Foundations of Education
reasonably prudent criteria that demonstrate a teacher demonstrated appropriate precautions to prevent student injury
- they made a reasonable attempt to anticipate dangerous situations -they provided proper supervision -they took precautions -they established rules -they give you a warning to minimize the chance of students getting hurt it is always important to know the conditions of liability insurance through the school in comparison to your own personal insurance or even your car insurance when involving students and liability.
naysayers on Multicultural education
-Multicultural education May destroy any sense of common Traditions, values, purposes, and obligations, thereby leading to a more fragmented and contentious Nation -it made diverts schools attention from their basic purpose of educating for civic, economic, and personal effectiveness -it attacks the problem of minority students underachievement by emphasizing self-esteem rather than hard work -it's substitutes relevance of subjects studied for instruction in solid academics -it may undermine a sense of a common morality because some Advocates of multiculturalism claim there are no Universal moral positions that the public schools can legitimately teach they're not saying that multiculturalism and other cultures is not important. They are asserting that there are limitations on pluralism and that schools need to focus on their goals. they worried that students will be taught about how to get along with each other but not with the world or the dominant culture where they live (my thoughts : if they are taught how to survive in any culture, then this would not be a problem.)
to be considered a legally enforceable document a contract must do the following:
-have a lawful subject matter -represent a meeting of the minds of both parties -include an exchange of something of value. Called a consideration -be entered into by parties who are competent to do so -be written in proper form. Instead of in vague terms such as pay the teacher what he or she is worth in addition, the school board must act officially to ratify a teacher's contract. Many people assume that contracts must be written. In fact, unless state law requires a written contract, an oral contract that includes all legal requirements can also be legally binding.
teachers make copy materials under the following circumstances
-if making a single copy for class preparation of a chapter from a book;a newspaper or magazine article, short story, essay, or poem;or a diagram, chart, picture, or cartoon from a book or magazine -if making a copy for each of their students of a poem if it has fewer than 250 words and print it on not more than two pages -if a complete article, story, or essay is less than 2500 words or is an excerpt from any pros work of not more than 1000 words or 10% of the work, whichever is less
teachers may not copy materials in the following situations
-if making copies of a work for their classes if another teacher in the same building already has copied the same material for his or her class -if making copies of the same authors work more than once a semester or making copies from the same Anthology, text, or periodical issue more than 3 times a semester -if creating a class anthology by copying materials from several sources (a favorite trick of many teachers!) -if making multiple copies of weekly newspapers or magazines specifically designed for classrooms, or of consumable materials, such as copyrighted games, exercises, and particularly worksheets from workbooks -if charging more than legally permissible copies and it cost to copy them these guidelines may seem overly restrictive and Technical, but teachers actually have more liberal guidelines for copying than average citizens do many teachers find that their school's media specialist can help them keep up with changes in copyright laws regarding digital, as well as print and video, materials
Latin Schools
-mid 18th century -classical curriculum, ancient Greek history, etc., publicly funded -private tutors, education for the elite, this was education for social prosperity and mobility, education to accommodate economic diversity
issues of academic freedom often generate a great deal of heat. When they reach the courts, the following considerations, among others, are brought to bear
-the teachers purpose -the educational relevance of the controversial publication -the age of the students involved -the quality of the disputed teaching material and its effects on the class these considerations are critical guidelines to remember when one teaches. Perhaps the most important point to remember is that academic freedom is limited: it cannot be used to protect incompetent teachers or indoctrinating zealots
areas of teacher competence
1 - attitudes that Foster learning and genuine human relationships 2- knowledge of the subject matter to be taught 3- theoretical knowledge about learning and human behavior 4- personal practical knowledge 5- skills of teaching that promote student learning
Howard Gardner's book called five Minds for the future cultivating thinking skills argues that because the future is so unpredictable and changing, everyone needs to cultivate five different ways of thinking
1) the disciplined mind -has mastered at least one way of thinking -- a distinctive mode of cognition that characterizes a specific scholarly discipline, craft, or profession 2) the synthesizing mind -takes information from disparate sources, understands and evaluate the information objectively, and puts it together in ways that make sense to the synthesizer and also to other people 3) the creating mind -breaks new ground. It puts forth new ideas, poses unfamiliar questions, conjures up fresh ways of thinking, and arrives at unexpected answers 4) the respectful mind -notes and welcomes differences among human individuals and groups, tries to understand these "others," and seeks to work effectively with them 5) the ethical mind -Ponders the nature of one's work in the needs and desires of the society in which one lives. This Minds conceptualizes how workers cancer purposes be on self-interest and how citizens can work unselfishly to improve the lot of all these five minds are different from the eight or nine intelligences Gardner identified. He thinks of them as broad uses of the mind that can be cultivated in school, the workplace, or in professions. to be certain, Gardner asserts, that five Minds make use of the intelligences. for instance, to cultivate the respectful mind, one would have to exercise interpersonal intelligence. Or to cultivate the disciplined mind, logical mathematical intelligence would likely be used. acknowledging and fostering individual abilities in a variety of areas is one way teachers can help students, to address of varied intelligences, guard emphasizes learning in context, particularly through apprenticeships. Students development in an area like music should be fostered through Hands-On practice and experiences for example, to teach varied intelligences of both students and teachers history might be taught during number of media and methods, ranging from art and architecture to biographies and dramatic reenactment of events. assessments should also be tailored to different abilities and should take place in a learning context as much as possible. for example a written test versus a vocal test. -_______________- some critics argue that would Gardner calls intelligences are merely talents, personality traits, or Calumet it styles. others worried that schools, and attempting to address a range of abilities, may not adequately stress the importance of verbal and mathematical abilities, which they say are critical to success in our society. in particular, some critics worry that Gardner's theories will lead to the end of ability grouping in schools
four major categories of attitudes affecting a teacher's Behavior
1- the teachers attitude towards self. -if teachers are to understand and sympathize with their students feelings, they must recognize and understand their own feelings. -many colleges are responding to this need by including counseling sessions, reflective thinking, and awareness experiences as part of their teacher education programs - these experiences emphasize introspection, self evaluation, and feedback from other participants. The goal is to help prospective teachers learn more about themselves, their attitudes, and how other people perceive them 2- the teachers attitude toward children and the relationship between self and children -in general, a teacher's expectation that all students can succeed seems to make a difference in students achievement -a teacher will teach differently if you believe that all of your students are capable of high academic achievement and that they adjust their beliefs and behavior based on the needs, abilities, and aspirations of each individual student -if a teacher Harbors any biases or stereotypes in any way then it can reduce their teaching effectiveness. -if teachers expect a certain group of students to behave in a Southway the teachers attitude may serve as a self-fulfilling prophecy, that is, the student may conform to the teachers low expectations, thus confirming the teachers original expectations. On the other hand, when teachers hold high expectations for students and communicate these high expectations, students will act in ways to live up to the teacher's expectations. a teacher's attitude toward and expectation of students are powerful influences on whether or not students learn 3- the teachers attitudes toward peers and pupils' parents -some teachers Harbor resentment and competition and superiority to other teachers and parents -effective teachers, those who work well with colleagues and parents to empower children to achieve, show attitudes of acceptance. And their dealings with other teachers and parents, teachers should be real and genuine, value other people as worthy in their own right, and show empathy Treat people as if they were what they ought to be and you help them to become what they are capable of being. Johann W. Von Goethe (1749-1832) German poet and philosopher 4- the teachers attitude toward the subject matter -keyword is enthusiasm -just as students are perceptive and discovering a teacher's attitude towards them, they're also sensitive to a teacher's attitude toward the subject matter -due to the states adopting learning standards geared toward mandatory testing for students, many teachers who wants were you able to choose content is being really curtailed. States expect teachers to teach the standards, and the high-stakes assessment tests given to the students exert considerable pressure on teachers to be certain that they cover the content contained on the assessments -due to this strict need to pass assessment tests it is important that a teacher remember that if they have to teach something they would rather not but they should just develop a positive attitude toward the subject and reframe the assignment to make it fun. Enthusiasm is key to teaching success. If a teacher has it, life in the classroom can be exciting, if it is missing there is little hope that the students will learn much of significance enthusiasm is contagious. Be a carrier Susan Rabin, author and communications consultant
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
A 2009 act of Congress designed to create jobs, spur economic activity, and foster accountability and transparency in government spending.
socioeconomic status (SES)
A division of population based on occupation, income, and education. it's a system for measuring the economic conditions of people using the families occupational status, income, and educational attainment as measures of status.
secular humanism
The belief that moral standards do not require religious justification. secular humanism asserts that Dignity of human beings, but ignores the idea of God and the spiritual.
Cognitive Tools
Computer applications that are used to engage and enhance thinking.
guidelines for educators when dealing with suspension and expulsion
Documentation: before suspension and expulsion can take place, students must be notified either in writing or orally of the nature of their offense in the intended punishment Explanation: the school must give students a clear explanation of the evidence on which the disciplinary charges rest Opportunity to Defend Oneself: the school must give students an opportunity to refute the charges before a fair and impartial individual with decision-making Authority
character education
Efforts by the home, the school, the religious community, and individual students to help students know the good, love the good, and do the good and, in the process, to forge good qualities such as courage, respect, and responsibility. A "good student" has come to mean someone who does well on tests and achieves academically rather than someone who is a good person and who demonstrates characteristics such as responsibility, consideration for others, self-discipline, and the ability to work hard. To achieve excellence in student achievement, according to these critics, serious school reform must address the issue of character education, which we define as the effort to help the young acquire a moral compass—that is, a sense of right and wrong and also the enduring habits necessary to live a good life. Character education, then, involves helping children to know the good, love the good, and do the good. A counselor is calling a student's home about apparently excused absences, only to find that the parent's letters have been forged. A young boy is in the principal's office for threatening his teacher with a knife. Three students are separated from their class after hurling racial epithets at a fourth. A girl is complaining that her locker has been broken into and all her belongings stolen. A small group of boys are huddling in a corner, shielding an exchange of money for drug packets. Female students complain that they are being rudely groped when their teacher leaves the room. In the playground, two girls grab a third and punch her in the stomach for flirting with the wrong boy.Footnote Schools that tolerate such behavior not only are failing to address the character education needs of their students but also have become places where the intellectual goals of schooling are impaired. In addition, such schools win little support from the general public, the people who pay for public education. We believe that most educators know it is impossible to educate students in a moral vacuum. The process of schooling necessarily affects the way children think about issues of right and wrong and affects the ways they behave. Further, the overwhelming majority of Americans, regardless of religion, class, or racial background, support certain moral values such as respect, a thirst for justice, honesty, responsibility in our dealings with one another, consideration, compassion, persistence at hard tasks, and courage in the face of adversity. For many years, we believed that teaching these moral values effectively would have the indirect and important result of helping students become more academically successful. Recent research has borne out this linkage.Footnote Further, we believe that most people would wholeheartedly support schools' vigorous advocacy of these virtues. Teachers and schools can positively influence the development of desirable habits and character formation in numerous ways, but two in particular are worthy of note: using the curriculum and involving students in service activities.
teacher competency testing
Examinations given to teachers to assess their professional knowledge and skills.
real encounter
Face-to-face experiences that are powerful sources of learning.
in loco parentis
Refers to the legal responsibility of a person or organization to take on some of the functions and responsibilities of a parent. like a teacher
active learning
Learning in which the student takes control of or is positively involved in the process of his or her education; strongly associated with constructivism.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Legislation passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities. Under this Act, discrimination against a disabled person is illegal in employment, transportation, public accommodations, communications and government activities.
psychic reward
Mental and spiritual benefits. Teaching has many.
lifelong learners
People who continue throughout their lives to learn new things after they leave school.
special education
Programs that address the needs of students with mental, emotional, or physical disabilities.
certification
Recognition by a profession that one of its practitioners has met certain standards. Often used as a synonym for licensure, which is governmental approval to perform certain work, such as teaching.
dame schools
Schools that women opened in their homes to teach girls and boys to read and write. They'd also sometimes teach girls how to cook, sew, etcs. Housewife stuff. The dame schools often provided all the formal education some children, especially girls, ever received.
English language learners (ELL)
Students that must learn English while also mastering the content of their regular classes.
culturally responsive teaching
Teaching that is continuously responsive to the race, class, culture, ethnicity, and language of each student. It is based on the knowledge and active use of students' backgrounds and cultural experiences to create and implement curriculum, ensuring that all students are successful in school. many Educators have documented how cultural identity, communication Styles, and social expectations of students from Minority cultural groups often conflict with the values, beliefs, and cultural assumptions of teachers creating a welcoming and safe learning environment begins with awareness. Teachers and administrators must have an awareness of who their students are.
Licensure
The approval given to an individual by a governmental agency, usually the state, to perform a particular work, such as teaching.
Liberationist Approach
The liberationist approach, the third and final approach, views the teacher as one who frees and opens the mind of the learner, initiating him or her into human ways of knowing and assisting the learner in becoming a well-rounded, knowledgeable, and moral human being. The classical idea of a liberal education underwrites the mainstream version of this approach. 2 Roberto Umbras appears to be engaged in this approach.
local school board
The policymaking body of a school district; it represents the citizens of the district in setting up a school program, hiring school personnel, and generally determining local policy related to public education.
public comprehensive high school
The predominant form of secondary education in America in the twentieth century. It provides both preparation for college and a vocational education for students not going on to college.
moving school
When settlers spread out, seeking better farmland, the town schools began to disappear. What emerged in their place was the so-called moving school, in which a schoolmaster traveled from village to village, holding sessions in each place for several months before moving on. A school of the colonial period wherein a teacher moved from village to village, spending several months in each town.
