.
0; 0
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: The sum of the oxidation states of all atoms a neutral molecule or formula unit is _____, it is _____ in an ion.
0; equal to the charge of the ion
1 mL = _____cm³
1
12.01 g carbon = _____ mol carbon = 6.022 x 10²³ C atoms
1
How many significant figures are in 1000?
1
Use the periodic table to determine the number of 3s electrons in Na.
1
Use the periodic table to determine the number of 4d electrons in Y.
1
mon =
1
How many sublevels are in the 1s level?
1 l = 0
What alkane prefixes correspond to these values? 1 2 3
1 = meth- 2 = eth- 3 = prop-
What does a 1s orbital tell us?
1 = value of n s specifies that l=0 ml = 0
The mass of a proton or neutron is approximately _____.
1 atomic mass unit (amu)
Determine the number of each type of atom in Ba(OH)₂
1 barium atom, 2 oxygen atoms and 2 hydrogen atoms
Determine the number of each type of atom in NaNO₃
1 sodium atom, 1 nitrogen atom and 3 oxygen atoms
Name the structural formula. C₄H₈
1-Butene CH₂=CHCH₂CH₃
Name the structural formula. C₄H₆
1-Butyne CH≡CCH₂CH₃
Name the structural formula. C₆H₁₂
1-Hexane CH₂=CHCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃
Name the structural formula. C₆H₁₀
1-Hexyne CH≡CCH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃
Name the structural formula. C₅H₁₀
1-Pentene CH₂=CHCH₂CH₂CH₃
Name the structural formula. C₅H₈
1-Pentyne CH≡CCH₂CH₂CH₃
How do you find atomic mass?
1. Convert the natural abundances into decimals 2. Fraction of isotope 1 x mass of isotope 1 3. Fraction of isotope 2 x mass of isotope 2 4. Add both numbers together
What three properties explain splitting among orbitals?
1. Coulomb's law 2. Shielding 3. Penetration
Nuclear Theory (Rutherford)
1. Most of the atom's mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small core called the nucleus 2. Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny, negatively charged electrons dispersed 3. There are as many negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus as there are positively charged particles (protons) within the nucleus, so that the atom is electrically neutral
What are exceptions to the octet rule?
1. Odd-electrons species 2. Incomplete octets 3. Expanded octets
What are the 3 manifestations of the electron's wave nature?
1. The de Brogile wavelength 2. The uncertainty principle 3. Interdeterminacy
How do you write a Lewis structure for molecular compounds?
1. Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule 2. Calculate the total number of electrons for the Lewis structure by summing the valence electrons of each atom in the molecule 3. Distribute the electrons among the atoms, giving octets (or duets in the case of hydrogen) to as many atoms as possible 4. If any atoms lack an octet, form double or triple bonds as necessary to give them octets 5. Check
What are the 3 orbitals?
1. n = principal quantum number 2. l = angular momentum quantum number 3. ml = magnetic quantum number *all have integer values
A 140-lb person burns about 2500 Calories to run a marathon. How much energy is burned in kJ? Assume two significant figures.
1.0 x 10⁴ kJ
How many atoms in 5.22 g P?
1.01 x 10²³ atoms
What is the molarity of ZnCl₂ that forms when 20.0 g of zinc completely reacts with CuCl₂ according to the following reaction? Assume a final volume of 285 mL . Zn(s) + CuCl₂(aq) → ZnCl₂(aq) + Cu(s).
1.07 M
Convert the number 0.000127 to scientific notation
1.27 x 10⁻⁴
A bedroom has a volume of 129 m³. What is its volume in decimeters cubed (dm³)?
1.29 x 10⁵ dm³
A bedroom has a volume of 129 m³. What is its volume in centimeters cubed (cm³)?
1.29 x 10⁸ cm³
A bedroom has a volume of 129 m³. What is its volume in cubic kilometers (km³)?
1.29 x 10⁻⁷ km³
What is the minimum amount of 6.2 M H₂SO₄ necessary to produce 23.2 g of H₂ (g) according to the following reaction? 2Al(s) + 3H₂SO₄(aq) → Al₂(SO₄)₃(aq) + 3H₃(g). Express your answer using two significant figures.
1.9 L
deca =
10
The prefix cent- shows what value?
100
The prefix kilo- shows what value?
1000
The prefix mili- shows what value?
1000
1 kg = _____ g _____ kg = 1 g
1000; 10⁻³
What is the conversion factor between L∙atm and J?
101.3 J = 1 L∙atm
Determine the wavelength of the light absorbed when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an orbital in which n = 3 to an orbital in which n =6.
1090 nm
1 mL = _____ L _____ ml = 1 L
10⁻³; 1000
1 nm = ___ m
10⁻⁹
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the following isotope. ²⁴₁₁Na
11 protons 13 neutrons
Calculate ΔH(rxn) for the following reaction: C(s)+H₂O(g)→CO(g)+H₂(g) Use the following reactions and given ΔH values: C(s)+O₂(g)→CO₂(g), ΔH= -393.5 kJ 2CO(g)+O₂(g)→2CO₂(g), ΔH= -566.0 kJ 2H₂(g)+O₂(g)→2H₂O(g), ΔH= -483.6 kJ Express your answer using four significant figures.
131.3 kJ
Compute 3.5×4.48697. Round the answer appropriately.
16
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following. Solid copper reacts with solid sulfur(S₈) to form solid copper(I) sulfide.
16Cu(s)+S₈(s)→8Cu₂S(s) Sulfides have a charge of 2−, so two moles of copper(I) needs to react with solid sulfur to form one mole of copper(I) sulfide.
Determine the number of protons and electrons in the following ion. Cl⁻
17 protons 18 electrons
A chemist wants to make 5.0 L of a 0.320 M CaCl₂ solution. What mass of CaCl₂ (in g) should the chemist use? Express your answer using two significant figures.
180 g
The s sublevel has _____ orbitals, and can hold _____ electrons.
1;2
What orbital(s) does an element with 2 electrons have?
1s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 4 electrons have?
1s², 2s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 12 electrons have?
1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 20 electrons have?
1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 38 electrons have?
1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d¹⁰, 4p⁶, 5s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 56 electrons have?
1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d¹⁰, 4p⁶, 5s², 4d¹⁰, 5p⁶, 6s²
What orbital(s) does an element with 72 electrons have?
1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d¹⁰, 4p⁶, 5s², 4d¹⁰, 5p⁶, 6s², 4f¹⁴, 5d²
What is the electron configuration of N³⁻?
1s²2s²2p⁶
Central atoms must form at least _____ bonds
2
Determine the number of significant figures in the measurement 0.0030 s
2
How many electrons can each orbital hold?
2
How many significant figures are in 0.0078?
2
di =
2
How many sublevels are in the 2s level?
2 l = 0,1
Determine the number of each type of atom in (NH₄)₂S
2 nitrogen atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms and 1 sulfur atom
A modest-sized house has an area of 205 m². What is its area in dm²?
2.05 x 10⁴ dm²
A modest-sized house has an area of 205 m². What is its area in cm²?
2.05 x 10⁶ cm²
A modest-sized house has an area of 205 m². What is its area in km²?
2.05 x 10⁻⁴ km²
What is the mass of 1.2 mol W?
2.2 x 10² g
1 inch = _____ cm
2.54
Calculate the wavelength of an electron traveling with a speed of 2.65 x 10⁶ m/s.
2.74 x 10⁻¹⁰ 1. Get from v → λ 2. λ = h /mv λ = (6.626 x 10⁻³⁴)/(9.11 x 10⁻³¹)(2.65 x 10⁶)
How many sulfur atoms are there in 4.70 mol of sulfur?
2.83 x 10²⁴ atoms
Determine the number of protons and electrons in the following ion. Ca²⁺
20 protons 18 electrons
Compute 9.3456+2140.56. Round the answer appropriately.
2149.91
Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes with the following masses and natural abundances: Isotope-Mass (amu)-Abundance (%) Mg−24 23.9850 78.99 Mg−25 24.9858 10.00 Mg−26 25.9826 11.01 Calculate the atomic mass of magnesium.
24.305 amu
Compute 4.659×10⁴−2.14×10⁴. Round the answer appropriately
25200
Determine the number of protons and electrons in the following ion. Co²⁺
27 protons 25 electrons
Silver chloride, often used in silver plating, contains 75.27% Ag. Calculate the mass of silver chloride required to plate 205 mg of pure silver.
272 mg
Specify the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the neutral atom copper-64.
29 p 35 n 29 e
What is the ratio of hydrogen atoms (H) to oxygen atoms (O) in 2 L of water? Enter the simplest whole number ratio in order of hydrogen to oxygen, respectively.
2:1
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: _____ Electron geometry (VSEPR): Linear Hybridization scheme: _____ Orbital shape and relative orientation: linear and 180° angle
2; sp
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following. Liquid octane reacts with oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapor.
2C₈H₁₈(l)+25O₂(g)→16CO₂(g)+18H₂O(g) Two moles of octane needs to react with 25 moles of oxygen to form 16 moles of carbon dioxide and 18 moles of water vapor.
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of solid sodium with liquid water. Express your answer as a chemical equation. Identify all of the phases in your answer.
2Na (s) + 2H₂O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H₂ (g)
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following. Sulfur dioxide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form sulfur trioxide gas.
2SO₂(g)+O₂(g)→2SO₃(g)
The number of orbitals in any sublevel is equal to _____.
2l + 1 s → 1 orbital p → 3 orbitals d → 5 orbitals
How can you calculate how many total electrons are in a shell?
2n²
A molecule with the formula AB₃ has a trigonal planar geometry. How many electron groups are on the central atom?
3
At what period do you start using noble gas notation?
3
Determine the number of significant figures in the measurement 6.07 m
3
How many valence electrons are in Al?
3
tri =
3
How many sublevels are in the 3s level?
3 l = 0,1,2
What is the mass of 7.5 x 10²¹ uranium atoms?
3.0 g
How many moles in 0.218g Li?
3.14 x 10⁻² mol
Calculate the mass, in grams, of a single iridium atom (mIr = 192.22 amu).
3.192 x 10⁻²² g
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) has a density of 1.11 g/cm3. What is the volume in L of 3.6 kg of this liquid?
3.2 L
The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. This can be gleaned from the third postulate in Dalton's series. Magnesium oxide decomposes into magnesium and oxygen. If 8.06 g of magnesium oxide decomposes to form 4.86 g of magnesium, what mass of oxygen gas is also released in the reaction?
3.20 g
A 28.00 mL sample of an unknown H₃PO₄ solution is titrated with a 0.110 M NaOH solution. The equivalence point is reached when 24.88 mL of NaOH solution is added. What is the concentration of the unknown H₃PO₄ solution? The neutralization reaction is H₃PO₄(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → 3H₂O(l) + Na₃PO₄(aq).
3.26 x 10⁻² M
The density of a 20.0% by mass ethylene glycol (C₂H₆O₂) solution in water is 1.02 g/mL. Find the molarity of the solution.
3.29 M
The velocity of an electron in the ground-state energy level of hydrogen is 2.2 x 10⁶ m/s. If the electron's mass is 9.1 x 10⁻³¹ kg, what is the de Broglie wavelength of this electron?
3.3×10⁻¹⁰ m
Calculate the number of grams of sodium in 8.3 g of each of the following sodium-containing food additives. Na₃PO₄ (sodium phosphate) NaC₇H₅O₂ (sodium benzoate)
3.5 g 1.3 g
1 kilowatt-hour = _____ joules
3.60 x 10⁶
A system absorbs 190 kJ of heat and the surroundings do 120 kJ of work on the system. What is the change in internal energy of the system? Express the internal energy in kilojoules to three significant figures.
310 kJ
Consider the following precipitation reaction: 2Na₃PO₄(aq)+3CuCl₂(aq)→ Cu₃(PO₄)₂(s)+6NaCl(aq). What volume of 0.178 M Na₃PO₄ solution is necessary to completely react with 85.8 mL of 0.108 M CuCl₂?
34.7 mL
Using the molecular orbital energy ordering for second-row homonuclear diatomic molecules in which the π2p orbitals lie at higher energy than the σ2p, predict the bond order in a molecule or ion with each of the following numbers of total valence electrons (by drawing MO energy diagrams). Will the molecule or ion be diamagnetic or paramagnetic? 10 valence electrons 12 valence electrons 13 valence electrons 14 valence electrons
3; diamagnetic 2; paramagnetic 1.5; paramagnetic 1; diamagnetic Bond order = (# of electrons in bonding MOs) -(# of electrons in antibonding MOs)/2
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: _____ Electron geometry (VSEPR): _____ Hybridization scheme: sp² Orbital shape and relative orientation: same plane with 120° angle
3; trigonal planar
The p sublevel has _____ orbitals, and can hold _____ electrons.
3;6
Write the ions present in a solution of K₃PO₄. Express your answers as chemical formulas separated by a comma.
3K⁺,PO₄³⁻
Which are silicon's valence electrons? 1s²2s²2p²3s²3p²
3s²3p²
How many significant figures are in 1000.?
