Final- Psych 421- fall 2019 (CSUSB)

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Sperling (1960)

- demonstrated the existence of sensory memory - flashed array of letters for 1/20 second - Subjects could only report about half of them - Do they actually see the entire array briefly? • Arrays of letters or digits • 50 milliseconds (1/20 of a sec) • 3 x 4 array

full report technique

-Report everything in correct positions. -Results suggest that sensory memory has limited capacity.

sustaining attention

-maturation of brain -depth of processing • Longer o Ex: H.S. students have longer attention than younger

information-processing model

A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

short-term store

Age related increases in memory span

First evidence of multiword utterances?

Appearance of multiword utterances

Charlie task (Baron-Cohen, 1995)

Autistic children do not have the circuitry to make the connection that the face wants the candy bar that its eyes are looking at. • Children with Autism: o "which candy is Charlie looking at?" o Answer correctly o "which candy does Charlie want?" o Unable to answer correctly

effortful processing

Cognitive processes that consume some of the information-processing system's limited capacity and are hypothesized to (a) be available to conscious awareness, (b) interfere with the execution of other processes, (c) improve with practice, and (d) be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, or education

automatic processes

Cognitive processes that require no mental effort (or mental space) for their execution and are hypothesized (a) to occur without intention and without conscious awareness, (b) not to interfere with the execution of other processes, (c) not to improve with practice, and (d) not to be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, or education

attentional strategies

Determine the degree of attention given to a postural task when performing other tasks simultaneously -more systematic

Wimmer and Perner (1983)

First adapted for use with children

Are infants born with selective biases toward sounds of language?

Infants are born with certain selective biases toward the sounds of human speech

What is morphology?

Involves knowing about words & parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes and suffixes

metamemory

Knowledge of one's own memory abilities and the factors that influence memory.

Naming (word) explosion causes?

Not present in all children; some children's word leaning is more gradual in nature.

Superior temporal sulcus (STS)

Perception of intentional behavior

Temporal poles

Retrieval of memory of personal experiences

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

Social evaluation

Premack and Woodruff (1978)

Standard false-belief task first developed

partial report technique

Study by Sterling found that iconic memory has a large capacity after asking participants to recall 3 rows of 4 letters based on a different tone for each line. o By 6 mo. of age iconic memory capacity matches that of adults o fMRI studies in adults show that iconic memory reflects persistent activation

Memory span

The number of items a person can hold in the short-term store, assessed by testing the number of (usually) unrelated items that can be recalled in exact order.

paracingulate cortex

Theory of mind is mediated by the anterior paracingulate cortex which includes... Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) Superior temporal sulcus (STS) Temporal poles

vertical constructions

These are a sequence of one word sentences, sometimes both uttered b the child, sometimes with the child building off another person Vertical because transcribers usually put each new sentence on a new line, appear vertically on the page "Ow. eye" "ball. Mine" • Transition from one-word speech • Ex: "ow. Eye" • Two-word utterances

Chi (1978)

X-sectional study on adults (chest novices) and 10 yrs. Old (chess experts) • Six children from a chess tournament o Chess experts o 3rd thourgh 8th grade o M age= 10.5 years •Six adult graduate students o Chess novices o All had some knowledge of chess o o Tested all Ss with memory for chess pieces (color, piece, & location) AND digit span task o Increased knowledge base

visual sensory store

a memory system that can effectively hold all the information in the visual display

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten -response

overregularization errors

errors in which a child applies a grammatical rule to a word that does not follow the rule English language has exceptions to its rules • Past tense & plural • Ex: go, went, foot, feet • Children often make errors with these expectations • "footes: & "goed" • Typically begins at about 20 months • Children essentially make an irregular part of the language regular

occipito-temporal area

identifies words rapidly and automatically

operating space

in Case's theory, the resources necessary to carry out cognitive operations

Morphological Development

internalization of the rules of language that govern the structure of words

Non-declarative memory

o (procedural) memory o Implicit memory Without conscious awareness/intention o Skills-motor and cognitive o Dispositions-classical and operant conditioning effects

Episodic memory

o An Event Ex: I remember my 1st grade teacher, birth of a child o Personally experienced events

Declarative memory

o Encoding and retrieving information With conscious awareness o Explicit memory a) Episodic memory b) Semantic memory

semantic memory

o Vocabulary, language, understanding concepts (knowing what a restaurant is), the rule of math o Facts-general knowledge