McGuffey Readers
William Holmes McGuffey, a PA teacher, created a series of elementary textbooks that became widely accepted as the basis of reading and moral instruction in hundreds of schools; extolled virtues of hard work, punctuality and sobriety
Ethnicity
applies to people who may be racially similar or different but who share a common culture, usually including language, customs, and religion
contract
a binding agreement between two or more persons that is enforceable by law
Essentialism
an educational philosophy that emphasizes a Core Body of Knowledge and Skills necessary for Effective participation in society. Proponents believe that an educated person must have this core of Knowledge and Skills, and that all children should be taught it this is a uniquely American philosophy of education that began in the 1930s and 40s as a reaction to What was seen as an overemphasis on a child-centered approach to education, and a concern that students were not gaining appropriate and adequate knowledge in schools ________________________ essentialism has flaws offical Origins into older philosophies and draw something from each. From Plato's idealism, it takes the view of the Mind as the central tool for understanding and objective and unchanging reality, as well as for learning those essential ideas and knowledge that we need to live well. from Aristotle's realism, it takes a tenant that the Mind learns through contact with the physical world; according to this view, to know reality, we must learn to observe and measure the physical world accurately. From our observations, we use our reasoning ability to gain new knowledge. This contrasts with the perennialist view that reason alone can lead to truth __________ essentialists believe that there exists a critical core of information and skills that an educated person must have. They are convinced that the overwhelming number of children can and should learn the body of essential material.did you not focus on the method of transmitting this knowledge but instead on the knowledge itself that the students gain. _________ essentialism sounds a good deal like perennialism. yet essentialists do not focus as intently on Truth as the perennialists do. they're less concerned with the classics as being the primary repository of worthwhile knowledge. Instead, essentialist search for what will help a person live in a productive society and life today. ex: computer literacy similar to perennialists, essentialists look upon the many elective courses in our high schools as Frills that distract students from the cork knowledge they will later need. But at the same time they make more room for scientific, Technical, and even vocational mphasis within the curriculum while the perennialism holds fast to the Great Books as the storehouse of critical knowledge. __________ essentialist see themselves as valuing the past, but not being captured by it the aim of education is to teach youth the essentials they need to live well in the modern world ______ yet, they see the role of students as simply that of Learners instead of debating whether children can contribute fruitfully. They don't give an individual child's interests, motivations, and psychological States much attention in deciding what is to be taught. They do not Advocate a romantic view of children as being naturally good. They don't see them as evil but rather as deficient and needing discipline and pressure to keep learning. teachers are not guides, but authorities. The students job is to listen and learn. ______ things that are not purely an essentialist movement but have much of its thoughts behind it are State Standards, standardized testing, No Child Left Behind Act, race to the top, and the Common Core _____ in other words essentialism is like perennialism, but instead of focusing solely on the past it also Embraces Science and Technology and the modern world. they both focus on a teacher being more authoritarian and the students being the learner. they don't worry about the personal stuff. they both in body Essentials and core content.
assistive technology
array of devices that permit people with disabilities to improve their functioning motorized chairs, remote control units to trim an appliances, voice recognition systems, ramps to enter and exit buildings, and computer or tablet can all assist people with severe disabilities computers are specially important it allowing many students with the range of disabilities to participate in normal classroom activities that would otherwise be impossible assistive technology must be considered a potential component of the IEP for each student with disabilities.
what is a teacher's contract?
contracts covery set. Of time. Most new teachers work on a contract that has to be renewed annually if the teacher is to stay employed by the school district. Even teachers on 10-year sign a yearly contract stipulating the terms of employment. Occasionally teachers may continue to work under a continuing contract, which is an agreement between a school district and a teacher outlining the conditions and terms of work, which states that its terms will remain in force until the teacher has given notice that the contract will be terminated on a particular date
Mainstreaming
integrating students with disabilities or special needs into the overall educational program the practice of placing special education students in general education classes for at least part of the school day, with additional Services, programs, or class is being provided to the students as needed
the four R's
reading, 'riting, 'rithmetic, and religion
instructional decision making
using student achievement data to support the choice of instructional strategies used during a lesson. This can be done before, during, or after a lesson. plan, Implement, evaluate
refection
conscious and analytical thought by an individual about what he or she is doing and how the action affects others
project method
created by Progressive educator William heard Kilpatrick who lived 1871 to 1965. He was a professor of philosophy of education at Columbia University in New York. He followed many of Dewey's ideas about education, but different on the importance of subject matter and a child's educational experience. he rejected formal curriculum study and developed the project method of Education, in which students work in groups on a topic of interest to them. He believed that because students learn only what is of interested to them, they should be the ones to determine topics of study.
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
English Language Arts
this program seeks to develop skills of Reading, Writing, speaking, and listening, as well as a knowledge of culture as represented in literature in elementary schools, most language arts programs focus on helping students develop a written and oral communication skills, comprehension and problem-solving strategies, creativity, and appreciation for language and literature at the secondary level, English courses focus on integration of the language arts using literature as the prime motivator adjusting the curriculum and use of standards for children from multiple Language and Cultural backgrounds constitutes a major challenge for language arts and English teachers
Department of Education guidelines to create new Common Ground between religious expression and religious freedom and avoid a hostile region
-Public Schools should not interfere with or intrude on a family's religious beliefs -public education should be respectful of religion, open to appropriate religious expression, and should teach about religion because it is so very much part of our nation's history -advocacy of a particular religion by teachers and administrators has no place in public education -students religious clubs in groups are entitled to hold meetings, to have common prayer, to read scriptures, and to have their meetings publicized through school bulletin boards, newspapers, and public address systems -although school-sponsored prayer should not be permitted, it is appropriate to begin the school day with a moment of silence
the five different approaches to Multicultural education that explain why the term often has very different meanings for different people
1) teaching the exceptional and culturally different. - this helps students achieve academically and socially within currently existing schools by Building Bridges between the students backgrounds and the schools to make the curriculum more accessible to all 2) human relations - attempts to develop a cultural awareness and positive relations among members of diverse groups 3) single group studies - these focus on programs that examine particular groups, such as African American studies or women's studies 4) Multicultural approaches - these promote cultural pluralism by reconstructing the whole educational process around the perspectives of diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and social classes 5) Multicultural social justice -this teaches students to examine inequality and oppression in society and to take action to remediate these inequalities Multicultural education is not just for members of minority racial or ethnic groups, rather it is for all students and citizens.
Private Schools 3 Major Purposes
1)instruction for various religious denominations, (2)an exclusive education for the wealthy, and (3)an alternative for any group that finds the available forms of education unsatisfactory.
three types of knowledge shown by effective teachers
1- discipline content (including the structure of the discipline) -like understanding the principles and elements of art 2- curriculum content -what you were actually supposed to teach the students and what they're supposed to learn for the assessments 3- pedagogical content -blending your personal experience with your discipline content to create an understandable curriculum assignment
religious neutrality principle in the classroom by Thomas McDaniel recommends for guidelines for putting it into practice
1- students may not be required to salute the flag or to stand for the flag salute if this Behavior conflicts with their religious beliefs 2-Bible reading, even without comment, may not be practiced in a public school with the intent to promote worship 3- prayer is an act of worship and as such cannot be a regular part of opening exercises or other aspects of the regular school day 4- worship services such as prayer and Bible reading, are not constitutional, even if voluntary rather than compulsory. consensus, majority vote, or excusing objectors from class or participation does not make these practices legal. This principle of religious neutrality does not mean that the public school must completely ignore religion. On the contrary, teachers in public schools are free to study the history and contributions (pro and cons) of individual religions with their students, to have them read the Bible as literature, and in general to expose students to our culture has religious Heritage. It is only when teachers cross the line by advocating a particular religion or involving students in prayer that they become vulnerable to legal action
intellectual property
A product of the intellect, such as an expressed idea or concept, that has commercial value. a product of the intellect that has commercial value, including copyrighted property such as literary or artistic works, and ideational property, such as patents, populations of a region, business methods, and Industrial processes
academy
Any institution where the higher branches of learning are taught. An attempt to combine latin and English grammar schools through separate departments within one school.
Race to the Top
A $4 billion federal program initiated in 2011 by the Obama administration to encourage states to institute reforms regarding standards, recruitment and training of teachers, establishment of data systems to track student growth, and programs to reform failing schools.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA)
A 2009 act of Congress designed to create jobs, spur economic activity, and foster accountability and transparency in government spending.
teaching portfolio
A collection of materials that tell a story about your efforts, progress, and achievements. Collection of items such as research papers, pupil evaluations, teaching units, and video clips of lessons to reflect the quality of a teacher's teaching. Portfolios can be used to illustrate to employers the teacher's experience or to obtain national board certification. Just as artists, actors, architects, and journalists use portfolios to display the products of their work, so can teachers. A teaching portfolio can include an organized collection of such items as research papers, letters of commendation or recommendation, videos of student performances, essays, pupil evaluations, teaching units, and digital recordings of lessons you have taught. There is no set format; you are limited only by your common sense and your own imagination. Remember, the purpose of the portfolio is to market yourself effectively, so don't be modest. A properly constructed portfolio will say much more about you than your résumé ever can. Many beginning teachers are constructing electronic portfolios and making them available to potential employers either as websites or on DVDs. The advantage of an electronic portfolio is that it is easily accessible by potential employers and can be changed or enhanced as needed. Electronic teaching portfolios are also being used to demonstrate that prospective teachers have achieved standards—such as the InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium) standards—required for licensure in some states. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (discussed in Chapter 15, "What Does It Mean to Be a Professional? ") has advocated teaching portfolios as a means of assessing a teacher's work for national certification.
subject-matter curriculum
A curriculum that focuses on bodies of content or subject matter, usually the traditional subject disciplines. the current curriculum is basically a social bet on which knowledge, skills, and attitudes the older generation thinks the young need to know to prosper, personally and economically, in the 21st century. there is, by no means, a consensus among the parties involved in placing the social bet the curriculum is basically a battlefield in which conservatives and liberals, religious groups and agnostics, whites and people of color, and many other groups of grapple to ensure that their beliefs and perspectives are represented in the school's curriculum these curriculum battles at both state and local levels can be heated because those engaged to believe there is a lot at stake l
individualized family Services plan (IFSP)
A document focused on early intervention services for the family and young child who is at risk for or has a disability. Part of IDEA. usually around the age of 2 and involves the family, the participation of the state, a multidisciplinary assessment of the child's needs, a written afsp, and case management. Services May draw from a variety of areas such as special education, speech and language pathology, occupational or physical therapy, or family training and counseling, depending on the developmental needs of the child this is extended to children with disabilities from ages 3 to 5. once a child is in preschool they are covered and protected by idea. Or the individuals with disabilities Education Act
Head Start
A federally funded compensatory education program, in existence since the mid-1960s, that provides additional educational services to young children suffering the effects of poverty. Head Start is a federal program that aims to improve the learning skills, social skills, and health status of preschool-age, poor children so that they can begin schooling on an equal basis with their more advantaged peers. Since its inception in 1965, Head Start has served more than 30 million children in total, and it currently supports almost 1 million children. Footnote Although Head Start is almost 50 years old, the program is not without its critics and, like other sectors of public education, is the target of reform. For the 2011 fiscal year, the federal government budgeted $8.2 billion for Head Start programs (it received $8.6 billion for fiscal year 2014). Along with Congress's reauthorization of the Head Start program, however, came a call for a new focus on academics. The proposed focus on academics has been strongly opposed by many early-childhood education experts, who fear that the increased attention to academic skills will dilute efforts to promote positive social and emotional development and that the health services Head Start currently provides will be abandoned. Others argue that there is no reason why Head Start programs cannot address all these goals satisfactorily. Certainly, the students served by Head Start programs need and deserve attention to academic, social, and health concerns so that they will be prepared to succeed in school.
authentic assessment, or performance assessment
A recent trend in student evaluation that attempts to measure real student performance on significant tasks; the focus is on what we want the student to be able to do. Also called performance assessment. Advocates claim that authentic assessment involves performance tests that get closer to how students apply knowledge rather than how they store it in their minds.
credential file
A file established by college students—typically with the school's career planning and placement office—that contains materials important for securing a teaching job, for example, letters of recommendation, a transcript, and a résumé. Typically this file includes letters of recommendation, a copy of your transcript, and a résumé. Career planning and placement office personnel will help you assemble this file, and they will send copies of your file to school districts on your request. You should start working on this file early in your program so that you will have plenty of time to accumulate the required materials. Letters of recommendation should be recent, and they should come from those who are familiar with your teaching, academic knowledge, and character. Be certain to include letters from your university supervisor and your cooperating teacher in whose classroom you did your student or internship teaching. Be familiar with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, also known as the Buckley amendment (discussed more fully in Chapter 8, "What Are the Ethical and Legal Issues Facing Teachers? "), which affords you certain kinds of legal protection regarding what goes into your file. Many applications require that job seekers submit transcripts as well. Because colleges charge several dollars per transcript, you can save money by reproducing the transcript yourself. Most school districts will accept such unofficial transcripts (i.e., transcripts sent from you rather than directly from the college) for the initial screening process. If you receive a job offer, you will then have to provide the school district with an official copy. When you send your résumé, transcripts, and other materials to prospective school districts, the package should include a cover letter. The cover letters you write should be addressed individually. The letters may all have the same or similar content, but the recipients should not feel they are receiving a standard letter. And be sure to ask for an interview at the end of the letter—that's why you are writing it! Review your personal Facebook account to be certain that it doesn't negatively affect your consideration for teaching positions. Check your privacy settings and delete any pictures, videos, or web links that could be perceived as inappropriate by potential employers, such as images or links showing you using alcohol or tobacco, or being inappropriate dressed.
performance pay (pay for performance)
A financial reward given to teachers, based on the special quality of their work. In 2007, 28 nationally recognized, award-winning teachers came together and issued a widely hailed report, "Performance Pay for Teachers: Designing a System that Students Deserve," which forcefully calls for changes in the way the United States recognizes excellence in teaching.Footnote Also, the Obama administration made pay for performance a strong plank in its Race to the Top school improvement plan. In 2010, however, supporters of merit pay plans, such as pay for performance, received a setback with the release of a study by the National Center on Performance Incentives. This large-scale study concluded that students of teachers receiving performance pay achieved no better on tests than those taught by teachers not receiving such financial bonuses.Footnote However, we doubt that this is the end of efforts to provide pay incentives to outstanding teachers.
English grammar school
A form of secondary education in the latter half of the colonial period that provided a practical alternative education for students who were not interested in college.
John Dewey (1859-1952)
A leader of the pragmatist movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, He applied the philosophy to education and social reform, advocating "learning by doing" as well as the application of knowledge to solving real life problems. He became an outspoken promoter of social and political reforms that broadened American democracy. ________ he called his own philosophy instrumental isn't emphasized the principle that ideas are instruments. He argued that philosophy and education both involve a practical, experimental attempt to improve The Human Condition. he completely rejected and denounced the public schools classical curriculum of the 19th century and said it was unsuited to the demands of newly industrialized Society of the United States. he claims that the schools were divorced from life and that they failed to teach children how to use knowledge. he defined education as a continuous reconstruction of experience and said that schools should teach children not what to think, but how to think. he called for schools to provide a concentrated study of democratic processes and to reflect those processes in the organization of school life, going as far as advocating that students be given the power to make decisions affecting life in the school in a democratic way. He considered participation in life, rather than preparation for it, the Hallmark of an Effective Education he fought vehemently against the corrupt View. The importance to produce a good citizen is more important then to produce a person who is educated.
parent-teacher organization (PTO)
A local organization, usually centered around each school, that consists of both parents and teachers at that school. Its purpose is to serve as a communication mechanism between the school and the parents of the school's students.
civic learning (civic education)
A part of social studies that emphasizes preparing students to be good citizens by becoming aware of our common heritage and engaging issues related to character and values. Students learn to apply principles of democracy to everyday concerns they will face and/or already face as citizens.
site-based decision making
A school reform effort to decentralize, allowing decisions to be made and budgets to be established at the school-building level, where most of the changes need to occur. Usually teachers become involved in the decision-making process. Also known as site-based management, school-based management, or school-based decision making.
middle school
A school that bridges the grades between elementary school and high school, usually grades 6 to 8. It differs from a junior high school because it is specifically designed for young adolescents, with a strong emphasis on personal growth and development, rather than mimicking the high school's emphasis on academics and sports, as junior high schools often did. Since the 1960s, the system of five elementary-three intermediate-four secondary grades has become increasingly popular, with a middle school being home to grades 6, 7, and 8 rather than a junior high school. Advocates argue that middle schools have significant advantages over junior high schools. For one thing, they offer a unique environment where 10- to 13-year-olds are free to grow up at their own rates and where attention is focused on the needs of this age group rather than on mimicking the high school's emphasis on academic and sports competition, as is often the case with junior high schools. Because of the earlier onset of puberty in today's children, sixth-graders may be better served in a school designed for early adolescents in grades 6, 7, and 8 than in an elementary school. Additionally, giving the ninth grade, which is still considered the first year in the college entrance sequence, to the high school frees middle schools to try new programs and new approaches without having to make them specifically applicable to college preparation.
career ladders
A series of steps in an occupation. Usually the higher steps ("rungs" on the ladder) bring new tasks, more responsibility, increased status, and enhanced rewards. Critics have long complained about the "flatness" of the career structure in teaching. The criticism goes something like this: "Beginners have too much responsibility at the start of their careers and too little opportunity to make the most of their abilities once they really learn to teach. The only way to get promoted in education has been to be promoted away from students, by becoming a department chair, curriculum coordinator, or administrator." With the encouragement of state legislatures, a variety of teacher specialty programs, such as master teacher programs, differentiated staffing, and mentoring programs for new teachers, have now appeared on the scene. Typically, these programs give experienced teachers new roles, new responsibilities, and usually new rewards. Although these innovations have had limited adoption, the assumption that "a teacher is a teacher is a teacher" has been dispelled, and new roles, such as mentor teacher, lead teacher, and team leader, have been opened to teachers who not only want new challenges but also want to stay in the classroom, close to students
Educational Philosophy
A set of ideas and beliefs about education that guide the professional behavior of educators there are some that are not talked about a lot like neo-thomism, existentialism, classical Eastern thought - Buddhism, Confucianism. the ones talk about the most are perennialism, essentialism, Romanticism, and progressivism Behind these words are very different ideas of what people are, how we should live our lives, and how we should conduct the education of children. Each of these for viewpoints has exerted a major influence on American educational thought and practice
Limited English Proficient (LEP) I
A student who possesses limited mastery of the English language affecting instruction and learning.
