Foundations of Political Thought Final

Celnick-)?What characterizes the Tribal-state "ethnos" ?

"Ethnos" tribal states often existed as the early stages of polis development. They consist of a large group of shared ethnicity that share centralized religious and social function. They usually came into being through the takeover of a polis, king, or noble family, over a specific geographic area where an ethnic group lived. This is different from a polis that came into being through internal processes, since this type was affected by external factors.

Aristole- Ethics What is the place of political science in the scientific hierarchy and what is its' purpose? • מה מקום המדע המדיני בהיררכית המדעים, ומה תכליתו? What are the 3 patterns of life and in light of these, why isn't a young man fit to hear lectures on political science? • מה הם שלוש דפוסי החיים העיקריים, ולאור דפוסים אלו, מדוע אדם צעיר אינו מתאים להיות שומע "הרצאות במדע המדיני"?

"fine things and just things, which are what political expertise inquires about, involve great variation and irregularity, so that they come to seem fine and just by convention alone, and not by nature." שלושה דפוסי חיים עיקריים: חיי ההנאה, החיים המדיניים, וחיי העיון. Group 1: identifies with pleasure, wealth, honor Group 2: the political life Group 3: the life of reflection (I095b15) "This is why the young are not an appropriate audience for the political expert; for they are inexperienced in the actions that constitute life, and what is said will start from these and will be about these. What is more, because they have a tendency to be led by emotions, it will be without point or use for them to listen, since the end is not knowing things but doing them. Nor does it matter whether a person is young in years or immature in character, for the deficiency is not a matter of time, but the result of living by emotion and going after things in that way..." (I095a1)

Peloponnesian War

(431-404 BCE)- fought by Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. The Peloponnesian War reshaped the ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations, Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece prior to the war's beginning, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection, while Sparta became established as the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, while Athens found itself completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity. The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society; the conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta, each of which supported friendly political factions within other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world. Thucydides argued that Athens growth and power made war inevitable. 50 years earlier Athens had been a small group of city-states called the Delian League. (Wikipedia) 3 stages: 1. Began with Spartan invasion in 431 of Attica and continued further inland. Peace agreement in 421 signed peace agreement. 2. 421-414- Peace of Nikkias (Thucydides- "peace not-peace"). Constant clashes and disputes between one another. The Athenians decided that they are strong enough to deal with the Persians. They sent a huge army to Sicily in Italy to attack the Persians. They failed. During this peace Melian Dialogue takes place. 3. 403- end of war

Anaxagoras

(approx.. 500-428 BCE) Responding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras described the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was never caused by an absolute presence of a particular ingredient, but rather by its relative preponderance over the other ingredients; in his words, "each one is... most manifestly those things of which there are the most in it".[2] He introduced the concept of Nous (Mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated out the original mixture, which was homogeneous, or nearly so. He also gave a number of novel scientific accounts of natural phenomena. He produced a correct explanation for eclipses and described the sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, as well as attempting to explain rainbows and meteors.

Augustinus- City of God Earthly City אפיין/י את היחס של אזרח כל עיר לסדרי משטר, ממשל ו/או משילה. עבור כל עיר זהה/י לפחות שישה מאפיינים (חלקם כמובן ניגודים).

(similar to Heavenly city contains necessary structures for mortal life but uses them differently) • desires to create a structure of civic obedience and rule to follow in order to have "earthly peace," focused on this life alone • draws on "a combination of man's will" (shared desires) to create systems for themselves • Paganism-having many Gods • Maintain distinctions of belonging to one city or another, one nation or another • Have philosophers who disagree with Christianity, and are ok with that • Are to be surprised and fearful in the face of the power of Christianity through its many followers o Persecute/are angry with those of the "heavenly city" who refuse to abide by laws if they contradict the teachings of Christianity

Identify at least 6 popular democratic characteristics of Roman government according to how they come to expression during the Republic period. • מנה/י לפחות שישה מאפיינים דמוקרטיים של ה"עממיות" הרומית כפי שבאה לידי ביטוי בתקופת הרפובליקה.

1) Decisions of the people on certain issues. 2) Public hearings characterized by disputes and competition. 3) Requirement to fulfill majority of government administrative acts in public. 4) Dominance of the lower classes in different areas like government powers granted to the plebian class 5) the intervention of the "asifot" in the authority of the senate. 6) Electing public offices (not the highest ones) from which the senate is chosen from.

