Final Exam (Native American History)

Termination

Who: What: The era of the governments' efforts to eradicate the Indian tribes of North America. Termination began with a series of laws directed at dismantling tribal sovereignty. Tribes must be terminated and begin to live "as Americans". To that end, Congress set about ending the special relationship between tribes and the federal government When: 1953-1968 Why: This was an important era in native American history

Blue Lake

Who: Taos Pueblos What: Sacred site. Avocated for their site back. Richard Nixon awarded it back to them in the year 1970. When: Why:

The Winters Doctrine

Who:Winters v. United States What:United States Supreme Court case clarifying water rights of American Indian reservations. When: 1908 Why:

The Buffalo

What: The Buffalo were important to the Indians' way of life. They were used as a food source and the rest of them that wasn't meat could be implemented in other aspects of their life. When the Europeans came and started telling the Native American tribes where they could not hunt forcing them to hunt elsewhere, this caused competition among tribes. The competition caused overhunting of the Buffalo, as well as the arrival of guns as they no longer had to push herds of them off the cliff. While the guns made overhunting possible they were also more efficent as when the buffalo were pushed off a cliff not all of them could be used but with guns you could use as many as you shoot.

The Dawes Act

Who: What: In the 1880's many people, those that called themselves "the friends of the Indians", wanted reservations dismantled, as the best way to push Indians into the modern world. In 1887, Congress passed the Dawes Allotment Act, this act reduced reservations and allotted Native Americans with their own private property. Why: They wished to dismantle the reservations, because concentrating Indians on reservation helped them build tribal organizations, and the government felt that the only way for them to get better acquainted into modern society was to dismantle their tribal organizations. When:1887

The Gold Rush

Who: What: - When Gold was discovered in 1848 in California, the 300, 000+ population of the Native peoples was cut in half. - They were hunted down by miners, settlers, and volunteer companies, by systematic ways of killing. -Many people came and took over California, and the Indian tribes living there were ravaged by disease, starvation, labor systems, slavery, and murder, put them at 30,000 by 1861. -With the incoming of thousands of single (lonely) men to the Natives' areas, they formed some relations with the women, but more often than not abused them and some women, after the arrival of the miners were forced into prostitution and slavery. -With the mining going on during the gold rush, this made it difficult for the Indian people to stay on their land as the debris and property rights' made hunting a rather difficult task, as debris choked the rivers and property rights' told them where they could not hunt. When:1848 Why:

Indian Life in the City

Who: What: When: Why:

Issues of Tribal Sovereignty

Who: What: When: Why:

Peyote

Who: What: A Hallucinogen derived from a cactus. - Originally used for religious rituals in Mexico and was eventually introduced to Indian country where it was also used for religious rituals. - In the late 1800's it became the center of a new religion which grew to become the Native American Church. When: Late 19th - Early 20th century. Why: Peyote is important to Native American religions and has been the center of controversy in the fight against assimilation. (Exmp:Being allowed to use it [ A drug] for religious reasons legally.)

The Maine Indian Settlement Act

Who: What: Aboriginal title When: 1980 Why:

2010 Census and Indian Demographics

Who: What: According to the 2010 Census, 5.2 million people in the United States identified as American Indian and Alaska Native, either alone or in combination with one or more other races. Out of this total, 2.9 million people identified as American Indian and Alaska Native alone. When: Why:

Chief Joseph

Who: What: After old Joseph, Young Joseph's dad passed he asked his son to not sell his homeland. But after his fathers passing the pressure to sell the land ensued almost immediately. Settlers encroached on to the Wallowa Valley. Comissioners attempted to get Joseph to sell them the treaty party. Instead of doing this the U.S comiisioned that the Nez Perces who had not signed the treaty would be moved onto the reservation or forced on to the reservation. When: Why:

The Siege at Wounded Knee

Who: What: At Wounded Knee, the leaders of AIM announced the creation of the of the Oglala Sioux Nation, declared independence from the United States, and defined their national boundaries that were established in the Treaty of fort Laramie in 1868. Soon, the police arrived at Wounded Knee. The Siege at Wounded Knee lasted Seventy one days, containing much violenece and two Indians were killed and others wounded. More than half a million rounds of ammunition were fired into the AIM compound. When: Why:

Indian Casinos

Who: What: Because these areas have tribal sovereignty, states have limited ability to forbid gambling there, as codified by the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988. As of 2011, there were 460 gambling operations run by 240 tribes, with total annual revenue of $27 billion When: Why:

The Indian Citizenship Act

Who: What: Extended citizenship and suffrage to all American Indians Affirmed belief that America's first peoples had become sufficiently When:1924 Why: Yet another way to control a long-sovereign people

Pow Wows

Who: What: Indian social events that revolve around dancing, singing, and drumming. Usually, annual events which last several days. When: Why: A crucial part of Native American religious and communal life and are ways for Indian people to come together and their heritage and preserve their culture.

Tribal Energy Resources

Who: What: Land given to Natives was extremely plentiful in natural energy source Larger society try to buy land from them When: Why:

Alcatraz Island

Who: What: Publicized mistreatment in Bay are he'd it for 19 months When:1969 Why: Example of direct action

Tribal Colleges

Who: What: The educational institutions are distinguished by being controlled and operated by American Indian tribes; they have become part of American Indians' institution-building in order to pass on their own cultures. When: 1968 - present Why:

Indian Mascots

Who: What: The issue of the propriety of using terms and images referring to Native Americans as the name or mascot for a sports team is a topic of public controversy in the United States and in Canada, coming into prominence as part of the Native American civil rights movement originating in the 1960s. When: 1960- Present Day Why: It is part of the larger issues of cultural appropriation and the violation of indigenous intellectual property rights, which includes all instances where non-natives use indigenous music, art, costumes, etc. in entertainment or other performances. It has been argued that harm to Native Americans occurs because the appropriation of Native culture by the majority society continues the systems of dominance and subordination that have been used to colonize, assimilate, and oppress indigenous groups.

The Native American Church

Who: What: is a Native American religion characterized by mixed traditional as well as Protestant beliefs. - Strongly based off of the ritual use of Peyote. When: Late 19th- Early 20th centuries Why: The church is an importatn element in the lives of many Indian people.

Battle of The Rosebud

Who: Crazy Horse/Lakota & Cheyenne vs. General George Crook (U.S Government) What: Battle won by Crazy Horse before the battle of Little Bighorn. - Gen. Crook's campaign was one of three-pronged campaign When: 1876 Why: It is what lead to the events at Little bighorn

The Indian Rights Association

Who: What: Pledged to protect the rights and interests of Indians. -The people of the IRA attended conferences in upstate New York where they discussed what was best for the Indian. They occasionally backed Indians in court cases. But they still wished to assimilate the Indian. - Captain Richard H. Pratt coined the phrase "Kill the Indian Save the Man". When: 1852

Lakota Women

Who: What: A book written by Mary Crowdog about events at the siege of Oglala When: Why:

Indian Education Policy

Who: What: Give indians new When: late 19th century Why: Important because this was an attempt to make the Indians more white and get away from their Indianness.

Urban Relocation

Who: What: Indians got on a bus and were moved to different parts of the country. They were provided with a place to stay and attempted to make it in the american society. When:1850's-60's Why: Many of the Indians ended up living in poverty as they did on the reservations because they could not adapt the white mans clock.

Trail of Broken Treaties

Who: American Indian and First Nations organizations. What:was a cross-country protest that was staged in the autumn of 1972. Designed to bring national attention to American Indian issues, such as treaty rights, living standards, and inadequate housing, it brought to the national capital the largest gathering ever of American Indians presenting their hopes. When: autumn of 1972 Why:

Geronimo

Who: Apache Chief What: From 1850 to 1886 Geronimo joined with members of three other Chiricahua Apache bands to carry out numerous raids as well as resistance to US and Mexican military campaigns in the northern Mexico states of Chihuahua and Sonora, and in the southwestern American territories of New Mexico and Arizona. When: June 16, 1829 - February 17, 1909 Why: Geronimo's repeated escapes embarrassed and provoked politicians, army officers, and the non-Indian populace of the Southwest. His very name brought terror to the people who continually heard of his evading capture and occasionally killing Anglo-Americans and Mexicans.