4
How many significant figures are in 23.56?
4
Use the periodic table to determine the number of 6p electrons in Po.
4
tetra =
4
What alkane prefixes correspond to these values? 4 5 6
4 = but- 5 = pent- 6 = hex-
1 calorie = _____ joules
4.184
To what volume should you dilute 48 mL of a 11 M stock HNO₃ solution to obtain a 0.123 M HNO₃ solution? Express your answer using two significant figures.
4.3 L
A particular brand of gasoline has a density of 0.737 g/mL at 25 ∘C. How many grams of this gasoline would fill a 15.7 gal tank (1US gal=3.78L)?
4.37 x 10⁴
How much heat is required to warm 1.50 L of water from 26.0 °C to 100.0 °C? (Assume a density of 1.0g/mL for the water.) Express your answer using two significant figures.
4.6 x 10⁵ J
What is the mass of 3.55 x 10⁻² mol Ba?
4.88 g
Calculate the mass (in grams) of each sample. 5.2 x 10²⁵ O₃ molecules 6.00 x 10¹⁹ CCl₂F₂ molecules 9 water molecules
4100 g 1.20 x 10⁻² g 2.693 x 10²² g
What is the molar mass of CO₂?
44.01 g/mol
Round the value 44.981 g to three significant figures
45.0 g
Ethylene glycol (antifreeze) has a density of 1.11 g/cm3. What is the mass in g of 425 mL of this liquid?
472 g
What is the mass of 1.4 x 10²³ lead atoms?
48 g
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: _____ Electron geometry (VSEPR): Tetrahedral Hybridization scheme: sp³ Orbital shape and relative orientation: _____
4; three in one plane with one perpendicular with 109.5° angle between them
Write a balanced chemical equation for the following. Gaseous ammonia (NH₃) reacts with gaseous oxygen to form gaseous nitrogen monoxide and gaseous water.
4NH₃(g)+5O₂(g)→4NO(g)+6H₂O(g) Four moles of ammonia needs to react with 5 moles of oxygen gas to form 4 moles of nitrogen monoxide and 6 moles of water vapor.
Write the orbital diagram for Zr²⁺. Is it diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
4d ↑ ↑ 5s 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4s ↑↓ 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓ Paramagnetic
Write the orbital diagram for Mo³⁺. Is it diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
4d ↑ ↑ ↑ 5s 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4s ↑↓ 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓ Paramagnetic
Write the orbital diagram for Cd²⁺. Is it diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
4d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 5s 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4s ↑↓ 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓ Diamagnetic
Which electron is, on average, further from the nucleus: an electron in a 3p orbital or an electron in a 4p orbital?
4p
How many significant figures are in 23.560?
5
How many significant figures are in 500.01?
5
Use the periodic table to determine the number of 3d electrons in Cr.
5
penta =
5
How many pi bonds are present in acetylsalicylic acid? How many sigma bonds are present?
5 pi 21 sigma
What mass of natural gas (CH₄) must you burn to emit 264 kJ of heat? CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) ΔH°(rxn) = −802.3kJ Express the mass in grams to three significant figures.
5.28 g
How many moles in 3.45g Zn?
5.28 x 10⁻² mol
How many atoms in 1.9 g Bi?
5.48 x 10²¹ atoms
An infant ibuprofen suspension contains 100 mg/5.0 mL suspension. The recommended dose is 10 mg/kg body weight. How many milliliters of this suspension should be given to an infant weighing 25 lb?
5.7 mL
Determine the number of protons and electrons in the following ion. I⁻
53 protons 54 electrons
What is the mass of 43.8 mol Xe?
5750 g
A runner wants to run 11.9 km . She knows that her running pace is 7.7 miles per hour. How many minutes must she run?
58 min
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: _____ Electron geometry (VSEPR): _____ Hybridization scheme: sp³d Orbital shape and relative orientation: 4 in one plane with 90° between them, and one perpendicular with 120° angle
5; trigonal bipyramidal
The d sublevel has _____ orbitals, and can hold _____ electrons.
5;10
Write the orbital diagram for Au⁺. Is it diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
5d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4f ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 5p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 5s ↑↓ 4p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3d ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 4s ↑↓ 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 3s ↑↓ 2p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 2s ↑↓ 1s ↑↓ Diamagnetic
hexa =
6
How many atoms in 8.8 x 10⁻² g Sr?
6.0 x 10²⁰ atoms
26.98 g aluminum = 1 mol aluminum = _____ Al atoms
6.022 x 10²³
How many atoms in 2.16 g Hg?
6.48 x 10²¹ atoms
A solution of ammonia and water contains 2.30×10²⁵ water molecules and 6.50×10²⁴ ammonia molecules. How many total hydrogen atoms are in this solution? (H₂0; NH₃)
6.55 x 10²⁵ H atoms
How many moles of aluminum do 4.1×10²⁴ aluminum atoms represent?
6.8 mol
How many atoms of hydrogen (H) are present in 200 molecules of ammonia (NH₃)?
600 atoms
Human fat has a density of 0.918 g/cm³. How much volume (in cm³) is gained by a person who gains 12.5 lbs of pure fat?
6180 cm³
What is the mass of 2.0 x 10²³ gold atoms?
65 g
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: _____ Electron geometry (VSEPR): Octahedral Hybridization scheme: sp³d² Orbital shape and relative orientation: _____
6; 4 in one plane and 2 perpendicular with 90° between them
An element in the lettered group 7A has _____ electrons.
7
hepta =
7
What alkane prefixes correspond to these values? 7 8 9 10
7 = hept- 8 = oct- 9 = non- 10 = dec-
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the following isotope. ¹⁴₇N
7 protons 7 neutrons
12.99 mg KI in 103.1 mL of solution Express your answer using four significant figures.
7.590 x 10⁻⁴ M
Calculate the mass of each sample. 19.5 mol HCl 1.20 x 10⁻³ mol H₂O 75.6 mmol SO₂ 1.28 mol xenon dichloride
711 g 2.16 x 10⁻² g 4.84 g 259 g
The ion N³⁻ has _____ protons and _____ electrons.
7; 10
The f sublevel has _____ orbitals, and can hold _____ electrons.
7;14
octa =
8
How many helium atoms are there in a helium blimp containing 536 kg of helium?
8.06 x 10²⁸ atoms
A block of metal has a width of 3.2 cm, a length of 17.1 cm, and height of 3.2 cm . Its mass is 1.5 kg . Calculate the density of the metal.
8.567 g/mL (g/cm³)
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the following isotope. ²⁰⁷₈₂Pb
82 protons 125 neutrons
Calculate the mass percent composition of nitrogen in each of the following nitrogen compounds. NH₃ Si₃N₄
82.25% 39.94%
Determine the number of protons and neutrons in the following isotope. ²²²₈₆Rn
86 protons 136 neutrons
Which column contains the noble gases?
8A/18
nona =
9
What is the resting mass of an electron?
9.1094 x 10⁻³¹
What is the mass of an electron?
9.11 x 10⁻³¹ kg
Determine the number of moles of oxygen atoms in each of the following. 4.77 mol H₂O₂ 2.07 mol N₂O 2.33 x 10⁻² mol H₂CO₃ 23.4 mol CO₂
9.54 mol 2.07 mol 6.99 x 10⁻² mol 46.8 mol
The fastest baseball pitch ever recorded was approximately 46.7 m/s. If a baseball has a mass of 0.145 kg, what is its de Broglie wavelength?
9.78×10⁻³⁵ m
What is the predicted bond angle of p orbitals according to valence bond theory?
90°
How many naturally occuring atoms are there?
91
Compute 1240.64/12.5. Round the answer appropriately.
99.3
Atomic Mass = _____ + _____
A = protons + neutrons
Indicator
A dye whose color depends on the acidity or basicity of the solution
Conversion Factor
A fractional quantity with the units we are converting from on the bottom and the units we are converting to on top
Solution
A homogeneous mixture
Why is a lone pair more spread out in space than a bonding electron pair?
A lone pair is attracted to only one nucleus while a bonding pair is attracted to two
Temperature
A measure of the thermal energy within a sample of matter
Non-Bonding (Lone) Pair
A pair of electrons associated with only one atom
In valence bond theory, hybrid orbitals are weighted linear sums of valence atomic orbitals of (all atoms in a molecule/a particular atom), and the hybrid orbitals (remain localized on the atom/many orbitals are delocalized over the entire molecule).
A particular atom; remain localized on the atom
Node
A point where the wave function, probability density, and radical distribution function all go through 0
Dimensional Analysis
A problem that uses units as a guide to solve it
What is a chemical reaction?
A process where one or more substances are converted into one or more different substances
Chemical Property
A property that a substance displays only by changing its composition via a chemical change i.e. flammability, corrosiveness, acidity, toxicity
Physical Property
A property that a substance displays without changing its composition i.e. odor, taste, color, appearance, melting point, boiling point, density
Magnetic Field
A region of space where a magnetic particle experiences a force
Electric Field
A region of space where an electrically charged particle experiences a force
Bonding Pair
A shared pair of electrons
Concentrated Solution
A solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the solvent
Dilute Solution
A solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the solvent
Aqueous Solution
A solution with water as the solvent
Oxidizing Agent
A substance that causes the oxidation of another substance
Reducing Agent
A substance that causes the reduction of another substance
Endothermic
A system that gains energy
Exothermic
A system that loses energy
Orbital
A way of describing an electron's position using a probability distribution map by showing where electrons are likely to be found Symbol: ψ²
After sp3 hybridization, the carbon atom has: a. a total of four unpaired electrons b. four equal energy hybrid orbitals c. two unpaired electrons d. hybrid orbitals of four distinctly different energies e. no unpaired electrons f. hybrid orbitals of two distinctly different energies g. hybrid orbitals with energy between that of the 2s and 2p orbitals h. the ability to form four bonds i. three hybrid orbitals and an unhybridized p orbital
A, B, G, H
What does "quantum" mean?
Absolutely small
Acid-Base (Neutralization) Reaction
Acid reacts with a base resulting in the two neutralizing each other and producing water
Polyprotic Acids
Acids that contain more than one ionizable proton and release them sequentially
Greenhouse Gases
Act like glass in a greenhouse by allowing sunlight into the atmosphere to warm Earth's surface, but prevents some of the heat from escaping
What do you have to do when creating Lewis models for polyatomic ions?
Add one electron for each negative charge and subtract one for each positive charge
Use Lewis theory to determine the formula for the compound that forms between the two elements listed. Al and N Cs and S
AlN Cs₂S
Based on the molecular formula, determine whether each compound is an alkane, alkene, or alkyne. (Assume that the hydrocarbons are noncyclical and there is no more than one multiple bond.) C₈H₁₄ C₈H₁₆ C₆H₁₀ C₄H₁₀
Alkyne Alkene Alkyne Alkane
The valence electron configurations of several atoms are shown. How many bonds can each atom make without hybridization? B: 2s²2p¹ Cl: 3s²3p⁵ Al: 3s²3p¹
All form 1 bond because they only have 1 unpaired electron in the p orbital
The change in internal energy that occurs during a chemical reaction (∆E) is a measure of _____.
All of the energy exchanged with the surroundings (∆E = q + w)
In molecular orbital theory, the molecular orbitals are weighted linear sums of the valence atomic orbitals of (all the atoms in a molecule/a particular atom), and many orbitals (remain localized on the atom/are delocalized over the entire molecule
All the atoms in a molecule; are delocalized over the entire molecule
3 Types of Radioactivity
Alpha Beta Gamma
Isotope Notation
Also: Chemical symbol - Mass X - A
Consider the following set of successive ionization energies: IE1=578kJ/mol IE2=1,820kJ/mol IE3=2,750kJ/mol IE4=11,600kJ/mol To which third period element do these ionization values belong?
Aluminum
Bond formation (never/sometimes/always) releases energy.
Always
In a redox reaction, the oxidizing agent is (never/sometimes/always) reduced.
Always
In a redox reaction, the reducing agent is (never/sometimes/always) oxidized.
Always
In combustion reaction, compounds containing carbon and hydrogen or carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (never/sometimes/always) form carbon dioxide and water.
Always
Oxidation and reduction (never/sometimes/always) occur together.
Always
The number of standard atomic orbitals added together (is less than/always equals/is more than) the number of hybrid orbitals formed.
Always equals
We can characterize a wave by its _____ and _____.
Amplitude; wavelength
Diprotic Acids
An acid that is strong in its first ionizable proton, but weak in its second
Diamagnetic
An atom or ion that contains all paired electrons, so it is not attracted to an external magnetic field
Paramagnetic
An atom or ion that contains unpaired electrons, so it is attracted to an external magnetic field
What is a chemical bond in a Lewis model?
An electron pair
Complete Ionic Equation
An equation that lists all of the ions present as either reactants or products in a chemical reaction
Net Ionic Equation
An equation that shows only the species that actually change during the reaction
Molecular Equation
An equation that shows the complete neutral formulas for each compound in the reaction as if they existed as molecules
Racemic Mixture
An equimolar mixture of both optical isomers that does not rotate the polarization of light at all
Salt
An ionic compound
What are the possible values of n?