Plato- What are the two methods that through them (only through them) it is permitted to sing or dramatize about the gods? מה הם שני הדפוסים על פיהם - ורק על פיהם - מותר לשורר או להמחיז אודות האלים?

1) God is only here to promote good things and if he makes bad things this is because the people have done wrong or commited a sin. 2) Gods are not misleading us into thinking that they are magicians.

Plato- The Republic What are the 5 circumstances in which people with the potential to be philosophers can realize that potential and become true philosophers? מה הם חמש המצבים (השונים) שמאפשרים לבעלי נטייה פילוסופית לממש את נטייתם ולהפך לפילוסופים של ממש?

1) בהיגזר גלות על אישיות אצילית ומחונכת כשורה -They were in exiled for having a noble personality and being well educated. 2) Lived in a small state-Developing a large soul is easier in a small state because it doesn't have the same type of complexity and difficulties that someone with a large soul would run into in a big state 3 )Being an artist-no contact with politics, high emotional awareness (musicians, painters). They develop ability for intellectual study 4) A sickly constitution that prevents you from getting sent out to fill political positions 5) "Daimonic Symbol"-An inner voice that never tells you what to do, but that tells you what NOT to do to keep you out of trouble. It stops you doing anything that would harm your soul. (Socrates recounts this happening to him)

Identify (at least) 7 traditions, values, and decision-making processes that Pericles states as unique to Athens in comparison to other cities.

1. Democracy 2. Equality in justice. 3. People are required to (and proudly do) take part in government 4. People advance due to merit. 5. People have freedom in their private lives. 6. Provide means for the mind to refresh itself from business. Games and sacrifices all year round. 7. Allow foreigners into Athens and treat them well without concern they are gaining by learning the tricks of the Athenians. 8. Produce from all over the world year round so Athenians can benefit from all nation's luxuries. 9. As opposed to rivals (read: Sparta) who train children from birth, Athenians live as they please and still are strong.

According to Thomas Aquinas: What are the 2 ways to knowing the truth about G-d? Why is it impossible to make do with just knowing G-d philosophically?

1. Ways which exceed human capacity (i.e. G-d's greatness). G-d's substance is beyond our perceptions which are based on our senses and which cannot grasp certain things. 2. Ways which we can reach through natural reason(philosophically) (i.e. G-d exists, He is One...). Many men are prevented from knowing G-d through philosophy for 3 reasons: 1. Physical disinclination (to learning) 2. Pressures of family life. Busy attending to family affairs. 3. Laziness- requires much knowledge in different areas. Due to the extensive effort needed, people must recognize G-d through the Christian faith.

New Testament- Attitude of the New Testament towards (1) those who are considered as persecuted by the government, (2) those who are loyal to their brothers, sisters and family members. תאר והסבר את היחס של הברית החדשה (1) למי שנתפסים כנרדפים על ידי רשויות (2) לנאמנות ליחסים בין בני ובנות משפחה.

1>Jesus states that those who believe will be judged and dragged to court, persecuted by the authorities, and when they stand in front of governors they need to trust in God to protect them from the court of the people, he promises them that God will give them the words for indisputable arguments, possible to doubt them - those who escape the persecution will earn eternity in the afterlife. Jesus gives himself up to the authorities when they are coming to kill him and calls his desciples not to fight the govt. determines, a person who lives by the sword die by the sword, and he gives himself up to the governor to be executed. 2> the people must first be loyal to god even before family. States that this he doesn't bring peace, rather war, because you must place god before anything else, even your family. But also a statement made that if you hold your brother in contempt you need to straighten that out before bringing a gift to the alter of god.

What are Aquinas' justifications for the existence of private property?

3 justifications: 1. A person will take better care of things that belong to him than of things that belong to the public. 2. Human affairs are more efficient and organized if everyone takes individual responsibility. Group ownership would lead to confusion and disorganization. 3. It is easier to preserve peace if everyone is content with what he has. Things that are jointly owned are more likely to lead to quarrel.

Celnick- What were the core of Solon's Political, economical, and law reforms, and which democratic foundations are found in them?

