Final- Psych 421- fall 2019 (CSUSB)
Sperling (1960)
- demonstrated the existence of sensory memory - flashed array of letters for 1/20 second - Subjects could only report about half of them - Do they actually see the entire array briefly? • Arrays of letters or digits • 50 milliseconds (1/20 of a sec) • 3 x 4 array
full report technique
-Report everything in correct positions. -Results suggest that sensory memory has limited capacity.
sustaining attention
-maturation of brain -depth of processing • Longer o Ex: H.S. students have longer attention than younger
information-processing model
A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
short-term store
Age related increases in memory span
First evidence of multiword utterances?
Appearance of multiword utterances
Charlie task (Baron-Cohen, 1995)
Autistic children do not have the circuitry to make the connection that the face wants the candy bar that its eyes are looking at. • Children with Autism: o "which candy is Charlie looking at?" o Answer correctly o "which candy does Charlie want?" o Unable to answer correctly
effortful processing
Cognitive processes that consume some of the information-processing system's limited capacity and are hypothesized to (a) be available to conscious awareness, (b) interfere with the execution of other processes, (c) improve with practice, and (d) be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, or education
automatic processes
Cognitive processes that require no mental effort (or mental space) for their execution and are hypothesized (a) to occur without intention and without conscious awareness, (b) not to interfere with the execution of other processes, (c) not to improve with practice, and (d) not to be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, or education
attentional strategies
Determine the degree of attention given to a postural task when performing other tasks simultaneously -more systematic
Wimmer and Perner (1983)
First adapted for use with children
Are infants born with selective biases toward sounds of language?
Infants are born with certain selective biases toward the sounds of human speech
What is morphology?
Involves knowing about words & parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes and suffixes
metamemory
Knowledge of one's own memory abilities and the factors that influence memory.
Naming (word) explosion causes?
Not present in all children; some children's word leaning is more gradual in nature.
Superior temporal sulcus (STS)
Perception of intentional behavior
Temporal poles
Retrieval of memory of personal experiences
Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)
Social evaluation
Premack and Woodruff (1978)
Standard false-belief task first developed
partial report technique
Study by Sterling found that iconic memory has a large capacity after asking participants to recall 3 rows of 4 letters based on a different tone for each line. o By 6 mo. of age iconic memory capacity matches that of adults o fMRI studies in adults show that iconic memory reflects persistent activation
Memory span
The number of items a person can hold in the short-term store, assessed by testing the number of (usually) unrelated items that can be recalled in exact order.
paracingulate cortex
Theory of mind is mediated by the anterior paracingulate cortex which includes... Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) Superior temporal sulcus (STS) Temporal poles
vertical constructions
These are a sequence of one word sentences, sometimes both uttered b the child, sometimes with the child building off another person Vertical because transcribers usually put each new sentence on a new line, appear vertically on the page "Ow. eye" "ball. Mine" • Transition from one-word speech • Ex: "ow. Eye" • Two-word utterances
Chi (1978)
X-sectional study on adults (chest novices) and 10 yrs. Old (chess experts) • Six children from a chess tournament o Chess experts o 3rd thourgh 8th grade o M age= 10.5 years •Six adult graduate students o Chess novices o All had some knowledge of chess o o Tested all Ss with memory for chess pieces (color, piece, & location) AND digit span task o Increased knowledge base
visual sensory store
a memory system that can effectively hold all the information in the visual display
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten -response
overregularization errors
errors in which a child applies a grammatical rule to a word that does not follow the rule English language has exceptions to its rules • Past tense & plural • Ex: go, went, foot, feet • Children often make errors with these expectations • "footes: & "goed" • Typically begins at about 20 months • Children essentially make an irregular part of the language regular
occipito-temporal area
identifies words rapidly and automatically
operating space
in Case's theory, the resources necessary to carry out cognitive operations
Morphological Development
internalization of the rules of language that govern the structure of words
Non-declarative memory
o (procedural) memory o Implicit memory Without conscious awareness/intention o Skills-motor and cognitive o Dispositions-classical and operant conditioning effects
Episodic memory
o An Event Ex: I remember my 1st grade teacher, birth of a child o Personally experienced events
Declarative memory
o Encoding and retrieving information With conscious awareness o Explicit memory a) Episodic memory b) Semantic memory
semantic memory
o Vocabulary, language, understanding concepts (knowing what a restaurant is), the rule of math o Facts-general knowledge
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. • Children don't know that people have perceptions of their own
long-term memory
permanent storage of information
naming insight
sounds can be associated with objects
explicit memory
the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
attention
the act or power of carefully thinking about, listening to, or watching someone or something -focus and concentration
storage space
the area in any structure that provides space for storage
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus -better as children get older
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
the outer and upper areas of the front of the brain, important for skills such as planning ahead and controlling impulses Decision making; WM; social cognition
fast mapping
the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure -• Require very little input
what causes word sprout?