Any integer 1 or greater
Excess Reactant
Any reactant that occurs in a quantity greater than is required to completely react with the limiting reactant
How do you determine the shape of larger molecules?
Apply same principles to each interior atom
Choose the element with the highest first ionization energy from each of the following pairs. Ar or Kr Si or Cl S or Te
Ar Cl S
What isotope has 18 protons and 22 neutrons?
Argon-40
Choose the larger atom from each of the following pairs. As or N Br or Ga Sn or Ge S or Ge
As Ga Sn Ge
Why did Thomson conclude that electrons could be found in atoms of all elements?
As part of his experiments with cathode ray tubes, Thomson tried changing the cathode material, which was the source of the particles. Since the same particles were emitted even when the cathode materials were changed to different metals, Thomson concluded that the particle (the electron) was a fundamental part of all atoms.
As the wavelength of a photon increases, what happens to the photon's energy?
As the wavelength of a photon increases, its energy decreases. According to Planck's equation, the energy of a photon is proportional to the light frequency, E=hν. The light frequency, ν, is inversely proportional to wavelength, c=λν, where c is the speed of light. That means that increasing the wavelength decreases the light's frequency.
How are isotopes represented?
Atomic Mass (upper right) over Atomic Number (lower left) next to the Element's letter
What two things determine how matter behaves?
Atoms and molecules
Physical Change
Atoms do not change their identity, and results in a different form of the same substance
Space-Filling Molecular Model
Atoms fill the space between each other to more closely represent the estimate of the molecule if it were scaled to visible size
Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons
Each of the following compounds is soluble in water. For which compounds do you expect the resulting aqueous solution to conduct electrical current? a. CH3OH b. BaCl2 c. CH2(OH)−CH(OH)−CH2(OH) d. AgNO3
B and d
On the basis of Rutherford's experimental observations, which of the following statements describes the structure of the atom according to Rutherford's atomic model? a. In an atom, all of the positive and negative charges are randomly distributed. b. In an atom, negatively charged electrons are dispersed in the space surrounding the positively charged nucleus of an atom. c. In an atom, the positive charges are located in a small core within the atom called the nucleus. d. In an atom, positively charged particles are dispersed in the space surrounding the negatively charged sphere.
B, C On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford proposed an atomic model. Postulates of his atomic model are as follows: -An atom has a tiny, positively charged nucleus at its center. -The positive charge is due to the presence of protons in the atom. -Electrons are spread throughout the empty space around the nucleus of the atom. -The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in an atom, keeping the atom electrically neutral. -The electrons and the nucleus are jointly held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford performed an experiment to explore the atomic structure. In his experiment, he projected high-speed α particles onto a thin gold foil. He found that all α particles did not follow the same path. Most of the particles passed through the foil without any scattering, implying that most of the space in an atom is empty. Some particles were scattered at a large angle, and very few of them scattered back in the direction from which they had come. Based on these observations, Rutherford proposed an atomic model, which is known as Rutherford's atomic model. Choose which of the following conclusions are correct. a. A positive charge is spread equally over the atom. b. The atom contains a positively charged nucleus. c. The atom is a very compact entity without any empty space. d. Positive charge is condensed in one location within the atom. e. The mass of an atom is concentrated at the nucleus. f. The majority of the space inside the atom is empty space.
B, D, E, F
A metal (M) forms an oxide with the formula MO. If the oxide contains 63.97 % O by mass, what is the identity of the metal?
Be
What is the least repulsive electron group?
Bonding pair − bonding pair
In general, when two atomic orbitals are added together to form molecular orbitals, one of the resultant (bonding/antibonding) molecular orbitals will be lower in energy than the atomic orbitals, and the other (bonding/antibonding) orbitals will be higher in energy.
Bonding; antibonding
Express your answer as a chemical symbol. [Ar]4s²3d¹⁰4p⁵
Br
Name the structural formula. -CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃
Butyl
Carbonyl Group
C=O functional group
Give each ionic compound an appropriate name. CaS FeS PbF₂ SrI₂
Calcium sulfide Iron(III) sulfide Lead(II) fluoride Strontium iodide
Interaction Energy
Calculated as a function of the internuclear distance between the two bonding atoms
Binary Compounds Forming More than 1 Ion
Cation name + roman numeral indicating charge + anion name + -ide i.e. Fe²⁺ = iron(II)
Predict the charge of the ion formed by each of the following elements. Express your answer as an ion. Ca
Ca²⁺
Which atoms have the greatest tendency to hybridize?
Central or interior
If a chemical equation is reversed, then ∆H(rxn) _____.
Changes signs
Why are orbital shapes important?
Chemical bonds depend on the sharing of the electrons that occupy orbitals
Diodes
Circuit elements that allow the flow of electrical current in only one direction
Arrange the following elements in order of decreasing first ionization energy: Bi, Cl, Sb, and Br
Cl Br Sb Bi
Arrange the following elements in order of decreasing first ionization energy: Bi, Cl, Sb, and Br.
Cl, Br, Sb, Bi
Consider the bond energies of three iodine halides: Bond Bond Energy Br−Cl 218 kJ/mol Br−Br 193 kJ/mol I−Br 175 kJ/mol How might you use valence bond theory to help explain this trend? Fill in the blanks with the following terms : Cl, Br, I, smaller, larger, longer, shorter. According to valence bond theory, the bonds in each of these halide molecules result from overlap of atomic orbitals. Smaller atoms (_____ is the smallest atom and _____ is the largest atom) have _____ atomic orbitals, and hence, _____ bonds. The _____ the bond the higher the bond energy.
Cl; I; smaller, shorter, shorter
In a liquid, the composite particles are _____, and can _____.
Closely packed; flow/move past each other/assume the shape of its container
Predict the charge of the ion formed by each of the following elements. Express your answer as an ion. Cl
Cl⁻
To balance a chemical equation, we change the (coefficients/subscripts), not the (coefficients/subsripts).
Coefficients; subscripts This changes the number or molecules, not the kind of molecule
The wavelength of light determines its _____.
Color
p Block Elements
Column 13-18 of the periodic table minus helium (He)
The number of _____ in a block corresponds to the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the particular sublevel of that block.
Columns i.e. s block has 2 columns, p block has 6, d block has 10, and f block has 14
d Block Elements
Columns 3-12 of the periodic table
What are more common on Earth: compounds or elements?
Compounds
Nonelectrolytes
Compounds that do not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water and do not conduct electricity
Isomer
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures or different spatial arrangements of atoms
Stock Solutions
Concentrated forms of solutions
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for Be?
Configuration: 1s²2s² Diagram: ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s 2s
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for C?
Configuration: 1s²2s²2p² Diagram: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s 2s 2p
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for O?
Configuration: 1s²2s²2p⁴ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s 2s 2p
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for Li?
Configuration: 1s²2s¹ Diagram: ↑↓ ↑ 1s 2s
What is the electron configuration for helium (He)? What is the orbital diagram?
Configuration: He 1s² Diagram: ↑↓ 1s
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for Ne?
Configuration: [He] 2s²2p⁶ Diagram: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓↑↓↑↓ 1s 2s 2p
What is the electron configuration and orbital diagram for Si?
Configuration: [Ne] 3s²3p² Diagram: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓↑↓↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↑ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
The particles that compose matter is in _____ _____.
Constant motion
A change in enthalpy only occurs under _____.
Constant pressure
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Contain benzene ring or other aromatic rings
Esters
Contain carbonyl group with R group on one side and OR group on the other
Carboxylic Acids
Contain carbonyl group with R group on one side and hydroxyl group on the other
White light spectrum is (interrupted/continuous), while emission spectrum is (interrupted/continuous).
Continuous; interrupted
(Core/Outer) electrons efficiently shield electrons in the outermost principal energy level from nuclear charge, but (core/outer) electrons do not efficiently shield one another from nuclear charge.
Core; outer
Molecular Compounds
Covalently bonded atoms that form molecules
Arrange the following elements in order of decreasing atomic radius: Cs, Sn, Cl, Tl, and As.
Cs, Ti, Sn, As, Cl As you move down a column (or family) in the periodic table, atomic radius increases. As you move to the right across a period (or row) in the periodic table, atomic radius decreases. Thus, Cs has the largest atomic radius of the elements given, and Cl has the smallest atomic radius of the elements given.
Write a formula for the ionic compound that forms between the pair of elements. Caesium and Chlorine Potassium and Oxygen Strontium and Iodine
CsCl K₂O SrI₂
Calculate the empirical formula for each of the following natural flavors based on their elemental mass percent composition. Methyl butyrate: 58.80%C, 9.87%H, and 31.33%O. Vanillin: 63.15%C, 5.30%H, and 31.55%O. Malonic acid: 34.63% C, 3.87% H, and 61.50% O
C₅H₁₀O₂ C₈H₈O₃ C₃H₄O₄
Combustion analysis of a hydrocarbon produced 33.01 g CO₂ and 4.83 g H₂O. Calculate the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon.
C₇H₅ 1. Find moles 33.01g x (1 mol/12.01+16+16) x (1 mol/1 mol) x (12.01 g/1 mol) = 9.008g 9.008 g x (1 mol/12.01 g) = 0.75 mol 4.83g x (1 mol/1.008+1.008+16) x (1 mol/1 mol) x (1.008 g/1 mol) = 0.5405 g 0.5405 g x (1 mol/1.008 g) = 0.536 mol 2. Divide by smallest number 0.75/0.536 = 1.399 0.536/0.536 = 1 3. Find whole number 1.399 x 5 = 6.99 1 x 5 = 5
The molar mass and empirical formula of several compounds are listed below. Find the molecular formula of each compound. C₄H₉, 114.19 g/mol CCl, 284.78 g/mol C₃H₂N, 312.43 g/mol
C₈H₁₈ C₆Cl₆ C₁₈H₁₂N₆
Ionization generally (decreases/increases) as we move down the periodic table, and (decreases/increases) as we move right.
Decreases → electrons in the outermost principal level are increasingly farther away from the positively charged nucleus and therefore held less tightly Increases → electrons in the outermost principal level generally experience a greater effective nuclear charge
Electronegativity (decreases/increases) as you move left across the periodic table, and (decreases/increases) as you move down.
Decreases; decreases
Arrhenius Definition
Definition of an acid based on acid behavior
Extensive Property
Depends on the amount of a substance i.e. mass
Composition of Matter
Depends on types of particles
Sublevel Electron Splitting
Determines the order of orbital filling within a level
What is ∆EN?
Difference in electronegativity between two bonding atoms
Ionic compounds dissolved in water as (dissociated/intact) molecules.
Dissociated
Soluble
Dissolves in water
Ionic compounds (do/do not) conduct electricity as solids, but (do/do not) conduct electricity when dissolved in water.
Do not; do
Insouble
Does not dissolve in water
A _____ in the Lewis Model corresponds to one σ and one π in valence bond theory.
Double bond
In alkali metal reactions, the reaction gets more explosive as you move (down/up) the column from one metal to the next.
Down
The density of elements tends to increases as you move (up/down) a column in the periodic table. Why?
Down Because the mass of each successive atom increases even more than its volume does due to additional protons and neutrons
As we move (up/down) a column in the periodic table, the atomic radius increases. As we move right across a period, the atomic radius (decreases/increases).
Down; decreases
How much energy is contained in 1 mol of γ-ray photons with a wavelength of 2.72×10−5 nm? Express the energy numerically in kilojoules per mole.
E = 4.40 x 10⁹ kJ/mol The high energy of x-ray photons and gamma photons are able to ionize atoms and molecules. This property can cause DNA damage directly or indirectly, which is why they are carcinogenic.
Calculate the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation at each of the following frequencies. 835.3 MHz (common frequency used for cell phone communication). Express your answer in joules using four significant figures.
E = 5.535 x 10⁻²⁵ J It was Albert Einstein who first proposed that light energy came in quantifiable packets. The energy of a photon depends on its frequency, with higher frequencies corresponding to higher energy photons. Since E = hc/λ, where c is the speed of light in m/s and λ is the wavelength of light, it can also be said that shorter wavelengths correspond to higher energy photons.
Calculate the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation at each of the following frequencies. 101.8 MHz (typical frequency for FM radio broadcasting). Express your answer in joules using four significant figures.
E = 6.745 x 10⁻²⁶ J 1. To convert a value from MHz to J, start by converting the value to Hz using the conversion factor 10⁶ Hz/1 MHz. 2. Since 1 Hz = 1 s⁻¹, you can now substitute this value into the equation E = hν, where h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s and ν is frequency.
Calculate the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation at each of the following frequencies. 1065 kHz (typical frequency for AM radio broadcasting). Express your answer in joules using four significant figures.
E = 7.057 x 10⁻²⁸ J 1. To convert a value from kHz to J, start by converting the value to Hz using the conversion factor 10³ Hz/1 kHz. 2. Since 1 Hz = 1 s⁻¹, you can now substitute this value into the equation E = hν, where h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s and ν is frequency.