The Sand Creek Massacre

Who: Black Kettle's band of Cheyennes and a few Southern Arapahos What: These groups were at Sand Creek, near Fort Lyon, Colorado. They believed that they were being protected by the United States Government. That is until they were attacked by Colonel J.M. Chivington and the Third Colorado Calvery. Even after Black Kettle raised a white flag as well as an American Flag the Calvary still massacred some 270 Indians, most of them being women and children. When this spread across the plains the other Indians that heard about this held an uprising and retaliated. When:1864 Why: Important moment of racialized violence.

Wild West Shows

Who: Buffalo Bill and Sitting Bull What: When: Late 19th Century Why:

Society of American Indians

Who: Charles Eastman What: A group of Native American professionals and intellectuals founded the group in Columbus, Ohio. Favored assimilation but also wanted citizenship, health care on reservations, special claims for court Indians. When: 1911(During the red progressive era) Why:First step toward Pan-Indian Unity. Casts a different view on American Indian Education.

Red Cloud

Who: Chief of the Oglala Tribe What: One of the most capable Native American opponents the United States Army faced, he led a successful campaign in 1866-1868 known as Red Cloud's War over control of the Powder River Country in northeastern Wyoming and southern Montana. When: December of 1866. Why: Led during Red Cloud war (hence the name) and signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

American Indian Movement (AIM)

Who: Civil rights organization What:Initially formed to address American Indian sovereignty, treaty issues, spirituality, and leadership, while simultaneously addressing incidents of police harassment and racism against Native Americans Were active in efforts such as protecting fishing rights, in Great Lakes, involved in denouncing the beating, unlawful imprisonment of and killing of Indians. Brought a twenty point document proposing that the federal government reestablish a treaty making relationship with Indians, and that the government review treaty making violations, and abolish the BIA. When: 1968 in Minneapolis Why:

National Indian Youth Council

Who: Clyde Warrior What: first native organizations to use direct action protests as a means to pursue its goals When: 1960 Why:

John Collier

Who: Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration. What: Envisioned and implemented changes between U.S Government and Indian Tribes Was the "mastermind" of the Indian New Deal. When: 1933 - 1945 Why:Collier was instrumental in charting a new direction in United States Indian policy that has lasting impact throughout Indian America.

Battle of Little Big Horn

Who: Crazy Horse (Lakota and Cheyenne) vs. Custer (U.S Government) What: Tensions between the two groups had been rising since the discovery of gold on Native American lands. - When a number of tribes missed a federal deadline to move to reservations, the U.S. Army, including Custer and his 7th Calvary, was dispatched to confront them. - Custer was unaware of the number of Indians fighting under the command of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse at Little Bighorn, and his forces were outnumbered and quickly overwhelmed in what became known as Custer's Last Stand. When: 1876 Why: It was the most successful war fought by the American Indians against the United States Army in the West resulting in a win for the the Lakota/Cheyenne.

The Ghost Dance

Who: Created by Paiute Indian Wovoka What: A religion that spread across the plains at the end of the 1880's. This religion promised a return to the old ways that would reunite those that practiced it with departed ancestors if they abstained from alcohol, lived in peace, and followed a prescribed ritual in which they danced in a circle called the Ghost Dance. This religion also promised that the white man would disappear. This alarmed many non- indian people. Though rather than fighting, they were very eaceful and responded to the harsh reservation conditions by dancing. When: Why: Used as a way to talk about how life will get better for Indians.

Native American Rights Fund

Who: David Risling and John Echohawk What: A non-profit organization that uses existing laws and treaties to ensure that U.S. state governments and the U.S. federal government live up to their legal obligations Provides legal representation and technical assistance to Indian tribes, organizations, and individuals nationwide When:1970 Why: First and largest nonprofit law firm dedicated to asserting & defending the rights of Indian tribes

Native Amercian Rights Fund

Who: David Risling and John Echohawk (Pawnee) What:The Native American Rights Fund (NARF) is a non-profit organization that uses existing laws and treaties to ensure that U.S. state governments and the U.S. federal government live up to their legal obligations. When:The Native American Rights Fund was co-founded in 1970 by David Risling and John Echohawk (Pawnee). Why:

The Indian New Deal

Who: FDR (President Franklin D. Roosevelt) and John Collier What:FDR's response to the Great Depression, also known as Indian Reorganization Act. Goals : - End allotment and re-consolidate lands -Establish Tribal Government -End suppression of cultural rituals and instead support Indian cultures. -Reservation day schools for children. When:1930's Why: One of many twentieth-century shifts in Indian policy that left Indian people distrustful of anything that came out of Washington.