5. Solon's reforms were in 3 main areas: economic, political, and law o Political: • Gave political significance to class divides-and organized class divides by economic status *enabled CHANGING of one's status-broke the noble's monopoly*-political rights determined by degree of wealth (not social status) • 4 economic status's assigned by wealth, that replaced previous social status="tribes" שבטים • Direct vote-each of 4 "tribes" elected 10 candidates for archons • This practice still kept power in hands of the nobility because chosen by direct vote, not lottery • Boule(council of 400) attributed to Solon, but unclear if it really was during his lead or if oligarch's later said it was one of his reforms o Economic: • Canceled paying back of debts-to strengthen lower classes (peasants) and ease crisis • Banning the use of self slavery to pay back debts-lessened slavery of citizens by citizens, also used outside slaves, strengthened collective identity of citizens o Law • Canceled Drakon's 'draconian' laws(except death penalty/punishment) • Public political figures had to swear loyalty when start job • Ability for תביעה ציבורי- to sue someone who didn't commit an act directly against you-can sue someone for hurting state, for example • Ability to APPEAL a sentence-in front of the אסיפת העם-marked more political power to the אסיפת עם o Summary of Solon's laws: • Limited political power of nobles • Redistributed responsibilities/power • Widened the circle of decision makers • Strengthened collective identity-gave public tools to maintain gov. and public order o *Solon's rule was a TIMOCRACY-a rule in which political rights and choosing the archons is based on wealth, not social status. Was NOT a democracy yet, common people still have no power

Heraclitus

535-475 BCE- Heraclitus was famous for his insistence on ever-present change as being the fundamental essence of the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice" This position was complemented by his stark commitment to a unity of opposites in the world, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same". Through these doctrines Heraclitus characterized all existing entities by pairs of contrary properties, whereby no entity may ever occupy a single state at a single time. This, along with his cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally, "word", "reason", or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations.

How does a just state appear and operate according to Socrates? What is the core idea that expresses state justice that is supposed to correspond to the individual justice?

A just state operates with no wealth or poverty since there is no money. It has the best warriors and anytime it is attacked its' neighbors will come to its' aid as they will get all the spoils. Guardians must prioritize education and all their goods (including wives and children) are common goods. A just city doesn't need laws as the properly educated guardians will make the right decisions when necessary. A just city has four virtues: wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice. Wisdom- guardians have wisdom about how to run the city for the benefit of the city. Courage- Auxiliaries need this as they must fight for the city. Moderation and justice are needed by all the people . Moderation in order to agree who the ruler should be and justice so that every man does what he is best suited for (specialization). On an individual level the soul has 3 parts: Rational- lusts after truth Spirited- lusts after honor Appetitive- lusts after food, drink, sex, and money. In a just city the relations between the parts matter so too in the individual; The rational part must rule the others, the spirited helps keep the appetitive in line. In the city the truth-loving guardians rule while the honor-loving auxiliaries act as their helpers to keep the money-loving producers in line. Thus the parts must all work together for the desire of the rational part.

According to Thomas Aquinas: What are the 2 types of laws of humanity that are incorrect and how should a believing Christian act in relations to these types of laws?

A law can be unjust in 2 ways: A. When it is contrary to human good through either object of law(i.e. a ruler imposes onerous laws on his subject for his own benefit) or form (i.e. when burdens placed on a community in an unequal manner). Man should treat these as violence and not laws and obey them so he doesn't get harmed. B. Contrary to divine goodness (i.e. requiring idolatry). These laws should never be followed as "We must obey God rather than men."

What do Celnik and Farrar say about Athens Democratic political thought, how do they explain its absence and what is Farrar's arguments against the claim that there was no democratic theory? מה אומרות צלניק ופראר על המחשבה פוליטית הדמוקרטית באתונה, כיצד הן מסבירות את היעדרה ומה טיעוניה של פראר כנגד הטענה שלא היתה תיאוריה דמוקרטית?

According Zelnik, there are very few pro-democracy writings compared to the amount of writings against democracy. She argues that that might just be a coincidence, and also gives another explanation. Because democracy was the current regime and had survived so many years, people felt no need to justify the democratic political reality, and so the anti-democratic writings were written by those who felt the need to oppose the current regime. According to Farrar, failure to observe democratic theory stems from a misconception of Athenian society. She claims that the Athenians were the first who had to face the consequences and necessities of democracy such as the gradual separation of the political agenda from the social order. She claims the democratic political thought was not limited to political analysis, but also dealt with interpretations and analysis of the polis, which they absolutely did. These interpretations were attempts to understand the politically aware person and define him in relation to nature and relative good or evil in human experience (aristocrat and slave).