How much energy is contained in 1 mol of X-ray photons with a wavelength of 0.135 nm? Express the energy numerically in kilojoules per mole.
E = 8.87 x 10⁵ kJ/mol 1. To find the amount of energy per photon, start by converting the wavelength of the photon from nm to m using the conversion factor 1m/10⁹ nm. 2. Then, substitute the values into the equation E = hc/λ, where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and λ is the wavelength of the photon. 3. # of photons = 1 mole = 6.022*10^23 # photons = Epulse / Ephoton 6.022*10^23 = Epulse / 1.47*10^-15 J solve for Epulse = 8.867*10^8 J 4. Convert to kJ = 8.867*10^5 kJ
What do the symbols stand for? E = hv
E = amount of energy in the light packet v = frequency h = Planck's constant
What do these symbols represent? E = hc/λ
E = energy of a photon h = Planck's constant c = speed of light λ = wavelength
Formula for the Energy of a Photon
E = hc/λ
What equation equates to the E in E = KE + Φ?
E = hv
What does each symbol stand for? E = KE + Φ
E = photon energy KE = kinetic energy Φ = work function
What does each symbol represent? E = (1/4πε₀)(q₁q₂/r)
E = potential energy ε₀ = 8.85 x 10⁻¹² C²/Jm q₁ and q₂ = charges r = separation
Family/Group of Elements
Each column within the main-group regions of the periodic table
Light is _____.
Electromagnetic radiation
Chemistry is mainly concerned with _____ and _____.
Electronic structure; electron transfer
If an atom is negatively charged, it has more (protons/neutrons/electrons).
Electrons
The number of _____ determines the charge of the element.
Electrons
MO Theory: Polyatomic Molecules
Electrons delocalized over the entire molecule
What are core electrons?
Electrons that reside in complete principal energy levels and in complete d and f levels
What are the two categories of pure substances?
Elements and compounds
Amplifiers
Elements that amplify a small electrical current into a larger one
Main-Group Elements
Elements whose properties tend to be largely predictable based on their position in the periodic table
Transition Elements (Metals) and Inner Transition Elements
Elements whose properties tend to be less predictable based on their position in the periodic table
What does a negative sign tell us?
Energy emission *Energy emitted is carried away by a photon
What are you finding in Planck's equation E = hv?
Energy of a photon absorbed or emitted
We can specify an electron's (energy/location), but not it's (energy/location) at a given instant
Energy; location
An element's molar mass in grams per mole (g/mol) is numerically (greater than/equal to/less than) the element's atomic mass in mass units.
Equal to
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: The oxidation state of a monoatomic ion is (less than/equal to/greater than) its charge.
Equal to
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is (less than/equal to/greater than) the atomic number
Equal to
The sum of all formal charges in an ion must be _____.
Equal to the charge of the ion
The charges of the proton and the electron are (opposite/equal) in magnitude, but (opposite/equal) in sign.
Equal; opposite
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons _____ the number of protons.
Equals
Name the structural formula. C₂H₄
Ethene CH₂=CH₂
What is the simplest alkene?
Ethene (ethylene)
Name the structural formula. -CH₂CH₃
Ethyl
Name the structural formula. C₂H₂
Ethyne CH≡CH
What is the simplest alkyne?
Ethyne (acetylene)
System Surroundings
Everything with which the system can exchange energy
When a metal is heated, electrons are _____ to a _____ energy molecular orbitals.
Excited; higher
Quantum-Mechanical Model
Explains the strange behavior of electrons and how they exist within atoms
What does each symbol mean? F = kq₁q₂/r²
F = force (mass x acceleration) k = proportionality constant q₁ = first charge q₂ = second charge r² = distance between charges
True or false: Increasing the intensity of low frequency light will allow it to dislodge electrons.
False
True or false: Protons have twice the mass of neutrons.
False
True or false: we can calculate deterministic electron trajectories.
False
True or false: The geometrical shape of atoms in a molecule does not matter as long as the atoms are the same.
False The properties of the substances radically depend on the structure of particles that compose them
The arrangements of elements on the periodic table reflects how electrons _____.
Fill quantum-mechanical orbitals
In a solid, the composite particles are _____ and can _____.
Fixed in place; only vibrate
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: In their compounds, we assign nonmetals oxidation states as: Flourine: Hydrogen: Oxygen: 7A: 6A: 5A:
Flourine: -1 Hydrogen: +1 Oxygen: -2 7A: -1 6A: -2 5A: -3
What is the most electronegative element?
Fluorine
What is the basic unit of an ionic compound?
Formula unit
What is the least electronegative element?
Francium
What would you expect to happen to the frequency of a light wave if its wavelength were increased by a factor of 10?
Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional. If we increase the wavelength by a factor of 10, then the frequency will decrease to 1/10 of its initial value.
Predict the charge of the ion formed by each of the following elements. Express your answer as an ion. F
F⁻
Which form of electromagnetic radiation has the shortest wavelength?
Gamma (γ) rays
Arrange these waves from the left side (high frequency side) of the electromagnetic spectrum: FM Gamma Ray Microwaves Other radio waves X-Rays AM Infrared Visible Light UV Rays
Gamma Rays X-Rays UV Ways Visible Light Infrared Microwave FM AM Other radio waves
Empirical Chemical Formula
Gives the relative number of atoms of each element in a compound i.e. hydrogen peroxide → HO
What is the SI unit of mass?
Grams (g)
Anions have a much (smaller/greater) radii than their neutral counterparts.
Greater
In general, the more bonds that an atom forms, the (lesser/greater) the tendency of its orbitals to hybridize.
Greater
Short wavelengths inherently have (greater/less) energy than long wavelengths
Greater
The energy we calculate for a devised orbital is always (less than/equal to/greater than) the energy of the actual orbital.
Greater than (at best equal to)
The wavelength of orange light is about 590-635 nm and the wavelength of green light is about 520-560 nm. Which color of light is more energetic, orange or green?
Green light is more energetic than orange light. This is because green light has a shorter wavelength, and thus a higher frequency and a higher energy, than orange light.
What does each symbol represent? Hψ = Eψ
H = Hamiltonian operator (total kinetic energy of the electron within the atom) ψ = wave function E = actual energy of the electron (binding energy)
Which of the following two compounds has the strongest nitrogen-nitrogen bond? The shortest nitrogen-nitrogen bond? H₂NNH₂ or HNNH
HNNH
A rolling ball (does work/has energy) due to its motion. It (does work/has energy) when it collides with another ball.
Has energy; does work
Measures of temperature changes calculate _____, while measures of volume changes calculates _____.
Heat; work
What are the two categories of mixtures?
Heterogeneous and homogeneous
(Low/High) frequency light ejects electrons according to the photoelectric effect.
High
Water has an intrinsically (lower/higher) capacity to absorb heat without undergoing a large temperature change
Higher
The row number of a main-group element is equal to the _____ of that element.
Highest principal quantum number
Thermal energy always travels from ___ to ___.
Hot to cold
Precision
How close a series of measurements are to one another or how reproducible they are
Accuracy
How close the measured value is to the actual value
What are the most abundant elements in the universe?
Hydrogen and helium
Schrodinger Equation of the Atom of Interest
Hψ = Eψ
Hydronium Ion
H⁺ or H₃O⁺ (used interchangeably)
Express your answer as a chemical symbol. [Kr]5s²4d¹⁰5p¹
In
According the Coulomb's Law, the magnitude of the interaction between charged particles (decreases/increases) as the charges of the particles increases.
Increases
According to Coulomb's law, the attraction between a nucleus and an electron (decreases/increases) with increasing magnitude of nuclear charge.
Increases
According to the photoelectric theory, electric current (decreases/remains constant/increases) with light amplitude
Increases
According to the photoelectric theory, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons (decreases/increases) with light frequency
Increases
As we move right across the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) experienced by the electrons in the outermost principal energy level (decreases/increases), resulting in a stronger attraction between the outermost electrons and the nucleus, and smaller atomic radii.
Increases
If the interaction between the electrons of and nucleus of one atom and the electrons and nucleus of another (lowers/does not affect/increases) the energy of the system, a chemical bond is not formed.
Increases
Contrary to the predictions, photoelectric effect experiments showed that (decreasing/increasing) the light frequency increased the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, and increasing the light amplitude increased the current.
Increasing
Intensive Property
Independent of the amount of the substance i.e. 1 g of aluminum has the same density as 1 kg of aluminum
Most molecular compounds dissolved in water as (dissociated/intact) molecules.
Intact
The amplitude of the electric and magnetic field waves in light determines the light's _____.
Intensity/brightness
Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or molecular. HCN PtO₂ CCl₄ Ni₃ Cr₂O₃
Ionic: PtO₂, Cr₂O₃ Molecular: HCN, CCl₄, Ni₃
Potential energy (is not/is) the source of energy in an exothermic reaction.
Is
The electron interference pattern (is/is not) caused by single electrons interfering with themselves.
Is
If a chemical equation is multiplied by some factor, then ∆H(rxn) _____.
Is also multiplied by the same factor
Kinetic energy (is not/is) the source of energy in an exothermic reaction.
Is not
The electron interference pattern (is/is not) caused by pairs of electrons interfering with each other.
Is not
What does it mean to be invariant?
It does not vary from one sample to another
Why is the increased atmospheric CO₂ concerning?
It traps heat on earth and increases the average temperature
What is the SI unit of energy?
Joule (J)
What equation equates to the KE in E = KE + Φ?
KE = hv - Φ OR KE = 1/2mv²
How do you determine the kinetic energy of an emitted electron?
KE = hv - ∅
What does each symbols represent? KE = 1/2mv²
KE = kinetic energy m = electron mass v = frequency/velocity
What is the SI standard unit of temperature?
Kelvin (K)
What is the SI standard unit of mass?
Kilogram (kg)
Thermal energy is (kientic/potential).
Kinetic
Total energy is the sum of _____ and _____
Kinetic and potential energy
What type of energy is thermal? Why?
Kinetic because of the motion of individual atoms and molecules
Every digit is assumed to be certain except the _____, which is assumed to be uncertain by a factor of ±1
Last 5.213 →uncertain ↑ certain
Reactants
Left side of a chemical equation
Metallic character increases as you go (right/left) across a period and as you go (down/up) a group of the periodic table.
Left; down
According to the Uncertainty Principle, the more accurately you know the position of an electron (the smaller ∆x), the (less/more) accurately you know its velocity (the bigger ∆v), and vice versa.
Less
The lighter the atom, the _____ mass in 1 mol of atoms
Less
Except for helium, the number of valence electrons for any main-group element is equal to its _____.
Lettered group number
Who were the first to propose that matter was composed of small, indestructible particles?
Leucippus and Democritus
Planed Polarized Light
Light made up of electric field waves that oscillate in only one plane
A 59.0 mL sample of a 0.102 M potassium sulfate solution is mixed with 36.5 mL of a 0.114 M lead(II) acetate solution and the following precipitation reaction occurs: K₂SO₄(aq)+Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂(aq)→2KC₂H₃O₂(aq)+PbSO₄(s) The solid PbSO4 is collected, dried, and found to have a mass of 0.996 g . Determine the limiting reactant, the theoretical yield, and the percent yield.
Limiting: Pb(C₂H₃O₂)₂ Theoretical: 1.26 g Percent: 78.9%
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: 2 Electron geometry (VSEPR): _____ Hybridization scheme: sp Orbital shape and relative orientation: _____
Linear; two orbitals opposing each other with 180° angles in between them
What is the only liquid that is magnetic?
Liquid oxygen (gaseous oxygen cooled below -183 C°)
Type a formula for the compound that forms between lithium and each polyatomic ion: Carbonate (CO₃²⁻) Phosphate (PO₄³⁻) Hydrogen Phosphate (HPO₄²⁻) Acetate (C₂H₃O₂⁻)
Li₂CO₃ Li₃PO₄ Li₂HPO₄ LiC₂H₃O₂
What is the most repulsive electron group?
Lone pair − lone pair
VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
Lone pairs still repel other groups
Transitions between stationary states that are closer together produce a (shorter/longer) wavelength than transitions between stationary states that are farther apart.
Longer
When a weight falls, the system _____ energy while the surroundings _____ energy.
Loses; absorbs
When a quantum level is completely full, the overall potential energy of the electrons that occupy that level is particularly (low/stable/high).
Low
A given orbital will have (lower/higher) energy in a more electronegative atom.
Lower
In non-degenerate atoms (multi-electron), the lower the value of l within a principle level, the (lower/higher) the energy of the corresponding orbital.
Lower For a given value of n: E (s orbital) < E (p orbital) < E (d orbital) < E (f orbital)
If the interaction between the electrons and nulceus of one atom and the electrons and nucleus of another (lowers/does not affect/increases) the energy of the system, a chemical bond is formed.
Lowers
Electrons generally occupy the _____ level available.
Lowest
The particular type of hybridization that occurs is the one that yields the (lowest/highest) overall energy for the molecule.
Lowest
How does adding and removing electrons from the electron configuration of main group element differ from transitional?