Wilma Mankiller

Who: First woman to be elected to the office of principal chief of the Cherokee Nation. What: When Richard Nixon appointed Ross Swimmer as the head of the BIA, Wilma Mankiller took his place as director of the Cherokee Nation. When:1985 Why:

Indian Fishing Rights

Who: FishIns What:Based on treaty law, that they could fish in traditional spots in the season without a license. When:1970 Why: An example of "Indian Law"

"Red Progressives"

Who: Group of Indians who were well educated in a western sense. What: Urged progress but critiqued white attitudes towards Indians. -Believed in keeping Indianess -"Change is a part of life and you can either resist the change or embrace it." When:1911 Why:

American Indian Chicago Conference

Who: Indians all over the country What: Gathering of many Indians in Chicago where they discuss their status quo. When:1961 Why: planned movements for the future movements in Indian life

Indian Reorganization Act

Who: John Collier What: was U.S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans (known in law as American Indians or Indians). When:1934 Why:The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, and to strengthen, encourage and perpetuate the tribes and their historic traditions and culture.

National Congress of American Indians

Who: Joseph Garry, veteran of World War II What: Fought for restoration of tribal status. They lobbied in Washington until 1973 when congress passed the Menominee Restoration Act that was passed by President Nixon. This act gave many tribes back their tribal status. When: Founded in 1944 When: Why:

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)

Who: Lakota What: Lakota spokesmen like Iron Shell and One Horn made clear the Indians' reason for going to war. -The United states agreed to abandon the Bozeman Trail, though by this time they had created a railroad just beyond the Bozeman Trail that they said Bozean trail obsolete. -Though Red Cloud still felt this as a victory. and wanted to keep the peace. American pressures kept ensuing. When:1868 Why:

Massacre at Wounded Knee

Who: Lakota What: Two weeks after Sitting Bull was killed the seventh Calvary intercepted Little Big Foot's band of Miniconjou Lakotas at Wounded Knee in South Dakota as they were heading towards the Pine Ridge Reservation. A single shot went off (from who's side no one knows) triggering the Calvary to open fire, massacring a majority of the Indian band. When: 1890 Why:Symbolic end to the Indian Wars

Sitting Bull

Who: Lakota holy man What: Led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. -Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory. When:1831 - December 15, 1890) Why: Predicted the events at Little Bighorn

The Meriam Report

Who: Lewis Meriam What: A survey on how things were going in Indian Country. - Found the Indian situation to be dire: Places of poverty, Ill health, few job options, and general despair. When:1926-28 Why:The findings in this survey led to changes in the approach such as more efficiency in BIA, End of allotment, and the phasing out of boarding schools.

Pacific War Code Talkers

Who: Mainly Navajo Indians What: During the Pacific war between Japan and the United, the United States recruited Native Americans in the War. And almost 100 percent of eligible Indians registered for the draft. The United States recruited the Navajo Indians as Codetalkers. They used their Navajo language as a Code in order to baffle the Japanese Army. When: Why:

The Clapp Rider

Who: Moses A Clapp Minnesota Senator, former lumber baron What:Mixed blood adults were comeptent to get rid of their land and can sell their land. Linked to Dawes allotment act. 422 When:1906 Why: reoccurring theme that shows Indians continually are let down by the United States.

Vine Deloria Jr.

Who: Native American author, theologian, historian, and activist What: Widely known for his book Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto (1969), which helped generate national attention to Native American issues in the same year as the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement When: Why:

The Long Walk

Who: Navajos What: An Indian removal effort made by the United States Government after two years of raids from the Navajo. - After being chased by Colonel Kit Carson and having their food supplies destroyed, the Navajo were eventually starved into surrender if they hadn't been captured already. - They were then forced to walk 400 mi. from their home in Arizona to a reservation in Bosque Redondo, New Mexico. - 200 Navajo died on the way When:1864 Why: Much like the Trail of Tears for the Cherokee, the Long Walk had a huge impact on the history of the Navajo.