Compensatory education
Educational support to provide a more equal opportunity for disadvantaged students through activities such as remedial instruction and early learning.
TPACK (Technology, Pedagogy, and Content Knowledge)
A teacher's TPACK is a composite of seven knowledge domains: Content knowledge (CK): knowledge of the subject matter to be taught (e.g., American literature, geometry, biology); Pedagogical knowledge (PK): knowledge of the methods of teaching and learning (e.g., classroom management, instructional planning, and assessment); Technology knowledge (TK): knowledge of the continually evolving technologies used for communications and problem solving, focusing on the productive uses of technology in daily life; Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): knowledge of the pedagogies most appropriate to teaching a given subject matter; Technological content knowledge (TCK): knowledge of the relationship between specific subject matter and technology; Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): knowledge of technology on classroom instruction; and Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK): knowledge of the complex interactions among the knowledge domains (content, pedagogy, and technology).Footnote
simulation
A technique for learning or practicing skills that involves dealing with a realistic but artificial problem or situation. Typically, it provides an opportunity for safe practice with feedback on performance.
voucher plans
A type of educational choice plan that gives parents a receipt or written statement that they can exchange for the schooling they believe is most desirable for their child. The school, in turn, can cash in the received vouchers for the money to pay teachers and buy resources. Also called school vouchers. More controversial than charter schools are school voucher plans. In their typical form, vouchers give the parent-consumer the widest array of choices. In effect, this type of plan gives parents a piece of paper, a voucher worth a certain dollar amount, that they can use to help pay the costs for their child to attend the public or private school of their choice. The school collects a voucher from each student who chooses that school and then turns in its vouchers to the state government for real dollars with which to run the school. The voucher idea came to public attention 1955 when Nobel Laureate economist Milton Friedman wrote an article entitled "The Role of Government in Education," based on well-known free-market principles, in hopes that increased competition would lead to student achievement gains and lower costs.Footnote Friedman strongly questioned the appropriateness in a democracy of the government (national, state, and local) dictating what is taught in school. According to Friedman, in a "pure choice" system, all schools would be public schools, the way all department stores are public stores. Advocates of the voucher system believe it would release an enormous amount of competition-driven creativity in our schools. Teachers and administrators would join together to provide high-quality, unique educational programs that would attract students and parents. Educational institutions would be like most other American enterprises, competing to put out the best possible product—namely, students. Those that succeeded would prosper, attracting many students (and therefore voucher dollars). Those schools and teachers who failed to attract or hold "customers" would "go out of business," perhaps to start again with a better educational idea. In Milwaukee, which initiated the voucher plan idea in 1990, 112 schools currently enroll nearly 25,000 students in the voucher program with a maximum per-pupil payment of $6,442. A 2013 report from the Public Policy Forum, a nonpartisan government watchdog group, found that students in the voucher program perform slightly worse on standardized tests in reading and mathematics, although the voucher schools educate students for less money than the public schools.Footnote Cleveland's voucher plan was quickly tested in the courts, because most of the students chose to use their vouchers for Catholic schools, which raised concerns about whether spending public dollars for students to attend religious schools violates the principle of church and state separation. In 2002, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (in Zelman v. Simmons-Harris) in a five-to-four decision that Cleveland's voucher plan, which empowers parents to redeem tuition vouchers at either religious or nonreligious private schools, does not violate the constitutional prohibition against "establishment" of religion because government aid goes directly to parents, who then use it at their discretion. This decision is interpreted as giving a green light to states to implement school voucher plans to assist students attending "failing schools," and more school voucher plans are likely to be implemented. Some public education critics see the voucher concept as the savior of education in the United States. Others see it as a plot to undermine both the public schools and their interpretation of the meaning of the separation of church and state. Many politicians who support charter schools oppose voucher plans. They see charter schools as providing choice opportunities to parents and encouraging school reform efforts while staying within the public education system, but view voucher plans as draining money from the public schools and delivering those funds to private and religious schools. Vouchers reduce funding indirectly by decreasing public school enrollment, which is one of the factors on which governments base their allocations of money to public schools. Opponents of voucher plans have voiced several other objections and concerns to these ventures: They argue that voucher plans bring false hopes of school choice because the private schools, not the parents, do the choosing through admissions decisions, and a private school is under no obligation to accept students with vouchers. In some proposals, the vouchers are worth only $1,000 to $2,500 per student, seriously limiting the choices of schools for which these amounts would pay the actual costs of tuition. Citing the fact that vouchers are being used to educate children in religious schools and in spite of the recent Supreme Court ruling, many still see this use of vouchers as breaching the wall of church-state separation. Many voucher opponents, including the two largest teacher unions, suggest that if voucher plans become widespread, the public schools will lose much-needed revenue and be forced to educate children with great needs, whom the private schools would not accept, while lacking the resources to do a good job. Voucher opponents contend that applying market forces to educational institutions doesn't make sense, arguing instead that schools should be driven by the need to serve the public good, not the desire of individuals and corporations to earn profits. Those who support voucher plans offer counterarguments to many of these objections. For example, although funding private and religious schools with public money is very controversial in the United States, it is a less contentious issue in many other countries. The United States is one of the few developed nations with such strict limits on parental choice of schools. Many other Western democracies fund private or religious schools with public money, although if these schools accept public money, they usually have to meet certain conditions required by the government. Voucher supporters also point out that although many people believe U.S. tax dollars fund only public schools, private and religious schools already benefit from public money. The major breakthrough for private and religious schools was the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, which funneled millions of dollars into private schools through federal Title I programs to support the education of poor children. In addition, private schools in many states have received public assistance ranging from pupil transportation, textbooks, health services, and general auxiliary services to salary supplements for teachers. In general, state assistance in areas other than transportation, milk, school lunch programs, and textbooks has been attacked in the courts. Both federal and state monies, however, have been used to provide scholarship aid to students attending religious universities and colleges. Another argument cited in support of voucher plans notes that the private schools, which provide education for more than 5 million students each year, lighten the burden of the public schools. If, for example, the cash-strapped Catholic school system collapsed, about 2 million new students would enroll in the public schools, creating a massive shortage of space, teachers, and money. Advocates of private school aid argue that by partially subsidizing private schools to keep them in operation, the public schools can avoid a deluge of students whom they would be unable to assimilate readily. If a substantial number of these schools were to shut down, the public schools would incur a substantial portion of these costs. As is the case for charter schools, research on the success or failure of various voucher plans is limited and, in the eyes of many, driven by ideological issues. The issue of school choice is likely to remain a contentious one for some time to come.
private venture schools
A type of school in the middle states during colonial times, licensed by the civil government but not protected or financed by it. In these private schools, parents paid the teacher directly on a contractual basis. Instructors managed the school and curriculum, accepting or rejecting students as desired. The denominational schools in the Middle Colonies shared the New England concern for proper religious training as a primary goal, but they also began early to offer, in addition to the basics, practical subjects such as bookkeeping or navigation.
differentiated instruction
A variety of techniques used to adapt instruction to the individual ability levels and learning styles of each student in the classroom in other words, differentiated instruction tries to respond to student variance rather than adopting a standardized approach to teaching that assumes all Learners in a class are essentially like to do this, teachers can differentiate three aspects of the curriculum. Content, Process, and Products Content: refers to the concepts, principles, and skills that teachers want students to learn. All students should be given access to the same core content, but teachers can provide different means ( texts, lectures, and demonstrations) to give students access to skills and knowledge Process: refers to the activities that help students make sense of and own the knowledge being taught. Teachers can vary the activities to provide some students with access to more complexity and others with more support, depending on their Readiness levels, interests, or learning preferences Product: refers to culminating projects that students develop to demonstrate and extend what they have learned. The products assigned can vary depending on students interests or learning preferences. For example, some students might prefer to work as members of a group while producing a play about the topic being studied, While others might prefer to work alone while writing a term paper differentiating content, process, and product for students requires teachers to know their students, they're subject, and their materials. There is no formula for differentiation, no single best way to address all possible student differences. Rather, teachers must make a commitment to start with students and to make it match between Lerner and the material to be learned. The goal, however, is always the same, to maximize the capacities of each student
intellectual capital
Another term for knowledge.
school choice
Allowing parents to select alternative educational programs for their children, either within a given school or among different schools.
Old Deluder Satan Act
An early colonial education law (1647) that required colonial towns of at least fifty households to provide education for youth. These were called town schools. Because Satan assuredly would try to keep people from understanding the Scriptures, it was deemed important that all children be taught how to read. Therefore, every town of 50 or more families was obligated to pay a man to teach reading and writing. With these schools, known as town schools, New England set the precedent that if parents would not or could not educate their children, the government was obligated to take on that responsibility.
Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
An education initiative that has created a uniform set of learning expectations in English and math for students at the end of each grade. Although participation is voluntary, most states have joined this initiative. in other words, it defines the Knowledge and Skills students should have within their K through 12 education careers so that they will graduate high school able to succeed in entry-level, credit-bearing academic college courses and in Workforce training programs. these standards came about because many states varied on the difficulty of these standards and there was too much variation. Many people believed that what students learn and English and Mathematics shouldn't differ depending on what state they live in. Thus, the Common Core State Standards were developed. as of 2014 in May, 44th States and the District of Columbia had voluntarily adopted the the first states to assess students using the new standards and tests discovered that their failure rate had increased dramatically. Students score spell dramatically as teachers and students struggled to teach and learn the higher standards and succeed with the more rigorous tests. Whether or not the majority of States who have signed on to the Common Core State Standards will stay the course remains to be seen
Digital Story or Digital Storytelling
An instructional approach in which students use images, often digital photos, accompanied by their own written and recorded narrative to create a story that is stored digitally.
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA)
An international assessment of 15-year-old students in mathematics, science, and reading, administered every three years.
cooperative learning
Approach to instruction in which students work with a small group of peers to achieve a common goal and help one another learn. those who have analyzed the hidden curriculum, or the implicit teaching that schools communicate to their students, have observed that US schools tend to reward competitive or individual accomplishment more than Cooperative effort. arguing for Cooperative learning techniques, some Educators maintain that such techniques can change the ways students learn, there are attitudes toward what they're taught, in their perceptions of themselves and others by their structure and individual assignments, Cooperative learning strategies avoid the problem of letting the hard-working students in the group do all the work while the other students get a free ride although the effectiveness can vary. It depends on the particular approach. But, overall positive effects have been found on such diverse outcomes as self-esteem, Intergroup relations, acceptance of academically slower students, attitudes towards school, and the ability to work cooperatively the success of Cooperative learning strategies comes from three important characteristics. Group goals, individual accountability, and equal opportunity for success
Awareness (A)
Awareness (A) is the second in the framework of common elements. It is quite straightforward, for it refers to what the teacher knows about his or her students, including such things as their interests, talents, and concerns; their personal histories and family backgrounds; and their performance in previous years of schooling. Awareness, in this context, is not about "real time" awareness, such as when a teacher becomes aware that a student is about to do something he or she should not do. Awareness as we use it here refers to what and how much the teacher knows about the students.
cultural literacy (core knowledge)
Being aware of the central ideas, stories, scientific knowledge, events, and personalities of a culture; also known as core knowledge. Cultural Literacy is important because authors and speakers make allusions and references in their writing and speaking, assuming that the audience understands these references. If the person doesn't understand the reference he or she will miss the point and not understand the message
tools for learning
Cognitive skills that make independent learning possible. They include advanced reading, remembering, recording, researching, test taking, analyzing, and creating. As teachers, we must give our students the necessary tools for learning: advanced reading, remembering, recording, researching, test taking, analyzing, and creating. These tools can help students excel not just in school but also later in the workplace and in life in general. Here is a list of some skills, which we call tools for learning, that we believe ought to be taught to all students: Various methods for remembering important information. This skill largely involves teaching people how not to forget—how to move information from the fleeting short-term memory to the more enduring long-term memory. Two or three methods of taking notes and saving important information. Definite skills are associated with capturing what another person is saying, and students should systematically learn these skills. Study reading. People practice "study reading" when the material is complex and contains information they want to remember later. This technique is quite different from reading a novel or reading a telephone book. This set of skills lies at the heart of academic success, as well as success in many jobs. Preparing for different kinds of tests. Schools should teach students how to study for different types of tests, such as objective and essay tests, and how to deal with test anxiety in various situations. Because examinations and tests do not end with graduation, schools should teach students how to cope with and master these challenges. Doing research. Students need to learn how to get answers to questions by using libraries, the Internet, expert sources, and data-gathering resources of all kinds. In essence, these skills focus on finding and accessing different data sources and using the information to solve a problem. Thinking through a problem in a systematic way. Instead of jumping to conclusions or relying on how they feel about an issue, students should learn how to think critically. Generating creative ideas. Much of life—in and out of school—requires new solutions or imaginative resolutions. Students need to learn techniques for generating novel and creative ideas individually, as well as group-oriented techniques such as brainstorming. Getting the academic job done. Students need to know how to set goals, develop a work plan, monitor their own behavior, bring a task to successful closure, and gradually become more successful at academic learning. This ability is important not simply to succeed in school but also because the modern workplace demands these same skills.
Northwest Ordinances of 1784, 1785, and 1787
Concerned with the sale of public lands in the Northwest Territory (which ranged from present-day Ohio to Minnesota), Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1785. Every township was divided into 36 sections, of which one was set aside for the maintenance of public schools. In the ordinance of 1787, Congress reaffirmed that "religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged."Footnote Set up plans for how new states would enter the union. One of few successes of Articles of Confederation (AOC).