Main group: remove in reverse order of filling Transitional: remove electrons in the highest n-value orbitals first, even if this does not correspond to the reverse order filling
What is the general conceptual plan for finding the mass of an element present in a given mass of a compound?
Mass compound → moles compound → moles element → mass element
The dense nucleus contains over 99.9% of the atom's _____, but occupies very little of its _____.
Mass; volume
Calorimetry
Measuring the thermal energy the reaction and surroundings exchange by observing the change in temperature of the surroundings
What is the SI standard unit of length?
Meter (m)
Name the structural formula. -CH₃
Methyl
Electrons occupy orbitals so as to (minimize/stabilize/maximize) the energy of the atom.
Minimize
A sample of beach sand contains sand particles of different colors, small pebbles, and also shells. Each component contains different metals and minerals. The pebbles and shells can easily be separated from the sand. Which term or terms could be used to describe this sample of sand? mixture heterogeneous mixture homogenous mixture solution pure chemical substance compound element
Mixture; heterogeneous mixture
A sample of gasoline contains various hydrocarbons, which comprise atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The hydrocarbons mix together uniformly to form gasoline. Which term or terms could be used to describe this sample of gasoline? mixture heterogeneous mixture homogenous mixture solution pure chemical substance compound element
Mixture; homogeneous mixture; solution
What is the mass percentage of Cl in CCL₂F₂?
Molar mass Cl = 12.01 + 2(35.45) + 2(19) = 120.91 Mass % = 2(35.45)/120.91 x 100% = 58.64%
What is the SI standard unit of amount?
Mole (mol)
What are atoms called once they are bound together in geometrical shapes?
Molecules
Odorants
Molecules that bind with olfactory receptors in the nose
Stoichiometric relationships are between (grams/moles).
Moles
The chemical equation gives us a relationship between the amounts in (grams/moles) of substances.
Moles
The coefficients in a chemical equation specify the relative amounts in _____ involved in the reaction.
Moles of each of the substances
The faster a wave is traveling, the _____ crests it will have.
More
The greater the electronegativity difference, the (less/more) polar the bond.
More
_____ digits means more certainty.
More
In HF, fluorine is (less/equally/more) electronegative than hydrogen. Why?
More It takes a greater share of the electron density in HF
A laser pulse with wavelength 510 nm contains 4.85 mJ of energy. How many photons are in the laser pulse?
N = 1.24×10¹⁶ E = hc/l # of photons = total energy/ energy per photon
A salt crystal has a mass of 0.15 mg. How many NaCl formula units does it contain?
N = 1.5 x 10¹⁸
Determine the empirical formula for the compound represented by the molecular formula. N₂O₄
NO₂
Fill in the blanks to complete the table. Symbol, Z, A, #p, #e−, #n, Charge Na: 11, -, -, 11, 12, - S²⁻: -, 32, -, -, -, 2- Cr³⁺: -, -, -, -, 28, 3+ -: 15, -, -, 15, 16, -
Na: 11, 23, 11, 11, 12, 0 S²⁻: 16, 32, 16, 18, 16, 2- Cr³⁺: 24, 52, 24, 21, 28, 3+ P: 15, 31, 15, 15, 16, 0
If reactants have a higher internal energy than the products, ∆E(system) is (negative/positive) and energy flows out of the system into the surroundings.
Negative
The interaction energy is usually (negative/positive) when the interacting atomic orbitals contain a total of two electrons that can spin-pair (orient with opposing spins).
Negative
When a formal charge cannot be avoided, (negative/positive) formal charge should reside on the most electronegative atom
Negative
According to Coulomb's Law, the potential energy associated with the interaction of unlike charges is (negative/positive) and becomes (more/less) negative as the particles get closer together.
Negative; more
A _____ or _____ bond order indicates that a bond will not form between the atoms.
Negative; zero
Atoms are charge-_____.
Neutral
Why don't low-frequency lights eject electrons?
No single photon has the minimum energy necessary to dislodge the electron
What are the least reactive elements? Why?
Noble gases; they have 8 valence electrons and full outer quantum levels making them stable
If the dipole moments of individual polar bonds come together to cancel each other out, the molecule is (nonpolar/polar).
Nonpolar
Determine if the structure is polar or nonpolar? Linear Bent Trigonal planar Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramid
Nonpolar Polar Nonpolar Nonpolar Polar
Determine whether each molecule given below is polar or nonpolar. SF₆ OF₂ CF₄ NF₃
Nonpolar Polar Nonpolar Polar
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Not loaded to capacity with hydrogen
Which of the following reactions is possible according to Dalton's atomic theory? N₂→O₂ N₂+O₂→2NO CO₂→NO₂ H₂O→H₂S
N₂+O₂→2NO
What forces an electron into a single state?
Observation
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: 6 Electron geometry (VSEPR): _____ Hybridization scheme: _____ Orbital shape and relative orientation: 4 in one plane and 2 perpendicular with 90° between them
Octahedral, sp³d²
Elemental Organization by John Newlands (1837-1898)
Octaves: properties of every 8th element was similar, like 8th notes in music
The principal quantum number of the d orbitals that fill across each row in the transition series is (one less than/equal to/one more than) the row number.
One less than i.e. row 4 has 3d; row 5 has 4d
Trans
Opposite side
How are Bohr's orbits different from planetary orbits?
Orbits exist only at specific, fixed distances from the nucleus
Elemental Organization by Henry Moseley (1887-1915)
Organized by atomic number to solve some issues with Mendeleev's method
Where are valence electrons in main-group elements?
Outermost principal energy level (shell)
Where are valence electrons in transition-group elements?
Outermost principal energy level (shell) and the outermost d level (shell)
What is the symbol for gaseous oxygen?
O₂
Which element does X represent in the following expression: ³²₁₅X?
P
What does each symbol represent? P = F/A or F = PA
P = pressure F = force A = area
A packet of light is called a _____.
Photon or quantum of light
Determine whether SF₄ is polar or nonpolar.
Polar
Determine whether S₂Cl₂ is polar or nonpolar.
Polar
Determine whether the molecule COF₂ is polar or nonpolar.
Polar
If the dipole moments of individual polar bonds come together to have a net dipole moment, the molecule is (nonpolar/polar).
Polar
The region around the more electronegative atom is electron rich than the less electronegative atom. This molecule is (nonpolar/polar).
Polar
Determine whether the bond between each of the following pairs of atoms is purely covalent, polar covalent, or ionic. C and N O and O N and S Ca and F
Polar covalent Purely covalent Polar covalent Ionic
The _____ of an electron is related to its particle nature.
Position Particles have well-defined positions
According to Coulomb's Law, the potential energy is (negative/positive) for the interaction of charges with the same sign.
Positive
∆E is (negative/positive) if energy flows into the system and out of the surroundings.
Positive
A gain in energy is shown as a _____ sign, while a loss of energy is shown as a _____ sign.
Positive (+); Negative (-)
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: In their compounds, metals have (negative/positive) oxidation states. Group 1A always has an oxidation state of _____, and Group 2A always has an oxidation state of _____.
Positive; +1; +2
When completely filled orbitals overlap, the interaction energy is (negative/positive) and no bond forms.
Postive
Chemical energy is (kinetic/potential).
Potential
Naming Molecular Compounds
Prefix* + name of first element + prefix + name of second element + -ide *if its one for the first element, mono- is omitted i.e. NO₂ = nitrogen dioxide N₂O = dinitrogen monoxide
Orbitals with the same n value are said to be in the same _____.
Principal level
What is used in place of trajectories in quantum mechanics?
Probability distribution maps
Bases
Produce OH⁻ in solution
Endogenous
Produced within the organism
Substances on the right side of a chemical equation are called _____.
Products
Name the structural formula. C₃H₆
Propene CH₂=CHCH₃
Elemental families have similar _____.
Properties
Name the structural formula. -CH₂CH₂CH₃
Propyl
Name the structural formula. C₃H₄
Propyne CH≡CCH₃
Which carries an electrical charge? Protons Neutrons Electrons
Protons and electrons
What are the subatomic particles that make up an atom?
Protons, neutrons, and electrons
All atoms of an element have the same number of _____, but not necessarily the same number of _____.
Protons; neutrons
A gas turbine is filled with pure methane for use as a fuel. Which term or terms could be used to describe the contents of this gas turbine? mixture heterogeneous mixture homogenous mixture solution pure chemical substance compound element
Pure chemical substance; compound
A filament of a light bulb is made from a pure sample of tungsten. Which term or terms could be used to describe this sample of tungsten? mixture heterogeneous mixture homogenous mixture solution pure chemical substance compound element
Pure chemical substance; element
What is the bond called when its electrons equally share electrons?
Purely covalent or nonpolar
A 45.6 mg sample of phosphorus reacts with selenium to form 133 mg of the compound. What is the empirical formula of the phosphorus selenide?
P₄Se₃ 133 mg - 45.6 mg = 87.4 mg Se (45.6 mg P)/(30.97 g/mol) = 1.47 mmol P (87.4 mg Se)/(78.96 g/mol) = 1.12 mmol Se 1.47/1.12 = 1.313 1.12/1.12 = 1 3(1.313) ≈ 4 3(1) = 3
Express your answer as a chemical symbol. [Kr]5s¹
Rb
Arrange the following elements in order of decreasing metallic character: Rb, N, Si, P, Ga, and Ge.
Rb, Ga, Ge, Si, P, N The metallic character of an element correlates with its macroscopic properties, such as heat and electric conductivity. Metallic character increases as you go left across a period and as you go down a group of the periodic table.
Substances on the left side of chemical equations are called _____.
Reactants
The color we see is the color that is (absorbed/reflected)
Reflected
According to the photoelectric theory, electric current (decreases/remains constant/increases) as light frequency increases
Remains constant
According to the photoelectric theory, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons (decreases/remains constant/increases) as light amplitude increases
Remains constant
What determines the geometry of electron groups?
Repulsions
Products
Right side of a chemical equation
Which electrons experience the greatest effective nuclear charge? Express your answer as a chemical formula. Mg, Al, S
S
Choose the element with the more negative (more exothermic) electron affinity from each of the following pairs. Mg or S H or Na C or As
S H C
Arrange the following atoms according to decreasing effective nuclear charge experienced by their valence electrons: S, Na, Al, and Si.
S, Si, Al, Na
A (salt/sugar) solution conducts electricity.
Salt
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
Same as alkanes except -Base name determined by base chain that contains the double or triple bond, numbered to give the lowest possible number -Alkenes end in -ene -Alkynes end in -yne -Insert a number indicating the position of the bond just before the base name (i.e. 2-methyl-2-pentene)
Cis
Same side
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated (loaded to capacity) with hydrogen
Arrange the following isoelectronic series in order of increasing atomic radius: Cl⁻, Sc³⁺, S²⁻, Ca²⁺, and K⁺.
Sc³⁺ Ca²⁺ K⁺ Cl⁻ S²⁻
What is the SI standard unit of time?
Second (s)
The particular combinations of standard atomic orbitals added together determine the _____ and _____ of the hybrid orbitals formed.
Shapes and energies
Transitions between orbitals that are further apart in energy produce a light that is higher in energy, therefore (shorter/longer) wavelength.
Shorter
Rotation about a (single/double) bond is relatively unrestricted.
Single
Cations have a much (smaller/greater) radii than their neutral counterparts.
Smaller
The smaller the amplitude, the _____ the intensity/brightness.
Smaller
The smaller the magnitude of the charge separation, the (smaller/larger) the dipole moment.
Smaller
What are the 3 states of matter?
Solid, liquid, gas
In polyatomic molecules, the presence of polar bonds (never/sometimes/always) results in a polar molecule.
Sometimes
Rules for Assigning Oxidation States: Oxidation numbers are (never/sometimes/always) fractional numbers.
Sometimes
Wave-Particle Duality of Light
Sometimes light appears to behave like a wave, at other times like a particle
Pick the larger species from each of the following pairs. Sr or Sr²⁺ P or P³⁻ Rh or Rh²⁺ S²⁻ or Ca²⁺
Sr P³⁻ Rh S²⁻
A we move down a column in the periodic table, the number of electrons in the outermost principal energy level (highest n value) (decrease/stays the same/increases).
Stays the same
How do you show a bond in a plane of paper? Going into paper? Coming out of paper?
Straight line Hatched wedge Solid wedge
As we move right across the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge (Zeff) experienced by the electrons in the outermost principal energy level increases, resulting in a (stronger/weaker) attraction between the outermost electrons and the nucleus, and smaller atomic radii.
Stronger
The higher the bond order, the (weaker/stronger) the bond.
Stronger
Which provides more information: empirical or structural formulas?
Structural
_____ determines properties.
Structure
Orbitals with the same n and l value are said to be in the same _____.