Clyde Warrior

Who: President of National Indian Youth Council What: Died young of alcoholism When:1961 Why:

Helen Hunt Jackson

Who: Reformer and Activist When: Book Published in 1881 What: After hearing Ponca Chief Standing Bear speak in Boston, related these events in her book A Century of Dishonor. The book described the history of the governments relations and called for a radical change of Indian Policy. She sent a copy of her book to every congressman.

Carlisle Indian School

Who: Richard H. Pratt What: A school in Carlisle, Pensylvania that other than educating the native American children, also meant to transform and assimilate them. Provided them with skills that America deemed as appropriate for their survival to remake them as individual citizens, rather than tribal members. When they arrived at the boarding school they were given new Anglo-American names. Their clothes were assimilated and changed into stiff uniforms. Often kids were kidnapped into these schools. When: 1879 Why: Was a part of cultural onslaught and the movement led by saying "Kill the Indian, save the man"

"Kill the Indian, Save the Man"

Who: Richard H. Pratt (coined term) What:Get rid of "Indianness" in cultural form so they Native Americans can strive individually into their American future. - White progressive reformers with good intentions changing people for "their own good" - The best thing we can do for Indians is changing them. -No more fighting instead let's change their culture, and eventually who they are as a people. When:1879 Why: Led to establishments such as the boarding schools (including one started by Pratt) and the Indian Rights Association (IRA).

Jim Thorpe

Who: Sauk & Fox Athlete of Native American and European ancestry. What:Considered one of the most versatile athletes of modern sports -Won Olympic gold medals in the 1912 pentathlon and decathlon - Played in the NFL, NBA, and MLB -The first president of the American Professional Football Association (APFA), which would become the National Football League (NFL) -Thorpe was voted the Greatest Athlete of the Twentieth Century out of 15 other athletes including Muhammad Ali, Babe Ruth, Jesse Owens, Wayne Gretzky, Jack Nicklaus, and Michael Jordan When: 1887 - 1953 Why:

The Great Sioux Uprising (1862)

Who: Sioux What: 1,700 Dakota ( Eastern Sioux) that marched to Fort Snelling and confined in a stockade. Four hundred Indians were put on trial for murder, and thirty-eight were eventually executed at Mankato in the largest public hanging in American history. When:1862 Why: Was the largest mass execution in American history.

Ada Deer

Who: Social Worker What: Led the movement against the Menominee Termination Act. Lobbied in Washington until Congress passed the Menominee Restoration Act, which was signed by President Nixon in 1973. Became first Native American woman to head the BIA. When: 1973 Why: Important to both Native American rights and Women's rights. Fighting termination in the termination era.

Manifest Destiny

Who: Term coined by John. L. Sullivan What: The Americans' felt that it was their god- given right to occupy lands west to the Pacific and their duty to spread American Democracy to the People living there. When: The 19th Century Why: This lead to Native American removal

The Black Hills

Who: The Black Hills What: are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. When:Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills, which became central to their culture. In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. However, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custer's Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. Why:Following the defeat of the Lakota and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies in 1876, the United States took control of the region, in violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Lakota never accepted the validity of the US appropriation. They continue to try to reclaim the property.

Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)

Who: The United States & Lakota What: The first treaty of fort Laramie that was written. - The United states recognized the territory of the Lakota as covering North and South Dakota, parts of Nebraska, Montana, and Wyoming. -When the United States tried to establish the Bozeman Trail through Sioux Territory and through Gold Mines to Montana the Lakotas and their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies fought the army in Red Cloud's War. -They laid Seige to many posts the army built. When:1851 Why:

Dick Wilson

Who: Tribal Chair of BIA What: Condemned AIM and it was banned fro Pine Ridge by him. Extremely corrupt chairman of AIM. When: During battle of wounded knee Why:

Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee

Who: by Dee Brown What: Collected stories of indian experiences. -Flips the story on its head -Goes everything that white people have done to the American Indian peoples. -Still discusses the Native Americans as the object and what the white people were doing as the subject. When: 1971 Why: People were given new perspectives, truths were put out. -Revisionist Narrative