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. • Children don't know that people have perceptions of their own

long-term memory

permanent storage of information

naming insight

sounds can be associated with objects

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

attention

the act or power of carefully thinking about, listening to, or watching someone or something -focus and concentration

storage space

the area in any structure that provides space for storage

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus -better as children get older

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

the outer and upper areas of the front of the brain, important for skills such as planning ahead and controlling impulses Decision making; WM; social cognition

fast mapping

the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure -• Require very little input

what causes word sprout?

their vocab increases faster

Does implicit memory develop?

yes

sensory memory

· Hold memory · Primary & secondary visual systems develop over the first 6 mo.of age oAccommodation o Acuity o convergence

Patricia Bauer

• 11.5 to 20 month old infants • Shown a sequence of events • Children were able to re-enact the sequence • Evidence for script-like memory

Telegraphic speech

• "where'd it go?", "I watching car", "put it table" • Missing words (or forms) are called grammatical morphemes o Used of these words are tied to particular grammatical entities

Fagan (1973, 1974)

• 5- and 6-month-old babies • Formed memory for visual stimuli • Memories lasted as long as 2 weeks

Limited range of relational meaning

• Agent + action = daddy sit • Agent + object = mommy sock • Entity + attribute = crayon big

Source monitoring

• Being aware of the source of information one knows or remembers • "Was the information something I saw, or what someone else told me?" • Early school-aged children have difficulty remembering the source of their memories. o Difficulty with determining whether or not they actually performed an act or just imagined it o Incorrectly remember performing something in a joint activity that someone else performed

speed of processing

• Changes • Dempster (1981)- a major factor influencing increases in memory span • Faster one can process each chunk of info. The more chunks one can encode per time unit

Smarties Task

• Children remember what they originally believed • Memory deficit is not general, but specific to beliefs o Difficulty with representational change o Difficulty dealing with contradictory evidenced

Diamond - A-not-B error

• Delay must be increased as infant grew older (between 7 and 12 months)

Effect of context What changes in context caused infants to forget? Why do infants forget when context is changed?

• Different aspects of the environment were changed between learning and test • Playpen draped with linens with different colors and shapes • Tested 24 hours later.

Domain-general changes

• Domain • In schemas

Individuals differences in false-belief tasks factors?

• Factors other than age contribute to individual differences in children's attainment of theory of mind o Quality of attachment o Parenting styles o Parent-child communication o Language skills o Parental warmth o Amount of parents' mental-state talk o Family size

Rovee-Collier General method (i.e., first 3 minutes - baseline non-reinforcement period, etc)

• First 3 minutes - ribbon not connected (baseline nonreinforcement • period) • 9-minute reinforcement period - ribbon connected to mobile • What will happen when infant's leg is reconnected at a later time/day?

shared attention

• First to develop • At about 9 months • Infants understand that other people are intentional agents • This develops over the next year

Syntax

• How you put words together o Ex: KISSED THE GIRL THE BOY VS. THE BOY KISSED THE GIRL VS. THE GIRL KISSED THE BOY

Efficiency of Processing

• Increases • automatization

When can infants discriminate speech sounds?

• Infants can discriminate all the sound contrasts • 4 months of age

Discrimination is language-general (not after 6 months)

• Infants discrimination abilities are language-general • Not after approx. 6 mo.

What do pragmatics involve? Examples?

• Involves the social aspects of language or the appropriate use of language o How to carry on a conversation (taking turns) o Adjusting to the social situation 9interview vs. casual conversation) o Interpreting questions as directions (can you open the window?) o Telling a good story • Another dimension or aspect that children need to learn • Language is a social behavior

Development of Implicit Memory

• Memory without awareness • "Memory for some information without being consciously aware that one is remembering" (Bjorklund) o Developmental differences in explicit memory? YES o Developmental differences in implicit memory? NO • Habituation-based experiments on infants likely assess implicit memory

Are all morphemes words?

• Most are words, but there are parts of words that carry/ change meaning (prefixes and suffixes) o Speak o Speaker o Unspeakable • Kinds of words (nouns, verbs, etc.)