Sublevel
Molecules
Substances formed when two or more atoms come together in specific geometric arrangements
Strong Electrolytes
Substances that completely dissociate into ions when they dissolve in water
Electrolytes
Substances that dissolve in water to form solutions that conduct electricity
+q = -q = +w = -w = +∆E = -∆E =
System gains thermal energy System loses thermal energy Work done on the system Work done by the system Energy flows into the system Energy flows out of the system
Noble Gas Notation with Main Elements
Take the noble gas preceding the element, then add the other electrons (a.k.a valence electrons) not included by the noble gas [Noble Gas] other electrons i.e. Si → [Ne] 3s²3p² Ca → [Ar] 4s² (also written as Ca²⁺)
Chemical changes are often evidenced by _____ or _____ changes.
Temperature; color
Hydrogen atoms are always (central/terminal).
Terminal
What type of atoms are more electronegative atoms considered to be in a molecular Lewis structure?
Terminal
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: 4 Electron geometry (VSEPR): _____ Hybridization scheme: _____ Orbital shape and relative orientation: 3 in one plane, 1 in another with 109.5° angle
Tetrahedral; sp³
f Block Elements
The Lanthanides (elements 58-71) and Actinides (elements 90-103)
What determines the number of electron groups in a molecule?
The Lewis structure
Work
The action of a force through a distance
Theoretical Yield
The amount of product that can be made in a chemical reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant
Quantification
The assignment of a number to some property of a substance or a thing
Effective Nuclear Charge
The average (net charge) experienced by an electron
What determines the Earth's average temperature?
The balance between incoming and outgoing energy from the sun
What are endorphins?
The body's natural pain killer
Energy
The capacity to do work
Why don't we see the wavelength characteristics of electrons?
The de Broglie wavelength and particle mass are inversely proportional. The inverse relationship is why we don't notice any wavelike behavior for the macroscopic objects we encounter in everyday life
Nonbinding Atomic Radius (van der Waals Radius)
The distance between nonbinding atoms that are in direct contact
Radioactivity
The emission of small energetic particles from the core of certain unstable atoms
Natural Abundance
The fact that many isotopes have relatively constant natural occurance
Where do you find the inner electron configurations?
The final column of the periodic table *The final element on the row above the element you are configuring is its inner electron configurations
s Block Elements
The first 2 rows of the periodic table plus helium (He)
Heat
The flow of energy caused by a temperature difference
Reduction
The gain of electrons
Molecular Geometry
The geometrical arrangement of the atoms
Electron Geometry
The geometrical arrangement of the electron groups
Heat at Constant Volume
The heat given off
The reliability of a measurement relies on _____.
The instrument used to measure
Oxidation
The loss of electrons
Ground State
The lowest energy state of an electron
Solvent
The major component of a solution
Molar Mass
The mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element
Solute
The minor component of a solution
What determines the geometry of a molecule?
The number of electron groups on the central atom
What is the atomic number representing?
The number of protons
What particle defines an element?
The number of protons
Valence Band
The occupied molecular orbitals
What is a chemical bond in valence bond theory?
The overlap between two half-filled atomic orbitals (AOs)
Equivalence Point
The point in a titration when the number of moles of OH⁻ equals the number of moles of H⁺ in a solution
What does deterministic mean?
The present determines the future
Orbital Phase
The sign (+ or -) of the amplitude of a wave
What causes sublevel splitting?
The spatial distribution of electrons within a sublevel
Thermodynamics
The study of energy and its interconversions
Atomic Spectroscopy
The study of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed and emitted by atoms -When an atom absorbs energy, it often remits that energy as light -Atoms of each element emit light of a characteristic color -Contains various wavelengths
Thermochemistry
The study of the relationships between chemistry and energy
If a chemical equation can be expressed as the sum of a series of steps, the ∆H(rxn) for the overall equation is _____.
The sum of the heats of reactions for each step
What does ∆E(rxn) represent?
The total energy change that occurs during a reaction
Conduction Band
The unoccupied orbitals
An atom is electrically neutral when...
There is the same number of protons and electrons
Why do dipole moments cancel out?
They are vector quantities
Why do chemical bonds form?
They lower the potential energy of the charged particles that compose atoms
What happens to the atomic radii of transition elements as you move across the rows? Why?
They stay roughly constant; The number of electrons on the outermost principal level is nearly constant
Planck found that the electromagnetic radiation emitted by blackbodies could not be explained by classical physics, which postulated that matter could absorb or emit any quantity of electromagnetic radiation. Planck observed that matter actually absorbed or emitted energy only in whole-number multiples of the value hν, where h is Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s is the frequency of the light absorbed or emitted. Why was this so shocking?
This was a shocking discovery, because it challenged the idea that energy was continuous, and could be transferred in any amount. The reality, which Planck discovered, is that energy is not continuous but quantized—meaning that it can only be transferred in individual "packets" (or particles) of the size hv. Each of these energy packets is known as a quantum (plural: quanta).
According to Rutherford's experiment, electrons are spread _____ in the atom.
Throughout the empty space around the nucleus
Express your answer as a chemical symbol. [Ar]4s²3d²
Ti
Titanium reacts with iodine to form titanium(III) iodide, emitting heat. 2Ti(s) + 3I₂(g) → 2TiI₃(s) ΔH°(rxn) = -839 kJ Determine the masses of titanium and iodine that react if 1.60 × 10³ kJ of heat is emitted by the reaction. Express your answer using three significant figures.
Ti = 183 g I = 1450 g
Radial Distribution Function
Total radial probability (at given r) = (probability/unit volume) x volume of shell at r The total probability of finding the electron within a thin spherical shell at a distance r from the nucleus
What type of elements generally make ionic compounds that produce more than one type of ions?
Transition metals
Elemental Organization by Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849)
Triads: groups of 3 elements with similar properties
True or false: Electrons are attracted to protons.
True
True or false: Electrons are much lighter than neutrons.
True
True or false: If an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons, it will be charge-neutral.
True
True or false: Increasing the frequency of low frequency light increases the energy of each photon and allows it to dislodge electrons
True
True or false: Light shares many characteristics with electrons. (i.e. wave-particle duality)
True
True or false: measurements can be precise, but not acurate
True
True or false: the number of sublevels is equal to n.
True
Quantum particles like electrons can be in _____ states at the same time.
Two different
The principal quantum number of the f orbitals that fill across each row in the transition series is (two less than/equal to/two more than) the row number.
Two less than i.e. row 6 has 4f; row 7 has 5f
Objects or systems with high potential energy tend to be (stable/unstable).
Unstable
Atomic radius is largely determined by the _____.
Valence electrons
The chemical properties of an element depends on it _____.
Valence electrons
The _____ of an electron is related to its wave nature.
Velocity Waves do not have well-defined positions
Particles move in a trajectory that is determined by the particle's _____, _____, and _____
Velocity, position, the forces acting on it
Amplitude
Vertical height of a crest or depth of a trough
When molecular orbitals are calculated mathematically, it is actually the _____ corresponding to the orbitals that are combined.
Wave functions
In a covalently bonded molecular compound, the interactions between molecules −intermolecular forces− are generally much (weaker/stronger) than the bonding interactions within a molecule −intramolecular forces−.
Weaker
Weak Electrolytes
Weakly conduct electricity
Diffraction
When a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wavelengths, it bends around the light
Chemical Change
When atoms rearrange and transform the original substance into another substance
Hund's Rule
When filling degenerate orbitals, electrons fill them singly first, with parallel spins
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
When two atoms with identical electronegativities form a covalent bond and equally share electrons
Thermal Equilibrium
When two objects reach the same temperature after energy transfer
Destructive Interference
When two waves of are out of phase, resulting in the crests and troughs cancelling each other out
Constructive Interference
When two waves of the same amplitude interact and are in phase, resulting in a wave that is twice the amplitude
In a gas, the composite particles are _____, and can _____.
Widely spaced; be compressed and flow
Use molecular orbital theory to predict whether or not each of the following molecules or ions should exist in a relatively stable form. Li₂ Li₂²⁻ Be₂²⁺ C₂²⁺
Will Will not Will Will Any molecule with a bond order greater than 0 should exist in a relatively stable form. → Bond order = (# of electrons in bonding MOs) -(# of electrons in antibonding MOs)/2
What is the electron configuration of Cl?
[Ne] 3s²3p⁵
What is the electron configuration for Cl⁻? P³⁻? K⁺? Mo³⁺?
[Ne]3s²3p⁶ [Ne]3s²3p⁶ [Ne]3s²3p⁶ [Kr]4d³
Assign oxidation states to each atom in each of the following species. a. He b. Ag⁺ c. CaF₂ d. NH₃ e. CO₃²⁻ f. V₂O₇⁴⁻
a. 0 b. +1 c. +2, -1 d. -3, +1 e. +4, -2 f. +5, -2
What is the molarity of Cl⁻ in each solution? a. 0.200 M NaCl b. 0.150 M SrCl₂ c. 0.110 M AlCl₃
a. 0.200 M b. 0.300 M c. 0.330 M
Indicate which orbitals overlap to form the σ bonds in ICN. a. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on I; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N b. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp³ orbital on C and a p orbital on I; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp² orbital on C and a p orbital on N c. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp² orbital on C and a p orbital on I; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N d. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp² orbital on C and a p orbital on I; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp³ orbital on C and a p orbital on N
a. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on I; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N
Indicate which orbitals overlap to form the σ bonds in HCN. a. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and an s orbital on H; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N b. 1 σ bond forms between a p orbital on C and an s orbital on H; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N c. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and an s orbital on H; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a hybrid sp orbital on N d. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp² orbital on C and an s orbital on H; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N
a. 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and an s orbital on H; 1 σ bond forms between a hybrid sp orbital on C and a p orbital on N
Balance each of the following chemical equations. Give your answer as coefficients separated by commas. a. K₂SO₃ (aq) + MnCl₂ (aq) → MnSO₃ (s) +KCl (aq) b. NH₄NO₃ (aq) → N₂O (g) + H₂O (l) c. HClO₄ (l) + P₂O₅ (s) → Cl₂O₇ (l) + HPO₃ (s) d. BaCl₂ (aq) + H₃PO₄ (aq) → Ba₃(PO₄)₂ (s) + HCl (aq)
a. 1, 1, 1, 2 b. 1, 1, 2 c. 2, 1, 1, 2 d. 3, 2, 1, 6
Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes (Mg-24, Mg-25, and Mg-26). The atomic mass and natural abundance of Mg-24 are 23.9850 amu and 79 %, respectively. The atomic mass and natural abundance of Mg-25 are 24.9858 amu and 10 %, respectively. a. Find the natural abundance of Mg-26. b. Find the atomic mass of Mg-26.
a. 11% b. 26 amu
An element has four naturally occurring isotopes with the masses and natural abundances given here. Isotope-Mass (amu)-Abundance (%) 1 135.90714 0.1900 2 137.90599 0.2500 3 139.90543 88.43 4 141.90924 11.13 a. Find the atomic mass of the element. b. What element is this?
a. 140.1 amu b. Cerium
Which of the following combinations of n and l represent impossible orbits? a. 1p b. 2p c. 3p d. 5s
a. 1p
Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom in C₂H₂ (skeletal structure HCCH). a. 1st C (sp); 2nd C (sp) b. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp²) c. 1st C (sp³); 2nd C (sp³) d. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp³)
a. 1st C (sp); 2nd C (sp)
Balance the equations: a. 4N₂H₄ (g) + _N₂O₄ (g) → _N₂ (g) + _H₂O (g) b. _N₂H₄ (g) + 8N₂O₄ (g) → _N₂ (g) + _H₂O (g) c. _N₂H₄ (g) + _N₂O₄ (g) → _N₂ (g) + 10H₂O (g) d. 4.5N₂H₄ (g) + _N₂O₄ (g) → _N₂ (g) + _H₂O (g) e. _N₂H₄ (g) + 3.9N₂O₄ (g) → _N₂ (g) + _H₂O (g) f. _N₂H₄ (g) + _N₂O₄ (g) → 12.7N₂ (g) + _H₂O (g)
a. 2, 6, 8 b. 16, 24, 32 c. 5, 2.5, 7.5 d. 2.3, 6.8, 9 e. 7.8, 12, 16 f. 8.47, 4.23, 16.9
Complete and balance each of the following equations for combustion reactions. Express your answer as a chemical equation. Identify all of the phases in your answer. a. C₂H₆(g)+O₂(g)→ b. C(s)+O₂(g)→ c. CS₂(s)+O₂(g)→ d. C₃H₈O(l)+O₂(g)→
a. 2C₂H₆ (g) + 7O₂ (g) → 4CO₂ (g) + 6H₂O (g) b. C (s) + O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) c. CS₂ (s) + 3O₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) + 2SO₂ (g) d. 2C₃H₈O (l) + 9O₂ (g) → 6CO₂ (g) + 8H₂O (g)
Suppose that, in an alternate universe, the possible values of ml were the integer values including 0 ranging from −l−1 to l+1 (instead of simply −l to +l). How many orbitals would exist in each of the following sublevels? a. s sublevel b. p sublevel c. d sublevel
a. 3 b. 5 c. 7
Calculate how many moles of NH₃ form when each quantity of reactant completely reacts according to the equation: 3N₂H₄(l)→4NH₃(g)+N₂(g) a. 2.9 mol N₂H₄ b. 4.25 mol N₂H₄ c. 66.8 g N₂H₄ d. 4.92 kg N₂H₄
a. 3.9 moles NH₃ b. 5.7 moles NH₃ c. 2.78 moles NH₃ d. 205 moles NH₃
Suppose that in an alternate universe, the possible values of l were the integer values from 0 to n (instead of 0 to n−1). Assuming no other differences from this universe, how many orbitals would exist in each of the following levels? a. n=1 b. n=2 c. n=6
a. 4 orbitals b. 9 orbitals c. 49 orbitals
For the reaction shown, compute the theoretical yield of product (in moles) for each of the following initial amounts of reactants. Mn(s)+O₂(g)→MnO₂(s) a. 5 mol Mn, 5 mol O₂ b. 5 mol Mn, 8 mol O₂ c. 28.5 mol Mn, 44.4 mol O₂
a. 5 b. 5 c. 28.5
Sulfuric acid dissolves aluminum metal according to the following reaction: 2Al(s)+3H₂SO₄(aq)→Al₂(SO₄)₃(aq)+3H₂(g) Suppose you wanted to dissolve an aluminum block with a mass of 14.2 g. a. What minimum mass of H₂SO₄ would you need? b. What mass of H₂ gas would be produced by the complete reaction of the aluminum block?