their vocab increases faster
Does implicit memory develop?
yes
sensory memory
· Hold memory · Primary & secondary visual systems develop over the first 6 mo.of age oAccommodation o Acuity o convergence
Patricia Bauer
• 11.5 to 20 month old infants • Shown a sequence of events • Children were able to re-enact the sequence • Evidence for script-like memory
Telegraphic speech
• "where'd it go?", "I watching car", "put it table" • Missing words (or forms) are called grammatical morphemes o Used of these words are tied to particular grammatical entities
Fagan (1973, 1974)
• 5- and 6-month-old babies • Formed memory for visual stimuli • Memories lasted as long as 2 weeks
Limited range of relational meaning
• Agent + action = daddy sit • Agent + object = mommy sock • Entity + attribute = crayon big
Source monitoring
• Being aware of the source of information one knows or remembers • "Was the information something I saw, or what someone else told me?" • Early school-aged children have difficulty remembering the source of their memories. o Difficulty with determining whether or not they actually performed an act or just imagined it o Incorrectly remember performing something in a joint activity that someone else performed
speed of processing
• Changes • Dempster (1981)- a major factor influencing increases in memory span • Faster one can process each chunk of info. The more chunks one can encode per time unit
Smarties Task
• Children remember what they originally believed • Memory deficit is not general, but specific to beliefs o Difficulty with representational change o Difficulty dealing with contradictory evidenced
Diamond - A-not-B error
• Delay must be increased as infant grew older (between 7 and 12 months)
Effect of context What changes in context caused infants to forget? Why do infants forget when context is changed?
• Different aspects of the environment were changed between learning and test • Playpen draped with linens with different colors and shapes • Tested 24 hours later.
Domain-general changes
• Domain • In schemas
Individuals differences in false-belief tasks factors?
• Factors other than age contribute to individual differences in children's attainment of theory of mind o Quality of attachment o Parenting styles o Parent-child communication o Language skills o Parental warmth o Amount of parents' mental-state talk o Family size
Rovee-Collier General method (i.e., first 3 minutes - baseline non-reinforcement period, etc)
• First 3 minutes - ribbon not connected (baseline nonreinforcement • period) • 9-minute reinforcement period - ribbon connected to mobile • What will happen when infant's leg is reconnected at a later time/day?
shared attention
• First to develop • At about 9 months • Infants understand that other people are intentional agents • This develops over the next year
Syntax
• How you put words together o Ex: KISSED THE GIRL THE BOY VS. THE BOY KISSED THE GIRL VS. THE GIRL KISSED THE BOY
Efficiency of Processing
• Increases • automatization
When can infants discriminate speech sounds?
• Infants can discriminate all the sound contrasts • 4 months of age
Discrimination is language-general (not after 6 months)
• Infants discrimination abilities are language-general • Not after approx. 6 mo.
What do pragmatics involve? Examples?
• Involves the social aspects of language or the appropriate use of language o How to carry on a conversation (taking turns) o Adjusting to the social situation 9interview vs. casual conversation) o Interpreting questions as directions (can you open the window?) o Telling a good story • Another dimension or aspect that children need to learn • Language is a social behavior
Development of Implicit Memory
• Memory without awareness • "Memory for some information without being consciously aware that one is remembering" (Bjorklund) o Developmental differences in explicit memory? YES o Developmental differences in implicit memory? NO • Habituation-based experiments on infants likely assess implicit memory
Are all morphemes words?
• Most are words, but there are parts of words that carry/ change meaning (prefixes and suffixes) o Speak o Speaker o Unspeakable • Kinds of words (nouns, verbs, etc.)