Inclusion
Educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom. pindicates an even greater commitment to keeping students with disabilities in regular classrooms. It usually involves bringing the support services to the child rather than moving the child to Services located in separate rooms and buildings
Multicultural education
Education that teaches the value of cultural diversity. Multicultural education is an idea, an educational reform movement, and a process whose major goal is to change the structure of educational institutions so that male and female students, exceptional students, and students who are members of diverse racial, ethnic, language, and cultural groups will have an equal chance to achieve academically in school this idea was spurred by the civil rights movement in the 1960s. It was a response to economic inequality, racism, and sexism in American culture. Now it has embraced and broadened to include gender, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and other forms of diversity. at the heart of Multicultural education is the belief that all students deserve a quality schooling experience. its goals include reducing Prejudice and fostering tolerance, improving the academic achievement of all students, building commitment to the American ideals of pluralism and democracy, and incorporating diverse groups perspectives into the curriculum of our schools similar to cultural pluralism on which it is based, Multicultural education rejects both the notion of the Melting Pot and separatist philosophies multiculturalism also would not just promote 1 cultures background, like African American. it would promote education and perspective from many different cultures and view points Educators who support Multicultural education see establishing social justice for all people - but particularly for those who have experienced discrimination - as a moral and ethical responsibility
Ends (E)
Ends (E), the fourth element, are the purposes a teacher has for his teaching and for his students. Ends are revealed in the answers to such questions as the following: What do you want your students to know and be able to do? What are you trying to accomplish as a teacher? What are your ideal educational aims? Although all five of the MAKER elements can be slippery to interpret, Ends is perhaps the trickiest. That is because we often draw a distinction between the ends of education and the ends of schooling. Did that last sentence cause you to pause, wondering what we could possibly mean by distinguishing schooling from education? The difference between the two becomes increasingly important as we move from executive to facilitator to liberationist.
categorical grants
Federal aid to education that must be spent for purposes that are specified in the legislation and by the federal agency administering the funds.
National Education Goals (Goals 2000)
Goals for U.S. education, established by the president and the 50 state governors and legislated by Congress, that were intended to be reached by the year 2000. Since the publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983, education has had a prime place in every presidential candidate's platform. After President Reagan, President George H. W. Bush launched an aggressive educational reform effort called National Education Goals (Goals 2000). With the support and cooperation of the 50 state governors, this program committed the nation to achieve six educational milestones by the arrival of the new millennium. The next president, Bill Clinton, added two more goals and recommitted the nation to achieve these goals by 2000.Footnote Although well intentioned, in retrospect the National Education Goals for 2000 effort seems somewhat naïve, promising more than the schools could reasonably deliver.
multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner, a leading psychologists, explains that we all have strengths, weaknesses, and unique combinations of cognitive abilities that we use to approach problems and create products. 1) verbal-linguistic intelligence -draws an on an individual's language skills, oral and written, to express what's on the person's mind and to understand other people 2) logical-mathematical intelligence -is a person's ability to understand principles of some kind of casual system, like a scientist does, or to manipulate numbers, quantities, and operations, like a mathematician does 3) spatial intelligence -refers to the ability to represent the Special World internally in the mind, like a chess player or sculpture does 4) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence -is the capacity to use your whole body or parts of your body to solve a problem, make something, or put on some kind of production, like it that of an athlete or a Performing Artist 5) musical intelligence -is the capacity to "think" in music and to be able to hear patterns and recognized, remember, and manipulate them 6) interpersonal intelligence -is the ability to understand other people --an ability that we all need but that is particularly important for teachers, salespeople, and politicians 7) intrapersonal intelligence -refers to having an understanding of yourself and knowing your preferences, capabilities, and deficiencies 8) naturalist intelligence -refers to the ability to discriminate among living things (plants and animals) and to have sensitivity toward features of the natural world, such as rock formations and clouds 9) existential intelligence -refers to the ability to pause and Ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities these ways of learning are important because schools tend to focus only on linguistic and logical mathematical abilities. Thus, all the others who do not have strength in these intelligence types will do poorly. like telling a fish to fly and telling a bird to burrow.
schools-within-schools
In large schools, the establishment of "houses" of teachers and 100 to 400 students. Because students and teachers stay in the same house for several years, they are able to establish stronger and deeper relationships. Each student is a known person rather than a name on a class roster.
Due Process - Students
In loco Parentis Serious Cases: Written notice: charges, time, place, descrip of procedures to follow, evidence, & witnesses (PEW), Continuum of Due Process according to seriousness of offense Right to: Representation cross examine witnesses, present witnesses on behalf, written or taped record of the proceeding & findings, appeal p
WebQuest
Inquiry-based learning projects utilizing information from preselected websites. An inquiry-based learning activity that directs learners in using information from the Web.
Education in the South
Jim Crow Laws were still enforced- schools still SEGREGATED by race As in England, education of the poor and orphans was often undertaken by the Anglican Church or by religious groups such as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. The society's main mission was to convert natives and slaves to Christianity. Most southern settlers were members of the Anglican Church and did not share the Puritan belief that everyone had a religious obligation to learn to read. The lack of concern for general education of the entire community caused public education in the South to lag behind that of other regions of the country for many generations. Town governments established schools, but their administration was usually delegated to a group or corporation, which could collect tuition, own property, hire and fire teachers, and decide curriculum content.
pedagogical content knowledge
Knowledge about effective methods of teaching a specific content area. skilled teacher has drawn the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations to represent and transform the subject so that students can understand it for example a physics teacher who possesses pedagogical content knowledge might use the analogy of water flowing through a pipe to explain how electricity flows through a circuit, but he or she would also know the limitations of such an analogy. pedagogical content knowledge enables teachers to recognize common misunderstandings that students may make in learning new Concepts and to know how to overcome those errors in thinking
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21
Leading advocacy organization focused on infusing 21st century skills into education A recent coalition of businesses and educational organizations and government leaders, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21), seeks to make changes in our nation's schools by aligning classroom environments with what the organization believes are real-world environments. This alignment occurs by fusing the core subjects and four C's: The core subjects include English, reading, or language arts; mathematics; science; foreign languages; civics; government; economics; arts; history; and geography. The four C's include: critical thinking and problem solving; communication, collaboration; and creativity and innovation. The P21 initiative has developed a framework outlining the knowledge and skills that students will need, and educators and business leaders are working hard to implement these outcomes in our schools. Footnote
Many contemporary educational issues have their roots in these seven themes, which continue to shape the character of American schooling and education. Consider these examples of current issues:
Local control. What should be the role of the federal government regarding education? Should federal legislation, such as the No Child Left Behind law, require states to test students in particular grades and on particular subjects? Universal education. How can we ensure the quality of education regardless of whether students live in wealthy or poor school districts? Public education. Should private and religious schools receive public tax support? Comprehensive education. Should the schools require all students—vocational and college prep—to follow a common curriculum? Secular education. How should public schools treat the presence of religion in American society and world culture? Changing ideas of the basics. Is technological literacy a new "basic" of education? If so, how will schools finance the programs that train students to use new technologies? Expanding definitions of equal access and opportunity. What should schools do about "achievement gaps" between poor and minority students and students from white or wealthier families?
Charter Schools
Over 40 years ago, a number of American cities adopted an early form of school choice, called magnet schools. These elementary, middle, and high schools specialized in a specific academic area, such as science or the arts, and in basic skills. Magnet schools were originally designed to stop white flight from urban schools and to attract (like a magnet) white students back to inner cities. Although still in existence in many cities, enthusiasm for magnet schools has been displaced by what has become the darling of choice advocates: charter schools. Public schools in which the educators, often joined by members of the local community, have made a special contract, or charter, with the chartering agency. Usually the charter allows the school a great deal of independence in its operation. Because they are independent, charter schools usually have a strong element of site-based decision making (also known as site-based management or school-based management), in which participatory decision making is the mode of operation. In theory, the charter school's site-based decision making provides everyone—teachers, parents, and students alike—with more say about what goes on in their school and with a great degree of ownership of and commitment to the decisions that are made.
Subject centered philosophies
Perennialism and Essentialism both schools of thought show a strong allegiance to the creek elem and both argued that well educated student should possess a defined body of knowledge. sometimes this is called a teacher-centered curriculum: which creates a the bad image of a authoritarian teacher who turns their self into the center of attention, makes all the decisions, and attempts to control everything in the classroom. But this ego-trip can hide behind each of the philosophies and not just this one.
relational Trust
Refers to a network of trust among people that is built on four factors: respect for the other, competence, personal regard for the other, and integrity a high trust school is where people feel cared for, we're honesty among people is high, and where effort is appreciated. In environment of trust acts as a schools glue, keeping people together and moving forward. "good schools... arise from the crucible of their culture." Howard Gardner, psychologist
Wait time (or wait and think time)
Refers to pausing after asking a student a question to give him or her time to think about the question and the answer. This approach usually result in better quality, higher level answers from students. 3-5+ is best
content standards
Statements of the subject-specific knowledge and skills that schools are expected to teach and students are expected to learn. the strongest influence on a subject matter curriculum over the last decade has been the standard based Reform movement, which is designed to promote academic excellence and equity by the beginning of the 21st century, every state had developed its own standards for student learning, and Most states backed up their new standards with accountability measures for both students and educators. the National No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 promoted accountability measures even more strongly, requiring states to administer annual, Statewide Assessments in reading and Mathematics to all students in grades 3 to 8 there's a lot of controversy around the standards movement. Some think that the money being lavished on the development of the content standards should actually be pressing educational needs, such as habitable school buildings other critics are concerned with the testing that accompanied the state standards. Many legislators link students passage of the standards-based tests with high-stakes outcomes, like graduating from high school or School accreditation some legislators even make Educators accountable for students learning the standards and passing the assessment tests. Teachers jobs and students future education's we're Suddenly at risk if students failed the tests, and Educators and students alike felt more pressure to succeed despite all of this the public overwhelmingly supports the idea of these high content standards
Mind Maps
Students and teachers often create graphical representations, known as mind maps or webs, to demonstrate their understanding of a story or concept. Software such as Inspiration or KidspirationFootnote uses these visual learning techniques to teach students to clarify, organize, and prioritize their thoughts. Mind maps can serve as an alternative assessment tool for teachers, who can examine the thinking patterns, interrelationships, and even misconceptions revealed by students' diagrams. Inspiration can also be used as a prewriting activity to help students brainstorm, draft, and revise their writing.
Writing Across The Curriculum Movement
Students benefit from writing in a variety of forms in a variety of situations. it is an instructional approach using writing as a tool for Learning in all subject areas "many highly intelligent people are poor thinkers. Many people of average intelligence are skilled thinkers. The power of a car is separate from the way the car is driven" -Edward de Bono. British physician and author
Flipped Classroom
Students learn lessons at home with the help of videos or other instructional materials and spend their valuable classroom time doing assignments with help from their instructor. in a flipped classroom teachers give up their role as Sage on the stage, in favor of more collaborative and Cooperative rolls. flipped classrooms require extra effort on the part of the teacher to record the short video lectures in advance. Students who may be used to a passive role as a teacher presents new material and class now finds themselves bearing more responsibility for their own learning. The flipped classroom shift priorities from nearly covering the material to working towards Mastery of it
democratic reconstructionists
Subscribers to an educational perspective that focuses on developing students who are prepared to make positive changes in a democracy. they see the solution to certain Trends and current issues, such as racism, poverty, and the destruction of the ecosystem, as the responsibility of an aroused and skilled citizenry. the school's Mission, then, is to prepare students for vigorous participation in their government. the focus of schooling is on developing knowledge of democratic processes, critical thinking skills, and group process skills so the student can work fruitful with others for social Improvement. in more active programs, students select, study, and work on a community environmental problem, such as the polluting of landfills with on recycled garbage
rudimentary due process
Supreme Court decision of Goldberg vs Kelly in 1970 gives the precise meaning of procedural due process even though it vary state-to-state. This trial indicated that the minimum procedural safeguards demanded by rudimentary due process would include the following: -procedural safeguards -the opportunity to be heard at a reasonable time and place -timely and adequate notice, giving details of the reasons for the proposed suspension or dismissal -ineffective opportunity to defend oneself, including oral presentation of evidence and arguments -an opportunity to confront and cross-examine Witnesses -the right to retain an attorney -a decision resting solely on the legal rules and evidence adduced at the hearing -a statement of the reasons for the determination and the evidence relied on -an impartial decision-maker procedural due process exist so that individual teachers and students are protected from arbitrary actions against them.
The Common Framework: MAKER
The Common Framework: MAKER Before we turn to examining each of the three approaches in depth, it will prove helpful to have a means to compare and contrast the different approaches. What we are calling the MAKER framework serves this purpose. This framework consists of the five core elements of teaching. They are Method, Awareness of students, Knowledge of the content, Ends that describe the purposes and ideals for teaching, and the Relationship that exists between the teacher and students. These five elements are common to all teaching. No matter what level you teach, or where and how you do so, your work can be described using these five elements. As a guide to memory, we have arranged the first letter of these elements to form the acronym MAKER (always in uppercase letters in this book). Each of the three approaches to teaching—executive, facilitator, liberationist— has its own MAKER profile. That is, each approach has its own variation on two or more of the five elements. It is worth our while to spend a few moments exploring each of the five elements. The first element, Method (M), pertains to the
New England Primer (1690)
The basic text used in schools during the eighteenth century. It was an illustrated book composed of religious texts and other readings. Although other primers and catechisms existed, The New England Primer was the most famous and remained the basic school text for at least 100 years after the first edition was published in 1690.
chief state school officer
The executive officer of a state's board of education who is usually responsible for the administration of that state's public education. This person is also the head of that state's department of education. Also called superintendent of education, commissioner of education, and superintendent of public instruction.
Facilitator Approach
The facilitator approach is the second of the three approaches. It places a high value on what students bring to the classroom setting. It places considerable emphasis on making use of students' prior experience. The facilitative teacher is typically an empathetic person who believes in helping individuals grow personally and reach a high level of self-actualization and self-understanding. Humanistic psychology, learning theory, and existential philosophy are some of the fields of scholarship that underwrite this view.1 Nancy Kwong exemplifies this approach.
breach of contract
The failure, without legal excuse, of a promisor to perform the obligations of a contract. this means that the opposite party can sue be violating party for damages breaching a contract can really put your reputation in danger and tarnish it completely before you accept any position. You should study the contract carefully and ask about anything in clear to you. That contract will govern many of the important details of your life as a teacher
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
The federal government's single largest investment in elementary and secondary education, including Title I. Originally passed in 1965 and periodically reauthorized by Congress, most recently in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act.
Relationships (R)
The fifth and last element, Relationships (R), covers the kind of connection that teachers forge with their students. Do you, for example, believe that student mastery of subject matter is the paramount consideration and that this mastery is best obtained by your remaining somewhat aloof from students' personal interests and concerns? Perhaps, by contrast, you believe that you cannot be the teacher you want to be without becoming a friend and caring guide to your students. From yet another perspective, you might have the sense that to succeed with your students, you will need to "get inside their heads" to see how they think and respond, so that you can better assist them to become powerful critical thinkers and moral deliberators. Each of these represents a different way to develop relationships with your students, ways
Executive approach
The first approach, the teacher as executive, views the teacher as a manager of complex classroom processes, a person charged with bringing about certain outcomes with students through using the best skills and techniques available. Carefully developed curriculum materials and methods of teaching backed by research are very important to this approach. They provide the teacher with techniques and understandings to use in the management of the classroom and the production of learning. Jim Barnes probably was using this approach.