a. 77.4 g b. 1.58 g
Suppose that 23 g of each of the following substances is initially at 29.0 °C. What is the final temperature of each substance upon absorbing 2.40 kJ of heat? Express your answer using two significant figures. a. Gold (C = 129 J/kg·°C) b. Silver (C = 235 J/kg·°C) c. Aluminum (C = 897 J/kg·°C) d. Water (C = 4184 J/kg·°C)
a. 840 °C b. 470 °C c. 140 °C d. 54 °C
_____ groups the hydrogen atoms together with the carbon atom to which they are bonded. They may show some of the bonds or none at all. a. A condensed structural formula b. A structural formula c. A carbon skeleton formula d. A space-filling model
a. A condensed structural formula
Determine whether each of the following transitions in the hydrogen atom corresponds to absorption or emission of energy. a. n = 2 → n = 4 b. n = 3 → n = 1 c. n = 4 → n = 3
a. Absorption b. Emission c. Emission
For the reaction shown, find the limiting reactant for each of the following initial amounts of reactants. 4Al(s)+3O₂(g)→2Al₂O₃(s) a. 1 mol Al, 1 mol O₂ b. 11.6 mol Al, 9.9 mol O₂ c. 4 mol Al, 2.6 mol O₂ d. 16 mol Al, 13 mol O₂
a. Al b. Al c. O₂ d. Al
Which of the following reactions are redox reactions? What are the oxidizing and reducing agents? a. Al(s) + 3Ag⁺(aq) →Al³⁺(aq) + 3Ag(s) b. SO³(g) + H₂O(l) → H₂SO₄(aq) c. Ba(s) + Cl₂(g) → BaCl₂(s) d. Mg(s) + Br₂(l) → MgBr₂(s)
a. Al → reducing; Ag → oxidizing b. Ba → reducing; Cl → oxidizing c. Mg → reducing; Br → oxidizing
Ethanol can be made from the fermentation of crops and has been used as a fuel additive to gasoline. a. Write a balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol. b. Calculate ΔH°(rxn). Express your answer using five significant figures.
a. C₂H₅OH(l) + 3O₂(g) → 2CO₂(g) + 3H₂O b. -1234.8 kJ
Complete and balance each of the following equations for gas-evolution reactions. a. HCl(aq) + KHCO₃(aq) → b. HC₂H₃O₂(aq) + NaHSO₃(aq) → c. (NH₄)₂SO₄(aq) + KOH(aq)→
a. HCl(aq) + KHCO₃(aq) → KCL(aq) + CO₂(g) +H₂O(l) b. HC₂H₃O₂(aq) + NaHSO₃(aq) → NaC₂H₃O₂(aq) + SO₂(g) + H₂O(l) c. (NH₄)₂SO₄(aq) + 2KOH(aq)→ K₂SO₄(aq) +2NH₃(g) + 2H₂O(l)
Complete and balance each of the following equations for acid-base reactions. a. HI(aq) + LiOH(aq) → b. H₂SO₄(aq) + LiOH (aq)→ c. HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)₂(aq) →
a. HI(aq) + LiOH(aq) → LiI(aq) + H₂O(l) b. H₂SO₄(aq) + LiOH (aq)→ Li₂SO₄(aq) + 2H₂O(l) c. 2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)₂(aq) → BaCl₂(aq) +2H₂o(l)
Write balanced complete ionic equation for each equation below. a. HCl(aq) + LiOH(aq) → H₂O(l) + LiCl(aq) b. MgS(aq) + CuCl₂(aq) → CuS(s) + MgCl₂(aq) c. NaOH(aq) + HNO₃(aq) → H₂O(l) + NaNO₃(aq) d. Na₃PO₄(aq) + NiCl₂(aq) → Ni₃(PO₄)₂(s) + NaCl(aq)
a. H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) + Li⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l) + Li⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) b. Mg²⁺(aq) + S²⁻(aq) + Cu²⁺(aq) +2Cl⁻ → CuS(s) + Mg²⁺(aq) + 2Cl⁻(aq) c. Na⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) + H⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq) → H₂O(l) + Na⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq) d. 6Na⁺(aq) + 2PO₄³⁻(aq) + 3Ni²⁺(aq) + 6Cl⁻(aq) → Ni₃(PO₄)₂(s) + 6Na⁺(aq) + 6Cl⁻(aq)
Magnesium oxide can be made by heating magnesium metal in the presence of the oxygen. The balanced equation for the reaction is 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s). When 10.0 g Mg is allowed to react with 10.5 g O₂, 11.8 g MgO is collected. a. Determine the limiting reactant for the reaction. b. Determine the theoretical yield for the reaction. c. Determine the percent yield for the reaction.
a. Mg b. 16.6 g MgO c. 71%
Complete and balance each of the following equations. If no reaction occurs, write no reaction. a. LiI(aq) + BaS(aq)→ b. KCl(aq) + CaS(aq)→ c. KBr(aq)+Na₂CO₃(aq)→ d. NaOH(aq)+(NH₄)₂SO₄(aq)→
a. No reaction b. No reaction c. No reaction d. 2NaOH(aq)+(NH₄)2SO₄(aq) → Na₂SO₄(aq) + 2NH₃(g) + 2H₂O(l)
When we shine light with a frequency of 6.20×10¹⁴ Hz on a mystery metal, we observe the ejected electrons have a kinetic energy of 3.28×10⁻²⁰ J Calcium, 4.60×10⁻¹⁹ Tin, 7.08×10⁻¹⁹ Sodium, 3.78×10⁻¹⁹ Hafnium, 6.25×10⁻¹⁹ Samarium, 4.33×10⁻¹⁹ Based on this information, what is the most likely identity of our mystery metal? a. Sodium, Na B. Calcium, Ca C. Tin, Sn D. Samarium, Sm
a. Sodium, Na Since we know the frequency of the incident light and the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, we can find the work function of our mystery metal using the following equation: E =hν=KE +Φ We can rearrange the equation so that we are solving for Φ: Φ=hν−KE
Determine the electron geometry, molecular geometry, and idealized bond angles for each of the following molecules. a. CF₄ b. NF₃ c. OF₂ d. H₂S
a. Tetrahedral, tetrahedral, 109.5° b. Tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, 109.5° c. Tetrahedral, bent, 109.5° d. Tertahedral, bent, 109.5°
Determine whether each of the following compounds is soluble or insoluble: a. PbCl₂ b. CaCO₃ c. K₃PO₄ d. BaSO₄
a. insoluble b. insoluble c. soluble d. insoluble
Sulfur and oxygen form both sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide. When samples of these were decomposed the sulfur dioxide produced 3.42 g oxygen and 3.43 g sulfur, while the sulfur trioxide produced 7.50 g oxygen and 5.00 g sulfur. a. Calculate the mass of oxygen per gram of sulfur for sulfur dioxide. b. Calculate the mass of oxygen per gram of sulfur for sulfur trioxide.
a. m = 0.997 g oxygen/1 g sulfur b. m = 1.50 g oxygen/1 g sulfur
Which are physical and which are chemical properties? a. pungent odor b. very reactive c. bluish color d. gas at room temperature e. decomposes on exposure to ultraviolet light
a. physical b. chemical c. physical d. physical e. chemical
Determine the geometry of SF₄ using VSEPR theory. a. seesaw b. bent c. trigonal planar d. linear
a. seesaw
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry HCN. a. sp b. sp² c. sp³ d. sp³d e. sp³d²
a. sp
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry COCl₂ (carbon is the central atom). a. sp² b. sp³ c. sp³d d. sp³d²
a. sp²
Classify each of the following as a strong electrolyte or nonelectrolyte. a. Na₂SO₄ b. C₁₁H₂₂O₁₁ c. NaOH d. NaCl
a. strong b. non c. strong d. strong
Write an equation for the formation of the following compounds from their elements in its standard states. a. HCl(g) b. CO₂ c. Fe₂O₃ d. C₂H₂ Express your answer as a chemical equation. Identify all of the phases in your answer.
a. ½H₂(g) + ½Cl₂(g) → HCl (g) b. C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g) c. 4Fe(s) + 3O₂(g) → 2Fe₂O₃(s) d. 2C(s) + H₂(g) → C₂H₂(g)
For each of the following, determine the value of ΔH₂ in terms of ΔH₁. a. A+B→2C, ΔH₁ 1/2A+1/2B→C, ΔH₂=? b A+1/2B→C, ΔH₁ 2A+B→2C, ΔH₂=?
a. ∆H₁/2 b. 2∆H₁ c. -∆H₁/2
According to Coulomb's law, rank the interactions between charged particles from lowest potential energy to highest potential energy. a. a 1+ charge and a 1- charge separated by 100 pm b. a 2+ charge and a 1- charge separated by 100 pm c. a 1+ charge and a 1+ charge separated by 100 pm d. a 1+ charge and a 1- charge separated by 200 pm
b, a, d, c
Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom in C₂H₄ (skeletal structure H₂CCH₂). a. 1st C (sp); 2nd C (sp) b. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp²) c. 1st C (sp³); 2nd C (sp³) d. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp³)
b. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp²)
Which of the following are equal to 5×10¹⁰? a. 50×10¹¹ b. 500×10⁸ c. 50×10⁹ d. 0.5×10¹¹
b. 500×10⁸ c. 50×10⁹ d. 0.5×10¹¹
_____ shows not only the numbers of each kind of atoms, but also how the atoms are bonded together. a. A condensed structural formula b. A structural formula c. A carbon skeleton formula d. A space-filling model
b. A structural formula
If it is a pure substance, classify it as an element or a compound. a. Iron is an compound, carbon monoxide is a element. b. Iron is an element, carbon monoxide is a compound. c. Both are elements. d. Both are compounds.
b. Iron is an element, carbon monoxide is a compound.
In which cases do you expect deviations from the idealized bond angle? Check all that apply. a. CF₄ b. NF₃ c. OF₂ d. H₂S
b. NF₃ c. OF₂ d. H₂S
If it is a mixture, classify it as homogeneous or heterogeneous. a. Wine is heterogeneous, beef stew is homogeneous. b. Wine is homogeneous, beef stew is heterogeneous. c. Both are homogeneous. d. Both are heterogeneous
b. Wine is homogeneous, beef stew is heterogeneous.
Determine the geometry of S₂Cl₂ using VSEPR theory. a. seesaw b. bent c. trigonal planar d. linear
b. bent
Indicate which orbitals overlap to form the σ bonds in H₂S. a. between a hybrid sp orbital on S and an s orbital on H b. between a hybrid sp³ orbital on S and an s orbital on H c. between a hybrid sp² orbital on S and an s orbital on H d. between a p orbital on S and an s orbital on H
b. between a hybrid sp³ orbital on S and an s orbital on H
Which of the following hybridization schemes allows the formation of at least one π bond? a. sp³ b. sp² c. sp³d²
b. sp²
Which of the following hybridization schemes allows the central atom to form more than four bonds? a. sp³ b. sp³d c. sp²
b. sp³d The only hybridization scheme that allows the central atom to form more than four bonds is sp³d as it allows the atom to form five bonds because the sp³d hybridization scheme involves five atomic orbitals.