Charles Eastman

Who: was a Santee Dakota physician educated at Boston University, writer, national lecturer, and reformer. What:In the early 20th century, he was "one of the most prolific authors and speakers on Sioux ethnohistory and American Indian affairs.he became increasingly active in politics and issues on native American rights, he worked to improve the lives of youths, and founded thirty-two Native American chapters of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA). When:February 19, 1858 - January 8, 1939) Why:

Luther Standing Bear

Who: was an Oglala Lakota chief notable in American history as an Native American author, educator, philosopher, and actor of the twentieth century. What:fought to preserve Lakota heritage and sovereignty and was at the forefront of a Progressive movement to change government policy toward Native Americans. When: (December 1868 - February 20, 1939) Why:

Wovoka

Who: was the Northern Paiute religious leader who founded the Ghost Dance movement. What: Created the Ghost Dance Religion When:(c. 1856 - September 20, 1932) Why:One of his chief sources of authority among Paiutes was his alleged ability to control the weather. He was said to have caused a block of ice to fall out of the sky on a summer day, to be able to end drought with rain or snow, to light his pipe with the sun, and to form icicles in his hands.

Captain Richard Pratt

Who:Civil War veteran What: Best known as the founder and longtime superintendent of the influential Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. At Fort Marion, Pratt developed an educational program for the prisoners, which included education in the English language and encouraging Christian conversion. When: (December 6, 1840 - March 15, 1924)[ Why: He coined the term "Kill the indian save the man" and founded one of the first Native Americans Boarding Schools, making im highly important in the cultural onslought in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The Crows

Who:The Crow, who in historical times lived in the Yellowstone River valley, which extends from present-day Wyoming, through Montana and into North Dakota, Today, they are enrolled in the federally recognized Crow Tribe of Montana What: Both the Crow and the Cheyennes were then pushed farther west by the Lakota .The Crow were generally friendly with the whites and managed to retain a large reservation of over 9300 km2 despite territorial losses. When: Why:

Indian Reservations

Who:United States What: Legally designated area of land managed by a Native American tribe under the US Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma. When:1851 Why: Was a major part of Indian Removal Act as well as assimilation

Plains Indian's Ways of Life

Who:Who:Indigenous people of the Great Plains What:are the Native American tribes and First Nation band governments who have traditionally lived on the greater Interior Plains (i.e. the Great Plains and the Canadian Prairies) in North America. When: The first group became a fully nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, following the vast herds of buffalo, although some tribes occasionally engaged in agriculture. Why:The nomadic tribes historically survived on hunting and gathering, and the American Bison was one primary resource for items which people used for everyday life, including food, cups, decorations, crafting tools, knives, and clothing. The tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of buffalo. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were easily disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game.

The Nez Perces

Who:are an Indigenous people of the Plateau, who live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States What:hey are federally recognized as the Nez Perce Tribe and currently govern their reservation in Idaho. Anthropologists have written that the Nez Perce descend from the Old Cordilleran Culture When: Why:

Leonard Peltier

Who:is a Native American activist and member of the American Indian Movement (AIM). What: In 1977 he was convicted and sentenced to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment for first degree murder in the shooting of two Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents during a 1975 conflict on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. When:born September 12, 1944 Why:

The Five Civilized Tribes

Who:the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole. What:These are the first five tribes that Anglo-European settlers generally considered to be "civilized" according to their own world view, because these five tribes adopted attributes of the colonists' culture for example, Christianity, centralized governments, literacy, market participation, written constitutions, intermarriage with white Americans, and plantation slavery practices. When: Why:

Crazy Horse

Who:was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota. What:He took up arms against the United States Federal government to fight against encroachments on the territories and way of life of the Lakota people, including leading a war party to victory at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876. When: 1840 - September 5, 1877 Why: Celebrated for his battle skills as well as his efforts to preserve Native American traditions and way of life, and was instrumental in the defeat of George Armstrong Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn.

The Indian Claims Commission

Who:was a judicial relations between the United States federal government and Native American tribes. What:was established under the Indian Claims Act in 1946 by the United States Congress to hear claims of Indian tribes against the United States. The legislation was intended as a means to resolve many longstanding claims, When:it took until the late 1970s to complete most of them, and the last was not finished until the early 21st century. . Why:he Commission created a process for tribes to address their grievances against the United States, and offered monetary compensation for territory lost as a result of broken federal treaties.