Method (M)
The first element, Method (M), pertains to the skills and techniques teachers use to assist students in gaining the knowledge, understanding, and skill that teachers intend their students to achieve. Included within this dimension are such things as how lessons are planned, how the classroom is organized, how tasks and duties are devised and assigned to various students, how new material is structured and conveyed and old material refreshed, how student work is judged, and how these judgments are communicated to students and to their parents. You may have noticed that the dominant word in this list of examples is how. For the most part, Method pertains to how you teach (the fourth element, Ends, pertains to why you teach as you do, but more on that in a moment).
Perennialism
a particular view philosophy that sees human nature as constant, with few changes over time. in education it promotes the advancement of the intellect of the Central purpose of schools. Educational process stresses academic rigor and discipline it is derived primarily from the writings of Plato, who views truth and nature as constant, objective, and unchanging in other words, beneatha superficial differences from one century or decade to the next, the rules that govern the world in the characteristics that make up human nature stay the same. Within These constant and changeless truths, the purpose of life and the nature of things resides "never mistake and knowledge for wisdom. One helps you make a living; the other helps you make a life" -Sandra Carey, lawyer Cornelius view education is crucial because it develops a person's mental discipline and rationality, which are necessary to the search for truth that will help humans avoid being dominated by the instinctual side of human nature (our animal side) ______________ For perennialsts, the purpose of education is defined as the changeless "truth". this can be best revealed in the enduring Classics of Western culture. de-stress traditional subjects like history, language, mathematics, science, and the Arts. They Place particular emphasis on literature and Humanities because they believe that these subjects provide the greatest insight into The Human Condition great books approach developed by Robert Maynard Hutchins is the ideal curriculum for a perinatologist. ______________ for perennialists, in the early years of schooling the development of the intellect is best achieved through a teacher-directed instructional approach that develops the foundational skills needed for later learning. Socratic dialogue is then used to help mature Learners question and examine their beliefs, enabling them to move closer to the truth. ________ the perennialist controversy lies within their literature, history, and philosophy courses. Many people say that they promote eurocentric views of knowledge and culture which ignores the contributions of everyone except for dead, white, male writers and thinkers. They urge the adoption of more inclusive curriculum that include and give greater attention to women, minorities, and members of African, Asian, Hispanic, and Islamic cultures "One glance at a book and you hear the voice of another person, perhaps someone dead for a thousand years. To read is to Voyage Through Time." -carl Sagan (1934-96) astronomer ____________ they also believe that education is preparation for life therefore it does not need to attempt to imitate life or be lifelike. They believe students should engage in examinations of the classics like ancient and some Modern Works. They have to discover that Timeless wisdom and body within the culture instead of focusing on knowledge that might seem personally meaningful. in other words, their view is that through discipline study of the great works, a person acquires reasoning skills and Mastery of the important ideas of human history. This view leans heavily on the authority of the collected wisdom of the past and looks to traditional thought to guide us in the present. As such, the curriculum is structured and clearly defined. It also protects and conserves the best thought from the past. they favor a very traditional or conservative (conserving the best of the past) view of Education. "the object of education is to prepare the young to educate themselves throughout their lives." -Robert Maynard Hutchins (1899 to 1977) educational practitioner and theorist _______ in other words, it is about taking control of the classroom and ensuring that students are learning what humidity has been taught Century after Century. Making sure that the essentials of Education are making it through to them. Doing this and controlling what they learn instead of letting them teach themselves ensures that they and our society move forward instead of stagnate. young students do not know what they should be learning because they are young. Teachers and parents need to take control and ensure their children are learning what they should be learning.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act
The name of the 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. NCLB adds many new requirements for states and school districts. Title I has come to account for the largest portion of federal spending on public schools. Title I was designed to do two things: (1)deliver federal funds to local school districts and schools for the education of students from low-income families, and (2)supplement the educational services provided to low-achieving students in those districts. Subsequent reauthorizations of ESEA have changed the rules for schools that receive Title I funds. To receive money, states and school districts now must submit a state improvement plan that includes the adoption of challenging content standards and aligned assessments for Title I students. Schools are allowed to use their Title I funds on a schoolwide basis rather than only for the poorest students, and they can combine money from multiple federal programs. At the same time, school districts must rank their schools based on their percentages of poor students and distribute Title I funds accordingly, with the poorest schools receiving the most money per pupil.
Title I
The section of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act that delivers federal funds to local school districts and schools for the education of students from lowp-income families, and supplements the educational services provided to low-achieving students in those districts.
personal practical knowledge
The set of understandings teachers have of the practical circumstances in which they work. this includes the beliefs, insights, and habits that allow teachers to do their jobs in school. This type of knowledge tends to be time-bound and situation specific, personally compelling, and oriented toward action. Teachers use their personal practical knowledge to solve dilemmas, resolve tensions, and simplified the complexities of their work teacher's personal practical knowledge definitely influences the decisions they make. Some research argue that a well-informed belief system is the most credible basis for rational teacher decisions. They also assert that teachers should become aware of the assumptions that comprise their belief systems and over time, as they develop attitudes and habits of practice, teachers should reflect upon these beliefs to ensure that they can form two acceptable educational principles an example is reflecting on the educational soundness on a teacher's belief that students work well in groups with their friends. As you plan instruction, interacting classrooms, and evaluate instructional outcomes, continually testing your attitudes and habits of practice against sound educational principles can help protect you against poor educational decision-making
state department of education
The state bureaucracy, operating under the direction of the state board of education, whose responsibilities typically include administering and distributing state and federal funds, licensing teachers and other educational personnel, providing educational data and analyses, and approving college and university educational licensure programs.
state board of education
The state's primary education policymaking body for elementary and secondary education.
Knowledge (K)
The third element, Knowledge (K), covers what a teacher knows about the subject matter she is teaching. If she is a teacher of science, for instance, how well does she know science? How firm is her grasp of the important 8 Approaches to Teaching concepts, theories, and facts? Is she comfortable with the methods of inquiry that are common to the various disciplines within the sciences? Is her understanding of the subject matter sufficiently deep that she can explain it using metaphors and analogies that make the content more accessible to students without distorting its integrity and validity?
academic engaged time
The time a student spends on academically relevant activities or materials while experiencing a high rate of success. studies say that efficient teachers are able to engage their students in about 30 minutes a day longer than average teachers and academically engaged time
district school
The type of school that succeeded the town school and moving school in New England. A township was divided into districts, each with its own school, its own schoolmaster, and funding from the town treasury. The theme of local control over schooling developed in these various kinds of schools. The district school system soon entrenched itself in New England because it was inexpensive to finance and gave some measure of schooling to every child. Laws made attendance compulsory, but they were not very rigorously enforced. Some towns allowed girls to have one or two hours of instruction between 5:00 and 7:00 A.M., when boys were not using the school building. For the most part, however, girls had no access to the town elementary schools until after the American Revolution.Footnote If few girls went to school in the towns, even fewer did so in the outlying districts. The theme of universal education, which would include girls, was not to develop until the next century. Students entered school around age 6 or 7 and stayed in school for only three or four years. They learned their ABCs, numerals, and the Lord's Prayer from a hornbook, which consisted of a page that was laminated with a transparent material made from boiled-down cows' horns and then attached to a flat piece of wood. Having learned the basics, students graduated to The New England Primer, an illustrated book composed of religious texts and other readings. The learning atmosphere of these colonial schools was repressive and grim. Students were under orders to keep quiet and do their work, and learning was characterized by an emphasis on memorization. If students did well, they were praised and given a new task. If they did poorly, they were criticized harshly and often given a rap across the knuckles or on the seat of the pants. If children did not pay attention, their lack of focus was taken as a sign of how easily the devil could distract them from the path of righteousness. Such views continued to serve as a justification for severe classroom discipline throughout the first 250 years of American history.
difference between standards and curriculum
There is a difference between standards and curriculum. Standards are statements of agreed-upon expectations of what students are expected to know and be able to do in certain subjects and at certain grade levels—in other words, outcomes. A curriculum consists of the approaches and materials that teachers use to help students meet the standards. Although the U.S. seems to be moving closer to a set of national standards, at least in certain subjects, the notion of a national curriculum at present is far off. One advocate for a national curriculum, however, is E. D. Hirsch, Jr., who popularized the concept of "cultural literacy." He presents the equality argument, insisting that a national curriculum is needed because so many students move around from state to state and from school to school. With a national curriculum, relocated students would be able to integrate easily into their new school environment, with no time lost academically. Hirsch points to facts such as these: one-fifth of all Americans relocate every year; one-sixth of all third graders attend at least three different schools between first and third grades; and a typical inner-city school has a 50 percent student turnover between September and May.Footnote Others make the quality argument by citing the educational excellence attained by France, Germany, and Japan—all countries with national curricula, national standards, and national exams. These proponents insist that a national curriculum will ensure that all students in the United States receive a high-quality education, no matter where they attend school. Other educators strongly oppose national standards and an accompanying curriculum and testing program, fearing an educational power grab by the federal government. In their view, the idea of Washington bureaucrats, instead of locally accountable individuals answering the questions "What should our children know?" and "How well should they know it?," seems both educationally flawed and politically dangerous. Opponents also believe that in a large nation with so many racial, religious, and ethnic groups and so many regional traditions, a national curriculum would trample on cultural diversity and promote a bland sterility. Further, many are convinced that a national curriculum would put disadvantaged students at an even greater disadvantage. It would appear that the current Common Core State Standards movement represents a compromise: national standards, but on a voluntary basis.
U.S. Apprenticeship in early 1900s
Throughout the colonies, poor children were often apprenticed or indentured to local tradesmen or housewives. Apprenticeships lasted 3 to 10 years, generally ending around age 21 for boys and age 18 for girls. During that time, an apprentice would learn the basic skills of a trade and might also be taught basic reading and writing and perhaps arithmetic as part of the contractual agreement.
privatization
To change from government or public ownership or control to private ownership or control. A movement to contract with private organizations, often for profit, to operate particular public schools whose students have been performing poorly on academic tests, or to provide specific educational services to public schools. The Edison Schools and Sylvan Learning Centers are examples of such providers.
superintendent of schools
Typically, a professional educator selected by the local school board to act as its executive officer and as the educational leader and chief administrator of the local school district.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
U.S. legislation granting educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth until age 21; initially passed in 1975, it has been amended and reauthorized in 1997 and again in 2004. IDEA operates under six basic principles: zero reject, nondiscriminatory identification and evaluation, free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parent and student participation in shared decision making with regard to educational planning. because of the wide variety of disabilities and infinite degrees of severity in which these conditions may be found an individual students, idea mandates that a free appropriate public education be defined on an individual basis, using the written IEP. the IEP identifies the child's current levels of educational performance, short-term objectives and annual goals, services to be provided, and criteria and schedules for evaluation of progress. In this way, it helps ensure that the educational goals designed for the child or appropriate to his or her individual learning needs and that these plans are actually delivered as intended. an IEP must be reviewed and revised annually or more often if necessary teachers parents or Guardians, special Educators, other professionals, and the child whenever appropriate are all involved in the development and approval of the IEP idea also requires that all older students with a disability, usually ages 14 to 16, have an individualized plan for making the transition from school to work or additional education Beyond High School through age 21
Productivity Tools
Word processors, spreadsheets, database, presentation software, and planing & organizing tools. Applications, such as word processors, email programs, and spreadsheets, that let people accomplish tasks more efficiently than if they had to use a typewriter, a calculator, or postal mail.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Written document required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (P.L. 94-142) for every child with a disability; includes statements of present performance, annual goals, instructional objectives, specific educational services needed, extent of participation in the general education program, evaluation procedures, and relevant dates, and must be signed by parents as well as educational personnel.
project approach
an instructional method through which students engage in an in-depth investigation of a real world topic worthy of their attention and effort. The process often includes field trips or expert guests and a culminating event through which children present the results of their research
TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study)
an international assessment of 4th, 8th, and 12th graders in mathematics and science this took place every few years from 1995 to 2011. It was one of the largest, most comprehensive, and most rigorous International comparison of Education ever done
Metaphysics
a branch of philosophy devoted to exploring the nature of the existence of reality as a whole rather than to studying particular parts of reality as the Natural Sciences do. Metaphysicians try to answer questions about reality without referring to religion or revelation most of metaphysicians believe that it is not possible to address fundamental matters, such as the nature of a human being or of the universe, simply by collecting data and formulating statistically significant generalizations from most metaphysical perspective, the true nature of a person cannot be captured by measuring or counting alone because a person is more than the sum of his or her height and weight, IQ, SAT scores and other vital statistics. in probing the nature of reality they ask questions like does life have meaning? Are human beings free or totally determined? Is there a purpose to life? Is there a set of enduring principles that guide the operation of the universe, can these principles be known? Is there such a thing as stability, or is our world ever changing? the purpose of education is to explain reality to the young. The curriculum and the way in which we teach it represents our statement of what reality is and which part of that reality we should teach. in other words, the curriculum of a school represents what the community believes is most worth knowing although teachers may not actually be metaphysicians, they do take a stand on metaphysical questions. If a teacher decides to teach because he or she believes the most important thing in the universe is a human mind, that career decision is driven by metaphysical View: the importance of an individual person
Epistemology
a branch of philosophy that examines the nature of knowledge, its Originals, its foundations, its limits, and its validity seeking the true nature of knowing they ask questions like what is true knowledge as opposed to false ideas? Is truth elusive, always changing and always dependent on the truth-seekers particulars of time, place, and angle of vision? some people, whom we call Skeptics, question our capacity to ever really know the truths of existence. others, whom we call agnostics, are convinced that truth is unknowable and that seeking knowledge of ultimate realities is a wasted effort and an empty hope. epistemology not only deals with the nature of truth but also with the ways in which we can know reality. Question such as how do we come to know the truth? What are the sources for gaining knowledge? Are part of their conversation we know Reality by a variety of ways, Each of which has its Advocates and detractors. Among the ways of knowing are: by divine revelation, by Authority, through personal intuition, from our five senses, from our own powers of reasoning, and through trial-and-error experimentation the epistemological question, how do you know that?, goes to the heart of teaching methodology. if a teacher wants her students to have a concept of democracy, how does she proceed? religion and the creationist controversy is an epistemological question because it answers who are we? How did we get here? whether they believe or question or have faith creates a reality that is important for children to learn and sometimes parents are very biased about what reality they want their children to see and know. behind this ongoing educational controversy is a fundamental question of epistemology. parents question and worry about which reality or lens reality that their children are learning about in school
logic
a branch of philosophy that involves the study of reasoning or of sound argument. Any more specific sense, logic is the study of deductive inference. There are two types of reasoning commonly taught in schools which are deductive and inductive reasoning logic is not confined to inductive and deductive reasoning. To think logically means to think clearly, in many different ways. Teachers need logic in many aspects of their work, from trying to understand the behavior of a child who seems to have an erotic learning pattern, to developing tests that accurately measure what has been taught in a course. most of all, teachers need to model this clear, logical thinking for students
Romanticism
a child-centered philosophy of education that condemns the influences of society and suggest instead that a child's Natural Curiosity and a natural world should be used to teach it is also known as naturalism and is based on the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, an 18th century Swiss French philosophy. in a condemnation of society and the educational system of the time, he wrote the book Emilie, a novel that details were those ideas about education through the example of a fictional youngboy, Emilie. Rizzo believed that children are born good and pure. Once exposed to the evils of society, however, they become corrupted. To keep children good, they need to be isolated from society for as long as possible. (the student meaning Emilie in the book) in his book he describes the perfect setting for education to be a private tutor In A Country Manor where the student gets to explore the nature around them and make observations and ask questions from the natural world. There are no formal lessons, no books to read or facts to memorize, no specific curriculum to learn. The student then decides what he learns about and when. As the student matures the tutor help him develop rational thinking skills but the student continues to decide the topics of study. Then when he is about 15 the student is slowly introduced to certain social situations until he's deemed ready by the tutor to resist the evils of society and live a productive life in the social world. Then when the student is about 20 he's able to take a mate and make a life for their self. __________ unlike perennialism and essentialism, where the importance of educating the individual for society is emphasized, the romantics consider the needs of the individual more important than the needs of society. the purpose of education is individual self fulfillment. Education must help the students develop physically, intellectually, socially, and morally. Usually in that order. although clearly an unrealistic model for tax-supported Education, the ideas in bed and Roses book have had a strong impact on the thinking of many educators. "a sense of curiosity is Nature's original School of Education" -Smiley Blanton (1882 to 1966) psychiatrist ________ Romantics believed that education is a natural process, which grows out of children's innate curiosity. why why why why why why why why why why why why why why why why why Romantix argued that we must let children's interests and curiosity Drive their learning. The teacher's job is to respond to their questions as they arise and not to impose the learning of subjects that are not of interest to the child. they do not Advocate the establishment of a set or common curriculum of study as students pursue their own areas of study, the approach to teaching and learning likewise becomes individualized. Much of the learning is self-directed and self guided by the students, with teachers serving as sources of information or resources to help the students satisfy their curiosity rather than functioning as taskmasters or Authorities on knowledge. __________ Romanticism has been especially influential in the early childhood and Elementary grades.not necessarily adopting his ideas of the Pastoral manner but things such as providing young children with extensive opportunities to manipulate real things, such as wooden blocks, Clay, and other materials. The purpose is to establish learning environments that provoke students curiosity ______ there are schools that do in-body the beliefs of the romantics. At the schools there are no set to regulo, no formal classes, and no tests. Students decide what they want to study and in some cases are expected to take responsibility for their learning ________ teachers who and body and are influenced by Romanticism tend to have a sense of dread because of students being disinterested or bored during class. They love to see the enthusiasm and excitement. They want students to be able to explore their interests and satisfy their Curiosities. They don't want to force students to learn what they're not interested in _____ in other words it seems like romantic teaching focuses on letting students become Masters in the fields that interest them throughout their childhood. They do not focus on much of the core content if the student is not interested in it. They may not do as well on standardized testing. But the teacher guides them into for filling their own passions and interests. naysayers say that they have big holes in their knowledge and don't learn the hard stuff.