Indicate the hybridization about each interior atom in C₂H₆ (skeletal structure H₃CCH₃). a. 1st C (sp); 2nd C (sp) b. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp²) c. 1st C (sp³); 2nd C (sp³) d. 1st C (sp²); 2nd C (sp³)
c. 1st C (sp³); 2nd C (sp³)
_____ shows the carbon-carbon bonds only as lines. Each end or bend of a line represents a carbon atom bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as necessary to form a total of four bonds. a. A condensed structural formula b. A structural formula c. A carbon skeleton formula d. A space-filling model
c. A carbon skeleton formula
Which set of quantum numbers cannot occur together to specify an orbital? a. n=3,l=1,mι=−1 b. n=4,l=2,mι=0 c. n=3,l=2,mι=3 d. n=2,l=1,mι=−1
c. n=3,l=2,mι=3
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry SO₃²⁻. a. sp b. sp² c. sp³ d. sp³d e. sp³d²
c. sp³
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry I₃⁻. a. sp² b. sp³ c. sp³d d. sp³d²
c. sp³d
Determine the geometry of COF₂ using VSEPR theory. a. seesaw b. bent c. trigonal planar d. linear
c. trigonal planar
Which element block makes up the transition-group elements?
d and f
_____ shows the relative size of the atoms that are bonded together. This model or ball-and-stick model are three-dimensional representations that show how atoms are bonded together. a. A condensed structural formula b. A structural formula c. A carbon skeleton formula d. A space-filling model
d. A space-filling model
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry BrF₃. a. sp b. sp² c. sp³ d. sp³d e. sp³d²
d. sp³d
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry BrF₅. a. sp² b. sp³ c. sp³d d. sp³d²
d. sp³d²
What replaced the Bohr model?
de Brogile Model
Select the correct hybridization for the central atom based on the electron geometry PF₆⁻. a. sp b. sp² c. sp³ d. sp³d e. sp³d²
e. sp³d²
Based on the ionization energies of the alkali metals, which alkali metal would you expect to undergo the most exothermic reaction with fluorine gas? a. K b. Cs c. Rb d. Li e. Na f. Fr Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
f. Fr 2Fr(s)+F₂(g)→2FrF(s)
What does each symbol represent? hv = ∅
h = Planck's constant v = frequency ∅ = binding energy or emitted electron
Sublevel is specified by (n/l/ml).
l
What quantum number determines shape of the orbital?
l
While hydrogen atoms' orbital energy depends only on n, multi-electron atoms depend on the value of (n/l/ml).
l
What are the possible values of l when n = 1?
l = 0
If n =1, what are the following values? l = ml = Orbital = number of electrons in the orbital number of electrons in the shell
l = 0 ml = 0 1s orbital 2 electrons 2 electrons
If n =2, what are the following values? l = ml = Orbital = number of electrons in the orbital number of electrons in the shell
l = 0, 1 ml = -1, 0, 1 1s and 3p orbitals 2 electrons in s, 6 in p 8 electrons
If n =3, what are the following values? l = ml = Orbital = number of electrons in the orbital number of electrons in the shell
l = 0, 1, 2 ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 1s, 3p, 5d orbitals 2 electrons in s, 6 in p, 10 in d 18 electrons
If n =4, what are the following values? l = ml = Orbital = number of electrons in the orbital number of electrons in the shell
l = 0, 1, 2, 3 ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 1s, 3p, 5d, 7f orbitals 2 electrons in s, 6 in p, 10 in d, 14 in f 32 electrons
What are the possible values of l when n = 2?
l = 0,1
What are the possible values of l when n = 3?
l = 0,1,2
What are the possible values of l when n = 4?
l = 0,1,2,3
Silver is composed of two naturally occurring isotopes: Ag−107 (51.839%) and Ag−109. The ratio of the masses of the two isotopes is 1.0187. What is the mass of Ag−107?
m = 106.91 amu
A hydrogen-filled balloon was ignited and 2.30 g of hydrogen reacted with 18.4 g of oxygen. How many grams of water vapor were formed? (Assume that water vapor is the only product.)
m = 20.7g
The mass ratio of sodium to fluorine in sodium fluoride is 1.21:1. A sample of sodium fluoride produced 28.2 g of sodium upon decomposition. How much fluorine (in grams) was formed?
m = 23.3 g
What is the SI unit for wavelength?
meters (m)
What is the SI unit of velocity?
meters per second (m/s)
Which quantum number specifies orbital orientation?
ml
What are the possible values of mι when l = 1?
mι = -1,0,1
What are the possible values of mι when l = 2?
mι = -2,-1,0,1,2
What are the possible values of mι when l = 3?
mι = -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3
What are the possible values of mι when l = 0?
mι = 0
Primary level is specified by (n/l/ml).
n
Which quantum number determines the size and energy of the orbital?
n
An electron in the n=7 level of the hydrogen atom relaxes to a lower energy level, emitting light of 397 nm. What is the value of n for the level to which the electron relaxed?
n = 2
What are the possible values of l?
n-1, including 0
What is the unit of wavelength?
nm
Which of the following outer electron configurations would you expect to belong to a reactive metal? Check all that apply. ns²np⁵ ns²np² ns² ns²np⁶
ns²
Which of the following outer electron configurations would you expect to belong to a noble gas? Check all that apply. ns²np⁵ ns²np² ns² ns²np⁶
ns² ns²np⁶
Which of the following outer electron configurations would you expect to belong to a nonreactive metal? Check all that apply. ns²np⁵ ns²np² ns² ns²np⁶
ns²np⁵
Which of the following outer electron configurations would you expect to belong to a metalloid? Check all that apply. ns²np⁵ ns²np² ns² ns²np⁶
ns²np⁵ ns²np²
The number of orbitals in a level is equal to _____.
n² n=1 → 1 orbital n=2 → 4 orbitals n=3 → 9 orbitals
What does each symbol represent? What does it find? q = mC(s)∆T
q = heat (J) m = mass (g) C(s) = specific heat capacity (J/g°C) ∆T = temperature change Quantify the relationship between the amount of heat added to a given amount of the substance and the corresponding temperature increase
What does each symbol represent? q = -q
q = heat of the system -q = heat of the surrounding
What does each symbol represent? q = C x ∆T
q= heat transfer C= heat capacity ∆T= change in temperature
Which element blocks make up the main-group elements?
s and p
What are the letter designations when l=1, l=2, l=3, and l=4?
s, p, d, f
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: 3 Electron geometry (VSEPR): trigonal planar Hybridization scheme: _____ Orbital shape and relative orientation: _____
sp²; three orbits in the same plane with 120° between them
Fill in the Chart: Number of electron groups: 5 Electron geometry (VSEPR): Trigonal bipyramidal Hybridization scheme: _____ Orbital shape and relative orientation: _____
sp³d; 3 in one plane with 120° between them and 2 perpendicular with 90° between it and the others
Which parts of acetylsalicylic acid are rigid? the C−C bonds the C=O bonds the C−H bonds the ring structure the C−O bonds
the C=O bonds and the ring structure
Calculate the frequency of the light emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from n=4→n=3.
v = 1.60 x 10¹⁴ s⁻¹ 1. To calculate the frequency, you should have started by using the equation ΔE=−2.18×10⁻¹⁸ J(1nf²−1ni²) where ΔE is the change in energy and n is the energy level. 2. Once you had the energy in joules, you could solve for frequency ν using the equation E=hν where h is Planck's constant.
The energy required to ionize magnesium is 738 kJ/mol. What minimum frequency of light is required to ionize magnesium?
v = 1.85 x 10¹⁵ s⁻¹
A proton in a linear accelerator has a de Broglie wavelength of 143 pm. What is the speed of the proton?
v = 2.77 x 10³ m/s You can use the same method to calculate the speed or wavelength of other subatomic particles such as muons and neutrons.
Calculate the frequency of the light emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from n=5→n=1.
v = 3.16 x 10¹⁵ s⁻¹
Calculate the frequency of the light emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from n=6→n=5.
v = 4.02 x 10¹³ s⁻¹ You may have noticed that the frequency of the light emitted for the transition from n=4 to n=3 calculated in Part A is larger than the value calculated here for the transition from n=6 to n=5. This is because the energy levels get closer together as n increases.
Calculate the frequency of the light emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from n=5→n=4.
v = 7.40 x 10¹³ s⁻¹ The frequency of the light emitted is proportional to the energy difference between the orbitals in the transitions. As n increases, the energy levels become closer together such that the energy difference is smaller, corresponding to a lower frequency.
What does each symbol represent? v = c/λ
v = frequency c = speed of light λ = wavelength
What does each symbol represent? w = -P∆V
w = work -P = negative pressure ∆V = change in volume
There are two different compounds of sulfur and fluorine. In SF₆, the mass of fluorine per gram of sulfur is 3.55 g F/g S. In the other compound, SFⁿ, the mass of fluorine per gram of sulfur is 1.18 g F/g S. What is the value of X for the second compound?
x = 2
When 1 mol of a fuel is burned at constant pressure, it produces 3453 kJ of heat and does 10 kJ of work. What is the value of ΔE for the combustion of the fuel? What is the value of ΔH for the combustion of the fuel? Express your answer using four significant figures.
ΔE = -3463 kJ ΔH = -3453 kJ
Mothballs are composed primarily of the hydrocarbon naphthalene (C₁₀H₈). When 1.025 g of naphthalene is burned in a bomb calorimeter, the temperature rises from 24.25 °C to 32.33 °C. Find ΔE(rxn) for the combustion of naphthalene. The heat capacity of the calorimeter, determined in a separate experiment, is 5.11kJ/°C. Express the change in energy in kilojoules per mole to three significant figures.
ΔE(rxn) = -5160 kJ/mol 1. The balanced equation would be: C10H8 (s) + 12 O2 (g) ---> 10 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g) + heat 2. From the data, the number of moles of Naphthalene used is: 1.025 g / 128.2 g/mol = moles of C10H8 3. The change in temperature is: 32.33 °C - 24.25 °C = 8.08 °C 4. If only the calorimeter changed temperature (no outside loss or water jacket), then the change in heat energy is: 8.08 °C * 5.11 kJ/ °C = ΔE 5. To get the ΔErxn (per mole), divide the ΔE above by the moles of C10H8 used.
Calculate the wavelength. 835.6 MHz (common frequency used for cell phone communication). Express your answer in meters using four significant figures.
λ = 0.3588 m The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency. The frequency of such radio waves determines the range of the signal. This is why AM radio has a longer range than FM radio.
Calculate the wavelength. 103.1 MHz (typical frequency for FM radio broadcasting). Express your answer in meters using four significant figures.
λ = 2.908 m 1. To convert a value from frequency in MHz to wavelength in m, start by converting the value to Hz using the conversion factor 10⁶ Hz/1 MHz. 2. Since 1 Hz = 1 s⁻¹, you can now substitute this value into the equation λ = c/ν, where c is the speed of light and ν is the frequency.
Calculate the wavelength. 1070 kHz (typical frequency for AM radio broadcasting). Express your answer in meters using four significant figures.
λ = 280.2 m 1. To convert a value from frequency in kHz to wavelength in m, start by converting the value to Hz using the conversion factor 10³ Hz/1 kHz. 2. Since 1 Hz = 1 s⁻¹, you can now substitute this value into the equation λ = c/ν, where c is the speed of light and ν is the frequency.
What does each symbol represent? λ = h / mv
λ = wavelength h = Planck's constant m = electron mass v = velocity
n=4→n=3 Express the frequency in inverse seconds.
ν¹ = 1.60×10¹⁴ s⁻¹ To calculate the frequency, you should have started by using the equation ΔE=−2.18×10⁻¹⁸ J(1/n₂ƒ−1n²i) where ΔE is the change in energy and n is the energy level. Once you had the energy in joules, you could solve for frequency ν using the equation E=hν where h is Planck's constant.
Probabilty Density
ψ² = probability/unit volume Likelihood of finding an electron at that point in space
The threshold frequency is reached when the energy of the photon is equal to ___.
∅ (phi)
Using the data in the figures above calculate ΔE for the reaction Na(g)+Cl(g)→Na+(g)+Cl−(g)
∆E = 147 kJ/mol
Energy Difference Between the Two Levels n(initial) and n(final)
∆E = E(f) - E(I) OR ∆E = (-2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J (1/n²f)) - (-2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J (1/n²i)) OR ∆E = -2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J (1/n²f - 1/n²i)
What does each part represent? ∆E = -2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ J (1/n²f - 1/n²i)
∆E = energy difference between levels - 2.18 x 10⁻¹⁸ = Rydberg Constant for Hydrogen n²f = final level n²i = initial level
What does each symbol mean? ∆E = q + w
∆E = internal energy change of the system q = sum of heat transferred w = work done
The magnitude of the temperature change in the surroundings depends on the magnitude of _____ for the reaction and on the _____ of the surroundings.
∆E; heat capacity
What does each symbol represent? ∆H(f)° = ∑(np)∆H(f)° - ∑(nr)∆H(f)°
∆H(f)° = standard enthalpy change of reaction ∑ = sum of (np) = stoichiometric coefficients of products ∆H(f)° = standard enthalpy of formation (nr) = stoichiometric coefficients of reactants
How can you calculate ∆H(rxn) from average bond energies?
∆H(rxn) = +∑(∆H's bonds broken) + -∑(∆H's bonds formed)
What does each symbol represent? (∆x)(m∆v) ≥ h/4π
∆x = the uncertainty in position ∆v = the uncertainty in velocity m = mass of the particle h = Planck's constant
How are slight positive and negative charges represented? What does this mean?
∆⁺ and ∆⁻ The electrons are unequally shared