False-belief tasks
• Most common and effective way of determining what children think • The typical pattern of results seems t be universal 4 & 5 years old pass o Has been found in children across the world o Even in of children of Baka Pygmies living in the rainforest f Cameroon (Avies 7 Harris, 1991) o The precise age at which children pass the false-belief task has been found to vary across different cultures
Theory of Mind and the Brain
• Neural substrates of theory of mind have been isolated • Very good consistency in the results of multiple imaging studies using a wide variety of tasks
Unanalyzed work combinations
• Phases that have been memorized as whole • "I want" and "I don't know"
deception
• Reflects a knowledge of other minds • Deception only works when one person knows something that another person does now know-that is, requires on to "read" another person's mind • Parents can attest to the fact that deception is frequently practiced by children
memory strategies
• Rehearsal o 3 yrs - rarely o 5 yrs - 10% o 7 yrs - 50% o 10 yrs - 85% • Organization o Grouping: 7093451837 vs. 709-345-1837 o 9 or 10 yrs • Elaboration • Metamemory
What do semantics involve? Examples?
• Semantics refers to the meaning of words and the relationship between the meaning of different words • Ex: "My daddy is having a baby" (knowledge of words/meaning) Animal Happy Dog Glad Collie Angry
Theory of Mind and Autism
• Shared-attention develops form 9-18 months • Theory of mind develops from 24 to 48 months • Empathizing with others develops by 14 months • These are absent or delayed in children with autism o Inability to read minds (mindblindness) o Consistently fail false-belief tasks while performing well on other non-social tasks o Children with down syndrome easily pass false-belief tasks, but do more poorly general intelligence tasks
span task
• Simple span • Forward span • Backward span
Morphemes
• Smallest meaningful unit in language • Ex: boy, I, a, table, chair, computer, wall • Ex: of non-morphemes are ending with - ing, es, 's
Phonemes
• Smallest sound used in language that contributes/changes meaning • Be able to produce and break down words (ex: dog) • Melon/felon o 40 different sounds • /b/ bat; /p/ pat; /c/ choke • /r/ in Spanish; /ch/ in German; "clicks • [p] & [ph] • • When you know a language, you know; o What phonemes are o How to produce them o How to put them together
Phones
• Sounds used in language (smallest most basic) • Infinite number f sounds • Language sound (ex: not a knock or not a honk) • 100 diff phones (45 phones) • Put in brackets (ex: /d/ and /t/)
What is phonology?
• The perception or production of sound • Basic sound in a language
Individuals differences in false-belief tasks
• There are individual differences among 3- and 4-year-old children in false-belief tasks o Children produce a mixture of correct and incorrect answers
Rovee-Collier Conditioning Techniques
• Tied a ribbon to infants' ankles and connected to a mobile • Infants learn that kicking leg made mobile move
Brown (1973) - Morphemes learned in same order
• Tracked appearance 14 grammatical morphemes • Adam, Eve, and Sarah • Is there an order of appearance of morphemes during development? • Main findings: o It takes children quite a long time to master grammatical morphemes o Acquisition is not an all-or-none phenomenon o 14 grammatical morphemes acquired in a similar order
Others' perspectives
• Understand what the intentions of other people are • Infants are not born with these abilities, develop over the first several months of life
Characteristics of true two-word utterances
• Use of words in different combitations • Ex: "big ballon", "big lion", & "big pants" • Can say anything is "big" or "little" • Typically missing bound morphemes and certain words (determines, prepositions, etc)
Semantic development
• Vacublary development is slow over the first months post-first word o 8-11 words/ month o Exposure does not necessarily result in word learning • Word that are learned may not be permanent in child's productive vocabularies • This changes at roughly the 50-word pint o At this point, children's word learning increases from 8 to 11 words/ month to an average rate of 22 to 37 words/ month
Intentional agents
• Viewing oneself and others • Do things on purpose or cause things to happen in order to achieve a goal
Rovee-Collier Results? How long did infants remember?
• Will level of kicks return to rate different than baseline rate? • If rate is high, reflects memory • 3-month-old infants showed no forgetting for delays up to 8 days; some babies up to 2 weeks • Improves over first several months • • Infants do have long-term memory • Infants were able to remember up to 8 days, some up to 2 wks
Chandler et al. (1991)
• Young children can deceive • Deceptive strategies may change as children grow older • Deception in hide-and-seek task • 2.5- to 4-year-old children were tested • Puppet hid a treasure in a container • Sponge could be used to wipe footprints • Child helped one experimenter hide the treasure from another experimenter. • Several types of deception were scored
Capacity hypothesis
•Carroll (1976) & case (1974) •Increases in memory span as age increases across multiple domains