core curriculum
a common course of study for all students often called for by essentialist reforms in the 1980's a course of study every student would be required to take. Proponents of a Core Curriculum have argued since the 1970s that schools have focused on celebrating National diversity and pluralism but a failed to help students develop a shared national identity and common cultural framework some people promote that great literary works that I've endured over the years should be part of the Core curriculum for this reason
interdisciplinary curriculum, or integrated curriculum
a curriculum that integrates the subject matter from two or more disciplines, such as English and history, often using themes such as inventions, discoveries, or health is overlays to the study of the different subjects for example, using mathematics like the golden ratio to explain a perfect composition to an artist or combining art and history
Progressivism
a form of educational philosophy that sees nature as ever changing. Because the world is always changing and you situations require new solutions to problems, Learners must develop as problem solvers this is a relatively young philosophy of education. It came to prominence in the 1920s, growing out of the progressive political and social moving at the time. This school of thought Drew from some of the ideas of Rizzo and from the work of John Dewey, the most influential educational philosopher of the 20th century. progressivism views nature as being in flux, as ever changing. Knowledge must continually be redefined and rediscovered to keep up with that change. many other philosophes see the Mind as a jug to be filled with truth or as a muscle that needs to be exercised and conditioned, progressives view the Mind as a marvelous mechanism for problem solving. Like the romantics, Advocates of the progressive Viewpoint believe that people are naturally exploring, inquiring entities. When faced with an obstacle, they will try to find a way to overcome it. When faced with a question, they will try to find an answer. For progressives, education aims to develop this problem solving ability. _______________ Progressive Educators believe that the place to begin an education is with the student rather than the subject matter. When following this philosophy, teachers identify what each students interests and concerns are and try to shape problems around them. Teachers then help the students develop strategies to solve the problems posed. Students motivation to solve problems is the key to this educational model, and posing problems based on students interests helps heighten their motivation. inquiry learning!! students basically start with simple study projects and gradually learn more systematic ways to investigate until he finally Master a variety of problem-solving strategies. Rather than being presenters of knowledge or taskmasters, teachers are intellectual guides, facilitators in the problem-solving process. students are encouraged to be imaginative and resourceful and solving problems. They are directed to a variety of learning methods, from reading books and studying the traditional disciplines, to perform experiments and analyzing data _______ for progressives, there was really no special, sacrosanct knowledge or subject matter that all students must learn. Instead, the value of knowledge is seen as residing only in its ability to solve human problems. the focus of and for Progressive Educators is teaching students how to think rather than what to think. The slogan "teacher as a guide on the side rather than Sage on the stage" captures the uniqueness of the progressive you and it's special instructional process. Progressive teachers do often introduce traditional subject matter, but they use it differently from the way it is used in a traditional classroom. Because the problem students are trying to solve are of Paramount importance, the subjects contribute primarily through providing context for problems students must solve. Of course, subject matter knowledge may also provide information that leads to solutions ______ with the progressive Viewpoint, the process not the product is viewed as the critical concern. although both romantic and Progressive Educators start with students interests, progressives have more structure behind their teaching. They also have goals for their students. progressives believe the school should be different Craddock and structure so that children can learn to live well in a democracy and become good citizens. Bayview schools a small Societies in themselves, places where students are learning as they live life, not simply preparing for life. This gives Progressive schools a unique atmosphere that is different from the perennialists storehouses of wisdom or places with the clearly defined roles and Authority structures promoted by essentialists. the emphasized group activity in group problem-solving so that students can learn to work with others and help others. implicit in the Progressive approach is the belief that children must not only learn to solve their own problems, but also help to solve the problems of their neighbors. for progressives, one of the main purposes of education is to make Society better, which requires that people work together to solve problems. it is common for a progressive schools to spill out into the community and involve students and issues such as ecology and poverty. And this way, students learn an important principle of progressive education. Knowledge should be used to redesign or improve the world
grievance
a formal complaint about working conditions. Procedures for filing grievances are often part of teachers employment contracts
Culture
a group that shares beliefs about what is right and wrong, and what is good and bad; it also includes the dominant ideas, stories and myths, artistic Works, social habits, organization, and language of the group -family -military -college
society
a grouping of individuals bound together by a variety of connections, such as shared Geographic space, similar racial features, or a shared culture
liability
a legal obligation. It means blame. As in the teacher should accept liability for the students dislocated shoulder and other accidents that mistakes. And it imploes that the teacher behave negligently and intentionally in a way that allowed an injury to happen
enrichment
a method of teaching gifted and talented students in which they are allowed or signed to do additional work to make a regular class assignments more challenging or meaningful to them the basis is to provide gifted students with opportunities to go beyond the regular curriculum in Greater depth and breadth, to engage in Independence or collaborative inquiry that develops their problem-solving abilities, research skills, and creativity
Acceleration
a method of teaching gifted and talented students in which they do the same work as other students but at a faster pace than their age norms or grade levels
zone of proximal development
a range of tasks that a person cannot tuyet do alone but can accomplish with assistance. This zone is the point at which instruction can succeed in real learning is possible for a student, it means that a child is on the verge of being able to solve a problem but just needs some structure, Clues, help with remembering certain steps or procedures, or encouragement to try this encouragement or assistance is called scaffolding, which allows students to complete tasks they cannot complete independently. this is zone is where instruction can succeed and where real learning is possible. the zone of proximal development is influenced by reasoning ability, background knowledge, and motivation. Armed with this theoretical background, you can assess a student's ability to understand problems they watching them try to solve one of them. You can ask them to explain to you what they are thinking as they attempt the solution. Are they missing some important understanding or they making a procedural error? Are the problems too difficult or would they be able to solve them with some assistance? What kind of assistance would they need? Who should give this assistance? You or another student? this theory is from the work of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. he theorized that a child's culture shapes cognitive development I determine what and how the child will learn about the world.
junior high school
a separate kind of school created typically for grades 7, 8, and 9. the first junior highs were founded in 1909-1910. in recent years, they have been gradually replaced by middle schools
common school
a social reform effort, started by Horace Mann in the mid-1800s, that promoted the idea of having all children educated in a common place regardless of social class or background
schooling
a specific, formalized process, usually focused on the young, and whose General pattern traditionally has very little from one setting to the next.
vocation
a spiritual calling to do certain kinds of work. For many, teaching is more than a job; it's a vocation
whole language approach
a teaching approach emphasizing the integration of language arts skills and knowledge across the curriculum. It's stresses the provision of a literate environment and functional uses of language. the whole language approach to reading stresses that children should use language in ways that relate to their own lives and culture. Advocates of his approach tolerate the use of invented spelling by children because it is seen as part of a child's reading development and because it is feared that correcting a child's every spelling error will discourage the child from enjoying writing. Whole language teaching uses such common techniques as Daily Journal and letter-writing, a great deal of silent and oral reading of real literature, and student cooperation
intelligent design Theory
a theory about the origins of life that suggests that the complexity of life is too great to be accounted for by standard evolutionary theories and that "an intelligence" either created or somehow guided its development this Theory suggests that some biological structures and other aspects of nature are so complex and so highly interdependent that they could not have developed through darwinian Evolution, or undirected natural causes. Intelligent design theorists believe that there is evidence that an intelligent either created or somehow guided their development
Constructivism
a theory, based on research for cognitive psychology, that people learn by constructing their own knowledge through an active learning process rather than by simply absorbing knowledge directly from some other source it basically means that knowledge cannot be transmitted directly from teachers to learners, but rather is constructed by Learners and later reconstructed as new information becomes available instead of seeing students as partially full vessels waiting to be filled, as some essentialists do, constructivist teachers view them as actively engaged in making meaning. Teachers, therefore, need to create learning situations where students can build their own knowledge rather than having students sit and listen to the teachers lectures. one constructivist technique for helping students make meaning of a concept is called scaffolding, whereby a teacher provides support as soon as attempt to understand that concept. _________ constructivist view individuals as having an aversion to disorder. They believe that we are all continually trying to sort things out, to find Clues and patterns amid our professions that will help us make sense of the world around us. When we encounter something new we mediately attempt to fit into the patterns or structures we already possess. but sometimes we encounter new information that leads or forces us to realize that our knowledge base is currently constructed incorrectly or is outdated. Sometimes we were spawned in a number of ways to this. We can search up for new input for our senses, seeking either to reconstruct our knowledge base or develop different patterns and structures that the information fits. Or sometimes we may be so convinced that our knowledge base is correct that we refuse to make allowances for the new information. Students follow the same patterns as they try to make sense of new information they encounter in school. _______ cognitive psychologists also suggest that we organize our knowledge in ways that allow us easy access to knowledge we regularly use. these cognitive structures, which are called schemas or schemata, change constantly as new information is taken in, hypotheses are developed, and theories are tested. these processes of hypothesis development and testing can be done independently or an interaction with others
deductive reasoning (logic)
a type of reasoning from the general to the particular, reasoning in which the conclusion follows from the premise stated teachers present a general proposition that then Illustrated with the series of particulars most highly developed form of this approach is the classical method of syllogism. In a syllogism, one makes two statements. Then a third statement/ a conclusion is deduced, or drawn, from them. ex: All human beings are mortal I am a human being Therefore, I am mortal in this kind of deductive reasoning, the general proposition tends to be an abstract concept that is followed by a factual statement. Which in turn leads to a new factual statement and the creation of new knowledge, at least for the learners. much of what teachers do in school focuses on helping children both acquire the intellectual habits of deductive thinking and expand their Storehouse of knowledge through this process __________
inductive reasoning
a type of reasoning, from the particular to the general, and which one can make a general conclusion based on a number of facts inductive reasoning works in the opposite fashion of deductive reasoning with this types of reasoning, teachers set forth particulars, from which a general proposition is derived, or induced for example a teacher may wish to teach students to discover that water is essential for plant growth so they give each child to similar plants. 1 is a weed and one is a flower and each plant has two daily feed one plant with water and then leave the other plant without water. After a couple weeks the teacher has the students report on the conditions of the plants. From all of the individual reports he leads the students to generalize about the necessity of water the plant life. thus, they have induced their answer by participating in the experiment
Tracking
a way of dividing students into different classes by ability or future plans the homogeneous grouping of students for learning tasks on the basis of some measures of their abilities the three most common tracks are: academic - stressing the traditional subjects of English, science, mathematics, and foreign languages -with an academic track, further options exist, including advanced placement, International baccalaureate, and honors courses General -allowing more electives and less rigorous versions of the traditional subjects Career and Technical -preparing students for the world of work with a combination of academic and job-related courses each track has variations in courses required and different standards for student achievement. in the 1970s and 80s tracking came under attack. Prominent educational researchers produced studies showing that students placed in the lower tracks were receiving inferior curriculum and less stimulating instruction then students in the academic tracks. As well as poor and minority students were being a disproportionately placed in the lower tracks where they had less qualified teachers, less rigorous curricula, and poor instruction then students in the upper tracks tracking became a dirty word, and D tracking efforts and sued the anti tracking movement it's interesting because although D tracking helped the educational performance of low-achieving students, it hurts high-achieving students academically parents of these high-achieving students often exert considerable pressure to ensure that their student have access to honors and AP classes, resisting efforts to detract the schools. Tracking proponents argue that it is easier to teach relatively homogeneous classes, and unrealistic to expect everyone to master the same curriculum they say students feel more comfortable and learn better when they're grouped with peers of similar abilities. And they say tracking enables teachers to tailor instruction to the needs of respective groups of students. one studying Massachusetts Middle School's found that the top scorers of mathematics usually came from track Schools furthermore, teachers who teach the high track students often resist efforts to detrack because they enjoy the intellectual Challenge and Prestige that come along from teaching students. The general sense is that tracking benefits high-ability students but hurts low ability students, where the reverse is true of detracking
504 Plan
accommodation plan for students with disabilities who don't qualify for special needs services by 5 or 4 this plan refers to Section 504 of The Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act, which specifies that no one with a disability can be excluded from participating in federally funded programs or activities, including Elementary, secondary, or post-secondary schooling. disability in this context refers to a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities. this can include physical impairments; illnesses or injuries; communicable diseases; chronic conditions like asthma, allergies, and diabetes; and learning problems a 504 plan spells out the accommodations that will be needed for the students to have an appropriate opportunity to perform at the same level as their peers, and might include such things as wheelchair ramps, blood sugar monitoring, an extra set of textbooks, a peanut free lunch environment, home instruction, or a tape recorder or keyboard for taking notes
curriculum
all organized and intended experiences of the student for which the school accepts responsibility. In other words, the curriculum is not just the intellectual content of the subjects taught but also the methods used to teach them, the interactions that occur among people, in the school-sponsored activities that contribute to to the life experience. educational theorists have identified several different kinds of curricula, including formal, extra, and hidden curriculum formal is the basics like language arts, mathematics, science, and all other subject areas. a hidden or informal curriculum is what students learn through the process of being in the classroom and school and learning environments and socializing. The hidden curriculum is usually conveyed in directly and deals with attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavior. Sometimes the message can undermine the formal curriculum. And when they are in conflict many observers believe the hidden curriculum carries more weight. a major purpose of the Hidden curriculum in schools has been to teach students the routines and values for getting along in school and in the larger society. Thus, it tends to have a conservative bent, focusing on preserving the status quo. In some eyes of the critics, the hidden curriculum of the schools works against diversity, equity, and social justice a hidden curriculum will unveil what a school values, like compliant Behavior or competitiveness. They would learn compliance Behavior when a teacher uses something like a reward system to teach students to read and by the teachers reaction and any smiling stickers. Competitiveness is learned through Athletics and grading systems and teachers students to compare themselves to others in group themselves by ability. the many ways in which students learn what a school values include how the school allocates time to subjects of study, the rules established for the school, and even the architecture and Furnishings of the school as a future teacher it is important to think and identify the rules of behavior, rituals and ceremonies, and accepted patterns of teacher and students interactions that are communicated to students at schools. does the climate of the classroom and school suggest warmth, support for diversity, and nurturing of individuals, or does it convey a mood of disinterest, regimentation, and antipathy among staff and students? Most important, what is the school's deeper message about the stance that students should take toward the current Society?
within-district choice
allows parents to choose from among the various public schools that a school district or state operates.
for-profit schools
also known as educational maintenance organizations (EMOs—modeled on health maintenance organizations [HMOs]) Financially driven businesses that typically contract with a community or school district to provide educational services.