False-belief tasks

• Most common and effective way of determining what children think • The typical pattern of results seems t be universal 4 & 5 years old pass o Has been found in children across the world o Even in of children of Baka Pygmies living in the rainforest f Cameroon (Avies 7 Harris, 1991) o The precise age at which children pass the false-belief task has been found to vary across different cultures

Theory of Mind and the Brain

• Neural substrates of theory of mind have been isolated • Very good consistency in the results of multiple imaging studies using a wide variety of tasks

Unanalyzed work combinations

• Phases that have been memorized as whole • "I want" and "I don't know"

deception

• Reflects a knowledge of other minds • Deception only works when one person knows something that another person does now know-that is, requires on to "read" another person's mind • Parents can attest to the fact that deception is frequently practiced by children

memory strategies

• Rehearsal o 3 yrs - rarely o 5 yrs - 10% o 7 yrs - 50% o 10 yrs - 85% • Organization o Grouping: 7093451837 vs. 709-345-1837 o 9 or 10 yrs • Elaboration • Metamemory

What do semantics involve? Examples?

• Semantics refers to the meaning of words and the relationship between the meaning of different words • Ex: "My daddy is having a baby" (knowledge of words/meaning) Animal Happy Dog Glad Collie Angry

Theory of Mind and Autism

• Shared-attention develops form 9-18 months • Theory of mind develops from 24 to 48 months • Empathizing with others develops by 14 months • These are absent or delayed in children with autism o Inability to read minds (mindblindness) o Consistently fail false-belief tasks while performing well on other non-social tasks o Children with down syndrome easily pass false-belief tasks, but do more poorly general intelligence tasks

span task

• Simple span • Forward span • Backward span

Morphemes

• Smallest meaningful unit in language • Ex: boy, I, a, table, chair, computer, wall • Ex: of non-morphemes are ending with - ing, es, 's

Phonemes

• Smallest sound used in language that contributes/changes meaning • Be able to produce and break down words (ex: dog) • Melon/felon o 40 different sounds • /b/ bat; /p/ pat; /c/ choke • /r/ in Spanish; /ch/ in German; "clicks • [p] & [ph] • • When you know a language, you know; o What phonemes are o How to produce them o How to put them together

Phones

• Sounds used in language (smallest most basic) • Infinite number f sounds • Language sound (ex: not a knock or not a honk) • 100 diff phones (45 phones) • Put in brackets (ex: /d/ and /t/)

What is phonology?

• The perception or production of sound • Basic sound in a language

Individuals differences in false-belief tasks

• There are individual differences among 3- and 4-year-old children in false-belief tasks o Children produce a mixture of correct and incorrect answers

Rovee-Collier Conditioning Techniques

• Tied a ribbon to infants' ankles and connected to a mobile • Infants learn that kicking leg made mobile move

Brown (1973) - Morphemes learned in same order

• Tracked appearance 14 grammatical morphemes • Adam, Eve, and Sarah • Is there an order of appearance of morphemes during development? • Main findings: o It takes children quite a long time to master grammatical morphemes o Acquisition is not an all-or-none phenomenon o 14 grammatical morphemes acquired in a similar order

Others' perspectives

• Understand what the intentions of other people are • Infants are not born with these abilities, develop over the first several months of life

Characteristics of true two-word utterances

• Use of words in different combitations • Ex: "big ballon", "big lion", & "big pants" • Can say anything is "big" or "little" • Typically missing bound morphemes and certain words (determines, prepositions, etc)

Semantic development

• Vacublary development is slow over the first months post-first word o 8-11 words/ month o Exposure does not necessarily result in word learning • Word that are learned may not be permanent in child's productive vocabularies • This changes at roughly the 50-word pint o At this point, children's word learning increases from 8 to 11 words/ month to an average rate of 22 to 37 words/ month

Intentional agents

• Viewing oneself and others • Do things on purpose or cause things to happen in order to achieve a goal

Rovee-Collier Results? How long did infants remember?

• Will level of kicks return to rate different than baseline rate? • If rate is high, reflects memory • 3-month-old infants showed no forgetting for delays up to 8 days; some babies up to 2 weeks • Improves over first several months • • Infants do have long-term memory • Infants were able to remember up to 8 days, some up to 2 wks

Chandler et al. (1991)

• Young children can deceive • Deceptive strategies may change as children grow older • Deception in hide-and-seek task • 2.5- to 4-year-old children were tested • Puppet hid a treasure in a container • Sponge could be used to wipe footprints • Child helped one experimenter hide the treasure from another experimenter. • Several types of deception were scored

Capacity hypothesis

•Carroll (1976) & case (1974) •Increases in memory span as age increases across multiple domains


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