Phonics Instruction
an approach to reading that teaches readers to decode words by sounding Out letters and combinations of letters phonics awareness is the understanding that sounds make up language and is crucial in the development of good readers. Thus, a balance of both phonics and whole language is key.
Looping
an educational practice of multi-year teaching in which a teacher follows students to the next grade level and stays with the group for several years also known as multi-year teaching
response to intervention (RTI)
an educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention the purpose of RTI is to catch struggling children early, provide appropriate instruction, and prevent the need to refer the child for special education basically, this means that teachers can suggest for students to get help so they don't need special education later. And there are many tears like individual, small group intervention, and class-wide intervention.
six characteristics that teachers need to exhibit involving ethical judgement
appreciation for moral deliberation empathy - get into the skin of another person knowledge- facts that will enable us to put an issue into context reasoning- reflect systematically on an issue courage- to feel, to know, and to reason are not enough. To be ethical, we must act and action sometimes takes courage. Stubbe ethically correct often requires the willpower to act in what we perceive to be the right way rather than in the comfortable way.when confronted with a seemingly knowing dilemma we tend to ignore it and hope that it will simply go away. But this act requires courage and tact. "not to decide is to decide. " interpersonal skills- sensitivity, communication skills to deal sensitively with issues that demand great tact. To be able to call up the right words with the right feeling in tone and address the issue at hand openly and honestly ___________ we all have our own personal code of ethics. Whatever you would like to do or what you might have done for the civilian is of little importance in these situations. You must respond as a professional, a teacher. You need to be ready and after my well-formed code of ethics.
assault and battery
assault includes a threat or attempt to injure, and battery includes the unlawful touching of another person without consent threats should always be taken seriously and reported to the principal, but their legal status depends very much on the student's ability to carry out on a threat. A fourth graders threat to do something terrible to you does not have the same status as a high school juniors threat to blow up your classroom. battery means a willful attack on another person that results in harm. Being unintentionally knocked down is not battery. Being intentionally pushed by student or parent is entirely a different matter. And it makes The Pusher immediately liable. incidence of assault and or battery should be promptly reported, and disciplinary action demanded or legal charges filed. often teachers, particularly new teachers, or hesitant about making any fuss or trimming offending students into the proper School authorities. They should not equivocate: verbal abuse and physical violence have no place in the elementary and secondary schools
what is currently taught in elementary and secondary schools across the country?
at both levels, the curriculum is organized into subject matter areas, which ordinarily are English language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, foreign languages, the Arts, physical education and health, electives, and Career and Technical education
Ethics vs. Aesthetics
axiology has to subtopics: ethics and Aesthetics ethics takes us into the realm of values that relate to good and bad behavior, examining morality and rules of conduct. at one time teaching children had to deal with issues of good or bad and right and wrong as the necessary purpose of schooling. In recent decades the pendulum swing the other way in schools are becoming more concerned with transmitting factual and scientific verifiable knowledge and skills to instill ethical knowledge and students. But recently signs indicate that schools are being called back to the earlier mission of helping children deal with ethical issues. the subject of Ethics not only teaches us how we can intellectually ascertain the right thing to do, but also is often used to help us establish a particular set of Standards, such as a code of ethics. it is important for teachers to remember how to develop their own code of ethics that will help set the standard for students. ___________ Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that examines the perception of beauty and distinguishes Beauty from that which is moral or useful. it deals with questions of value is regarding Beauty and art. Many discussions about the value of a particular film, book, or work of art are attempts to reach some aesthetic judgment on the value of the work. Whether a person "has good taste" is an example of a common aesthetic judgment.
elclectic
eclecticism in body is the idea that truth can be found anywhere, and therefore people should select from various doctrines, systems, and sources. eclectic teachers select what they believe to be the most attractive features of several philosophies. For example, a teacher might take from Romanticism the innate curiosity of learn a lesson from essentialism, a curricular Viewpoint dominated by the Criterion of usefulness eclecticism is quite popular, but often for the wrong reasons. It sometimes appears as the easy way out a philosophical uncertainty, just taking what you please from the philosophical cafeteria of ideas. a problem with this approach is the probability of inconsistency. to take one's views of society from the Romantic, who gives Primacy two individual freedom, and the ones teaching methodology from the progressive, who stresses group membership and Democratic process, is liable to make everyone confused. selecting eclecticism must not be an excuse for lazy thinking " it is our philosophy of life that dictates our philosophy of teaching, and that [it is] this "philosophical Identity" (or lack of same) that we envelop ourselves in each day as we walk into our classroom that ultimately distinguishes those who find joy and passion in his profession from those who find drudgery and then just pick up a paycheck two weeks later." -John Perricone. author, Zen and the Art of Public School teaching
basic ethical standards in the classroom
everyday ethics of teaching "Living up to the basic ethical standards in the classroom- discipline, tolerance, honesty - is one of the most important ways children learn how to function in society at large." -Eloise Salholz the everyday ethics of teaching then means doing the job as it ought to be done. It means realizing the preciousness of the minutes and hours that you spend with students and making sure they do not waste their time with you. teachers ethically influence students in three ways: by their personal example, by the classroom climate they create, and read the dialogue they stablished who you are speaks louder than what you say
Due Process
fair treatment through the normal judicial system, especially as a citizen's entitlement. the deliberative process that protects a person's constitutional right to receive fair equal protection under the law protections come directly from the fifth and Fourteenth Amendment. 5th Amendment states no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law 14th Amendment states nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law... The equal protection of the law
generational poverty
families living in poverty for two generations or longer Families like this are not driven by compliment. They tend to be driven by forces like survival, entertainment, and relationships. to help a student who comes from a family like this there must be a significant relationship that is present. this could be a teacher, other students or friends.
Buckly admendment
federal law giving student over 18 and their parents the right to access school records but does not give them the right to see a teacher or an administrator's unofficial records like their private diary or class progress or private notes about a particular child without the teachers consent
child abuse
in addition to preventing harm to students under their supervision, teachers have a legal responsibility to safeguard students from abuse and neglect at the hands of their parents and other adults teachers in every state are required by law to report suspected child abuse or neglect the laws vary somewhat from state to state, but they all include two or more of the following elements and their definition of abuse and neglect: -physical injury, mental or emotional injury, and sexual molestation or exploitation if it teachers suspect that a student has experienced any of these injuries they are legally obligated to report their suspicions of child abuse and neglect to be proper authorities schools will typically have a detailed faculty handbook and that gives instructions about how to report such suspicions. a teacher does not have to be 100% certain. It is better to be safe than sorry. It is better to incorrectly assumed then to fail to act. the report is always kept confidential and teachers in all 50 states are granted immunity from accusations of slander or any possible libel suit. with this protection teacher is need not fear to report any suspicions. especially if this is bitching turns out to be false.
multicultural curriculum
several approaches to Multicultural curriculum exist, but in essence, it promotes an understanding of and appreciation for cultural pluralism. it attempts to address issues of social injustice related to racism, sexism, and economic inequality by reducing Prejudice and fostering tolerance through the formal curriculum
denial of Desire
it is another common experience for elementary students. A question goes unanswered, a raised hand is ignored, talking out of turn is not permitted, relief of bodily functions is allowed only at specific times. some denial is necessary and probably beneficial, but one thing is certain: delayed gratification and denied desire are learned in school, and a certain amount of student frustration is bound to develop if they are to become successful students, they must learn how to be alone in a crowd. delay, denial, Interruption, and social distraction. it seems likely that students who either possess or quickly develop patience would find School more tolerable than students who lack it. the ability to control desires, delay rewards, and stifle impulses seems to be characteristic of successful students, whereas less successful students exhibit less patience and more impulsiveness
vicarious experience
learnings gained not through direct experiences, but through observations or reading
least restrictive environment (LRE)
like the original Act of 1975, i d e a further stipulates that services for students with disabilities be provided with a LRE meaning students with disabilities should be educated with children without disabilities to the greatest extent appropriate determination of what constitutes this has been controversial. The social and academic benefits of the regular classroom must be weighed against the unique educational needs and individual circumstances of each child
magnet schools
magnet schools An alternative school that provides instruction in specified areas such as the fine arts, for specific groups such as the gifted and talented, or for using specific teaching styles such as open classrooms. In many cases, magnet schools are established as a method of promoting voluntary desegregation in schools. Over 40 years ago, a number of American cities adopted an early form of school choice, called magnet schools. These elementary, middle, and high schools specialized in a specific academic area, such as science or the arts, and in basic skills. Magnet schools were originally designed to stop white flight from urban schools and to attract (like a magnet) white students back to inner cities. Although still in existence in many cities, enthusiasm for magnet schools has been displaced by what has become the darling of choice advocates: charter schools.
Assimilation
or enculturation. the process of incorporating an immigrant group into the mainstream culture considered the Melting Pot concept. Where different cultures are told to abandon what they know and embrace the new social Society of where they live now. some are told to assimilate and some, like the African Americans and other minorities are kept from assimilating. this happened in the beginning of the 19th century and 20th Century. only English was allowed to be taught and only the dominant culture was allowed.
problem solving
process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways the process of either presenting students with a problem or helping them to identify a problem and then observing and helping them become aware of the conditions, procedures, or steps needed to solve the problem proponents of problem solving instruction point out that if students become more aware of their mental processes, they will be able to exercise greater control over their learning and thinking in future situations in group problem-solving activities, students may also benefit from interacting with one another and from being exposed to the variety of approaches used by peers and solving the same problem
Universal Education
the idea that some sort of elementary education should be provided free, at public expense and under public control, for everyone who could not afford or did not want private schooling. a product of the mass society to achieve technical training for the work force, political awareness, national pride, and civic responsibility
social reconstructionists
proponents of the theory of Education that schools and teachers need to engage in the reconstruct touring and reforming of society to eradicate ills and shortcomings these Educators see the role of schools as forming the youngin to agents of change and participating in the decision about how Society needs to change. compared to those committed to culture transmission, they have less reverence for the accumulated wisdom of the past and are more concerned for the world's problems in the necessity to create a "new order. " they were ejected the idea of schools being "sorting machines," separating students for different life rolls, and see successful students not so much as cultivated people, but as autonomous citizens ready to join with others to tackle the world's ills and help in the Reconstruction of society. "the great aim of education is not knowledge but action" Herbert Spencer. 1920 to 1903. British philosopher social reconstructionists fall into two broad categories. Democratic reconstructionists and economic reconstructionists.
race
refers to people with common ancestry and physical characteristics
child-centered philosophies
romanticism and progressivism these two schools of philosophy look first to the Learners rather than that to the curriculum. Both consider the development of Learners to be the main purpose of Education. A well-educated person does not necessarily have a definite body of knowledge but rather a well-educated person is able to function well in society and life ________ both Progressive and essentialist Educators claim their particular approach is the true American philosophy of education. One can make a case that both match this description, but each reflects different aspects of the American personality progressivism represents our anti-authoritarian, experimental, and Visionary side essentialism speaks to are more practical, structured, and task-oriented side ____ clearly, essentialist Educators gained ground on Progressive Educators in the 1980s and 1990s. Concerns over the country's global economic competitiveness and the perceived softness of our schools have created a receptive climate for essentialist views
self-defense
schools are very crowded places. And they are crowded, by definition, with immature adults. It is a myth that teachers cannot touch a student. When a student or students are in danger of injury in a fight or a case of bullying, the law requires a teacher to act. what they do, however, must be reasonable. ex: in a fight, for instance, the teacher must act to stop the students from hurting one another. Strong and Loved Words usually are effective, but sometimes a teacher must become physically involved. The operating principle here is reasonable Force. if this act of stopping the fight and separating the students results and a student suffering an injury like a strained wrist or dislocated arm the court typically will find that the teacher is not lying. But if the teacher did not act and the injuries occurred then the teacher could become held liable and more obvious cases of self-defense, a student threatened directly strikes a teacher. The principle of reasonable force of Heights or two. What constitutes reasonable force is generally a matter of common sense, at the Heat of the Moment can make a good judgment difficult.
effective schools
schools that provide a significantly better education (usually measured by student test scores) for a much larger percentage of their students than do other schools serving similar student populations effective as currently defined and most of the educational research literature, refers to students achievement test scores in basic skills such as reading and Mathematics. although such tests measure skills that are not the only objectives of Education, achievement in these academic areas is an important and widely acclaimed outcome of schooling. also, achievement in reading and Mathematics is easier to measure than good citizenship, artistic development, or passion for ideas
economic reconstructionists
subscribers to an educational perspective or motivation that focuses on developing students who take a critical stance toward the dominant social and economic status quo they tend to take a harsher view of the dominant culture and see schools as Appliance Servants of those in power, the influence of corporate values is seen in many faces of school life, from the way textbooks are used to the widespread use of testing. moreover, economic reconstructionists often are you at schools clean to serve the needs of all but, in fact, serve the needs of the Elites (the people with the most power). economic reconstructionists suggest that schools are disguising this fact, either by their own naivete or by their willing support of the existing system. because of their deep suspicions of, and sometimes outright discussed with, capitalism, economic reconstructionists are often labeled neo-marxists. in a book by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire he talks about his town or a town in Brazil where he taught them how to solve problems and help themselves from the oppression of the elite by: 1) name their problem (a polluted water supply); 2) analyze the problem (sewage contamination of the springs); and 3) collectively take action (design and build a new sewage system) to solve the problem -------------- although both democratic and economic Reconstructionist focus on social problems and try to Foster and students the attitudes and skills necessary to solve them, economic reconstructionists question more deeply the fundamental economic and social Arrangements in a society. they see education as a necessary means for restructuring the power structures in a society. For them, money, power, and control of Education are tightly bound together. critics of the social reconstructionists approach to education see it as naive and wrong-headed. the emphasized two points: 1) how are young need to acquire the basic skills and background before they become social activists 2) our current economic and social relations are too fragile and too serious to be toyed with by innocent and immature children
two types of due process
substantive due process and procedural due process substantive due process has to do with the issue itself like getting a nose ring and then getting fired. not allowed without due process. procedural due process concerns the fairness of the process followed
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
support of learning allows students to complete tasks they are not able to complete independently best Zone where instruction can succeed and where learning is possible
Philosophy and Teachers
teachers need to not merely understand ideas, but to be ready to understand and stand under certain ideas, letting them serve as the vital support for what they do is instructors. teacher stand under a philosophy of education, a guide and support that has three components: 1) an expression of what teachers value -what day is Steam and believed to be important 2) an individual's moral compass - what the teacher relies on to make critical ethical decisions 3) an engine of ideas - the knowledge that teachers use to respond to new and changing situations that life presents _____ teachers who wants to be more than mere technicians have an obligation to take the esophagus issues and questions seriously. Teachers owe it to themselves and to their students to understand where they are going and to understand why they are going there. "a philosophy of education cannot be crammed down people's throats. They must feel it to be true in the marrow of their bones and look with trust and approval upon the leaders to attempt to give expression. It must catch and reflect their temper, not arouse their distemper." teachers owe it to themselves to make sure that the schools in which they work are hospitable - and certainly not hostile -to their own philosophies of Education. it is important that you be ready both to discuss your own philosophy of education with prospective employers and to inquire about the district's or school's philosophy of education do not, however, expect those interviewing you to be able to Define their schools precisely according to the particular philosophies. Although Educators live out a philosophy of education, we are not always able to easily capture it in words.
Integration
the act of uniting or bringing together, especially people of different races Integration means ending racial prejudice and respecting ethnic differences True integration is a very human process that can occur only after desegregation has gone into effect. It happens when people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds learn to be comfortable with one another and to get along together.
pedagogy
the art or profession of teaching
Fair Use
the conditions under which you can use material that is copyrighted by someone else without paying royalties a legal principle to finding specific, limited ways in which copyrighted material can be used without permission from the author the primary principle behind fair use is not to impair the value of the owners copyright by diminishing the demand for that work, thereby reducing potential income for the owner in other words, if people simply copy print materials whenever they want, they will not buy the books, and Publishers and authors will suffer. Some copying is allowed, of course, and it is important for teachers to know what they may and may not do
curriculum
the curriculum represents what's a community believes young people need to know to develop into good and productive adults. in effect, what you were taught in Elementary and high school represents society's wager - that is, it's social bet, made by the older generation. the bet is on what they believe today's students will need to know to live well in the future. if the curriculum a society chooses turns out to be a losing bet, the individual and the social consequences are indeed severe "I have never let my schooling interfere with my education" -Mark Twain
academic freedom
the freedom of teachers to teach about an issue or to use a source in teaching without fear of penalty, reprisal, or harassment this means that a teacher has the freedom to select course materials and to teach in a way he or she thinks fit symbolic expression is a personal expression that is not limited to spoken and written words. Dress styles, armbands, tattoos, and buttons have been used in recent years to make a statement. Typically the courts support teachers and students in these cases of free symbolic expression. As long as it doesn't lead to a substantial disruption within the school. cyberspace expression comes with benefits and Hazards. It can maximize communication with teachers and students at a Ministry leaders but it can also create a sense of unprofessionalism inappropriateness. When handled properly cyberspace can easily be used. I plan on creating group discussion boards on slack or on Discord to communicate with my students and parents. No Facebook or social media sites. I could have one chat for the students, another for the parents, another for volunteering, I could even post assignments and schedules on there. if there is not already software to do that then I will just use the programs I know academic freedom is a subcategory of freedom of expression and Deals largely with issues in the classroom of the teachers rights to discuss ideas and read material of their choosing. It allows teachers to speak freely about their subject matter, to select reading assignments, and to choose teaching methodologies based on their professional judgment. It is designed to allow experimentation with ideas and to Foster an open Spirit of inquiry. academic freedom tends to be met with opposition when teachers want to discuss controversial or unpopular ideas such as same-sex marriage, gun control, or abortion. If such issues are part of the school's curriculum, problems rarely arise. When a teacher add them to the curriculum without permission, however, he or she needs to make a reasonable case if they're relevant to the curriculum. dismissal for teaching controversial issues may or may not be upheld by the courts. Teaching about volatile issues that may disrupt a particular School, such as homosexuality or the alleged characteristics of different races, it's frowned on by the courts. SO2 is teaching controversial material considered unsuitable for the age of students. In addition, courts have not allowed teachers to use controversial teaching methods that are unsupported by professional Penny nor prohibited by reasonable school policy political issues, both local and National, are also points of tension. Teachers must be non-partisan, neutral, and discuss anything in a balanced way. Doing it away from work is fine but a teacher cannot behave as a partisan supporter in the classroom. particular essays and books that contain sexually explicit material or even words that are fence of to certain members of a community have been a major source of legal controversy for schools but, "with the greatest respect to such parents, their sensibilities are not the full measure of what is proper education"
socialization
the general process of social learning whereby children learn the many things they must know to become acceptable members of society this can happen at home, work, youth organizations, the mass media, peer groups, and of course School schools of the most common and have a significant role in teaching young people how to be social in the American context. every school attempts to socialize this students by getting them to Value those things the school teaches both explicitly and implicitly. the students who tend to succeed in school typically accept these values, whereas many of the less successful students reject their way of thinking and behaving at the school is trying to brainwash them with
Cognitive Psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
intrinsic rewards
the internal psychic or spiritual satisfaction one receives from one's work, such as a personal sense of accomplishment or an enjoyment of the work itself "in the eye of the beholder"
philosophy
the love or search for wisdom the Quest for basic principles to understand the meaning of life Western philosophy traditionally contains five branches of philosophy: metaphysics ethics Aesthetics epistemology logic Philo (love) sophos (wisdom) fundamental questions tend to be who am I? What is the purpose of life, and what am I doing here? And what does it truly mean to be a good person? in developing a philosophy, we drawn many influences: our home lives, our experience in the larger World, our religious views, and our reading of literature, history, current events, and our culture philosophy is an extremely pure and Abstract science. The method or process of philosophers is questioning and reasoning; their product is a thought.
Comprehensive High Schools
the most common form of high school in the United States, designed to offer a range of preparation programs, including College preparation and vocational education they are multi-purpose schools with different tracks. academic tracks stress the traditional subjects of English, History, mathematics, science, and foreign languages as preparation for college. a general track usually allows a greater number of elective courses and less rigorous versions of the traditional subjects. vocational tracks may include a combination of academic and job-related courses; students in these tracks are preparing for a job after graduation
Axiology
the philosophical study of values, especially how they are formed ethically, aesthetically, and religiously it focuses on the nature of what we value and how we value it we naturally search for the correct and most effective way to live when different people look at life, they often come up with a very different set of values for example hedonists believe in seeking pleasure and living for the moment and stoics have an austere way of looking at life and seek to be unaffected by Pleasure or pain. Many people regard values for my religious perspective, asserting that unless God originally created humanity and the rest of the world, existence as we know it is just a meaningless coming together of cosmic dust and debris: thus, the only genuine values derive from God Socrates is believed to have said that schools have a dual responsibility to make people smart and to make them good. To the degree that teachers except the second function and a sister students to become good people means they are grappling with an axiological issue. teachers are intimately involved with questions of moral values moral values such as honesty, respect for other people, and fairness are necessary if we are to live together in harmony. the majority of people agree on substantial core values, such as respecting others and avoiding violence and settling disputes, other value related issues separate people. for example, certain sexual practices, capital punishment, gun control, and abortion are all contemporary social issues that evoke a wide range of viewpoints and the right or correct way for people to behave. They're axiological answers to the fundamental axiological questions about what is the most effective way to live. "the function of education is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. Intelligence plus character - that is the goal of true education" Martin Luther King jr.
ubiquitous computing
the possibility of computers being embedded into almost everything and potentially able to communicate Situations in which each student is provided access to some type of mobile computing device to use inside the classroom, out in the field, and at home.
School Culture hi
the prevailing morals, values, and rituals that permeate a school. can be good or bad, leading to good human ends or poor ones. a strong, positive School culture engages the hearts and the minds of children, stretching them intellectually, physically, morally, and socially a school with a week, negative culture may have the same type of facilities, student-teacher ratio, and curriculum as a neighboring good school, yet have a week, negative effect on students, where everyone - students and teachers- goes through the motions, but with few of the positive effects that the strong culture schools provide
education
the process by which humans develop their minds, their skills, and their character. It is a lifelong process marked by continual development and change education is much more open-ended and all inclusive than schooling and knows few boundaries it includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools as well as the entire universe of informal learning from how to go fishing to how to burp a baby. "all of us have two educations: one which we receive from others; another, and the most valuable, which we give ourselves." -John Randolph 1773 to 1833 us congressman whereas schooling follows a routine and has a certain predictability, education quite often takes us by surprise. it is a lifelong process "education is simply the soul of a society as it passes from one generation to another"Gilbert K Chesterton.
Extrinsic Rewards
the public, external attractions of an occupation, such as money, Prestige, and Power
tenure
the right to hold an office once a person is confirmed a legal right that confers permanent employment on teachers, protecting them from dismissal without adequate cause some states call discontinuing contract status new teachers are hired on a probationary basis, with the probationary. Often lasting for years, so the school district can ensure that a non-tenured teacher can teach well enough to be granted permanent faculty status state laws determine when a teacher is eligible for 10 year and outlines the requirements for earning 10 year or continuing contract status
classroom management
the set of teacher behaviors that create and maintain conditions in the classroom, thus permitting instruction to take place efficiently and effectively. in other words, the actions teachers take to create an environment that is respectful, caring, orderly, and productive. Classroom management support and facilitates both academic and socio-emotional learning. developing teacher-student Rapport, arranging the physical environment, establishing rules and procedures, and maintaining students attention to lessons and engagement and activities are examples of classroom managerial Behavior. this also includes housekeeping duties such as record-keeping, and managing time, facilities, and resources in the classroom. effective classroom management focuses on how to prevent misbehavior, as well as to handle misbehavior when it occurs many factors affect classroom management. Firstly, classrooms are complex, diverse, and crowded environments that make it hard to reach the different needs of each student. Second, classes are more culturally diverse than ever and the Norms of what is acceptable and desirable vary among different cultures. Thirdly, many children with disabilities and how educated in the Gen Ed classrooms, creating and even more array of difficulties to reach every student. And fourthly, many students come from different circumstances that create psychological and emotional problems for the teacher to reach through, like poverty, broken families, abuse.
self-fulfilling prophecy
the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave if a teacher treats the poor or the minority students like they are stupid and don't know how to learn then the students will begin to conform to these low expectations and his beliefs. They may even begin to believe these things about themselves. on the other hand, when a teacher holds high expectations for every student and communicates these high expectations despite all their differences, students will often acting ways to live up to the teacher's expectations fighting any of their stereotypical labels. a teacher's attitude toward an expectation of students are powerful influences on whether or not students learn high expectations are the key to everything. Sam Walton, founder of Walmart
Behaviorism
the theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns. a psychological theory asserting that all behavior is shaped by environmental events or conditions stimuli or conditions can be sounds, words, or the actions of people present at one's environment. this means that you subscribe to the view that humans learn to act in specific ways based on the response they received for their actions like a reward or a punishment. Behaviorist teachers believe that learn receive incentives, both positive and negative, as motivators to learn. ________ in planning for teaching, behaviorists: 1) use Clear objectives, spelled out in terms of the behaviors to be learned 2) establish a learning environment, which will positively reinforce desired behaviors and eliminate undesirable behaviors 3) closely Monitor and give learner's feedback on progress until the goal is achieved _____ usually they have a sequenced and organized curriculum with discrete segments. Lots of standardization and ability to measure progress. Objective tests usually made up of multiple choice. sometimes students are expected to practice a specific skill until they show a certain level of Mastery of the skill until they can move on to the next skill or concepts to be learned ____ in the 1960s and 70s many Educators made behaviorism their dominant, organizing educational theory. But it was criticized for being teacher dominated and causing teachers to treat students as passive objects to be conditioned and therefore manipulated. But it still remains a dominant theoretical presence, particularly in the areas of special education and classroom discipline. assertive discipline is where teachers are urged to catch students doing good and then reward that behavior. This is based squarely on behaviorism.
Theories-in-use
theories that actually govern our actions for example, you may eat certain foods because you have an idea that they have a healthy effect on the body or you may take a summer job in a public playground believing that you will get to know children better and that future Prospect of employers might be pleased or impressed and they discover your experience a classroom example is that maybe a teacher believes that groups should not operate dominated by one student but as a democracy questioning your theories and use is a good practice to get into because sometimes they can cause your problems. a poor theory of uses assuming that some students will do better than others. another theory to be questioned is that it is acceptable to let students behave as they wish until they cross a tolerance Threshold, at which point they will be punished harshly.
reflective decision making style
thinking back on your decision and how you planned, implemented, and evaluated it indecision becomes decision with time planning decisions implementing decisions evaluating decisions
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. the intent to help students evaluate the worth of ideas, opinions, or evidence before making a decision or judgement some Educators favor approaches that help students detect bias or identify a wide range of propaganda strategies
religion vs philosophy
until approximately 100 years ago, most people relied on religion and philosophy for answers to such fundamental questions whereas religion is said to represent the revealed word of God, philosophy represents a human attempt to sort out by reason the fundamental questions of existence many of the great thinkers of Western Civilization have been philosophers. Plato, Aristotle, St Thomas Aquinas, René Descartes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, John Locke, John Stuart Mill, William James, Alfred North Whitehead, and John Dewey, Jacques maritain, and John Rawls
cultural pluralism
which calls for an understanding and appreciation of the cultural differences in languages Among Us citizens this concept is what replaced the Melting Pot concept the goal is to create a sense of society holness based on the unique strengths of each of its parts it rejects both assimilation and separatism, a philosophy that suggests each cultural group should maintain its own identity without trying to fit into an overall American culture instead, it seeks a healthy interaction among the diverse groups in our society. each subculture maintains its own individuality while contributing to the society as a whole instead of a Melting Pot, think of a mosaic or a tapestry or a salad bowl. individual Parts remain distinct yet combined to make a unique whole the United States is not yet truly a place of cultural pluralism. Some people still cry for a simulation or separatism. And schools themselves do not even Embrace cultural pluralism. the schools are failing us usually schools embrace the dominant cultural group and exclude minority groups from receiving the full range of benefits the goal is for students to be comfortable operating within their own cultures and in other cultures as well