What characterizes the way that believing Christians relate to citizenship and citizens? And what characterizes their relation to leadership and leaders? • מה מאפיין את יחסם של נוצרים מאמינים לאזרחות ואזרחים? ומה המאפיין את יחסם למנהיגות ומנהיגים? (לעניין זה ר' גם ספר 4 פרק 3 וספר 19 פרק 17).

According to Augustine, believing Christians relate to citizenship and citizens as where they happen to be. Augustine believes that everything that happens is part of God's plan, so too the leaders in power are meant to be leaders. Believers relate to leaders and leadership as being dependent on the type of leader. A good leader will serve his people well and should be obeyed and commended, but a bad leader is no better than a pirate, ruling unjustly.

Celnik- Based on the extracts on pages 119-121, what defects do Plato and Aristotle find in the democratic system, and are their statements based on the political reality in Athens? 20. בהסתמך על הקטעים המצוטטים בעמודים 119 - 121, אילו פגמים מוצאים אפלטון ואריסטו במשטר הדמוקרטי, והאם התבססו דבריהם על המציאות הפוליטית באתונה?

According to Plato, the democratic system is too free and allows anyone to say and do as he pleases. Each person lives as he wants as the regime looks better than all other governments but according to him it is a multi-layered regime. While indeed there is no coercion or interference in private life in Athens, yet the citizens are still subject to the law and can't do whatever they want. According to Aristotle, the law is supreme over the Ecclesia/the People's Assembly= so the demagogues had upper positions, more power although they were not necessarily the best among the citizens. As stated, the citizens of Athens are in fact governed by laws but the ability of the Ecclesia to change these laws strengthens Aristotle's argument- they can in fact do whatever they want and the demos becomes the sole ruler.

What are the reasons that Plato gives as the basis for his claim of natural equality between man and woman?

Although men and women are different by nature, in terms of the division of their soul and the different natures in each individual they are the same. Some women are rational, some are spirited, and some are appetited. A just, ideal city will treat them through recognizing this and take advantage of their tendencies. On that basis they too should receive equal education so we know which ones can rule and so they have the proper education to do so.

The road up and the road down are one and the same (60). Can you find an additional analogy from Heraclitus that expresses the same quality?

And it is the same thing in us that is quick and dead, awake and asleep, young and old; the former are shifted and become the latter, and the latter in turn are shifted and become the former. (Fragment 88) The road is just one road. Whether it is going up or down is just a matter of perspective. There is no up or down just a road.

Celnick- Why are the candidates for Archon asked questions like those listed in the excerpt on page 68, and what can we learn from it about the concept of citizenship Athenian democracy? מדוע נשאלים המועמדים למשרת ארכון שאלות כמו אלה שמפורטות במובאה בעמוד 68, ומה אפשר ללמוד מהן על תפיסת האזרחות בדמוקרטיה האתונאית?

Archons are investigated by the Boule and in Courts. They are asked who their parents are and who the father of every one of their parents is. They are asked if they have a sacrificial alter to the gods and where they are, whether their parents are buried and how they behaved towards them. They also asked about donations and whether they participated in the military. These questions demonstrate the importance of lineage in the concept of Athenian citizenship, according to which citizens should be born to two citizens. In addition, the questions are designed to test the moral behavior and civil obligations such as fulfilling their military service and worshiping the gods.

Aristotle- Ethics Why is the idea of middle road require Aristotle to create names for ways of acting? Give two examples from the text • מדוע העיקרון של מידת אמצע מחייבת את אריסטו להמציא שמות להתנהגויות? המחש/י באמצעות שתי דוגמאות מהטקסט.

Aristotle has a discussion on traits and virtues. In order for his audience to understand these on a scale from deficient to excessive, he must give terms so he can explain them accordingly. Aristotle gives names to level of each virtue in order to explain on a scale. He creates new meanings to words which didn't exist previously. Ex: 1. 'insensate' as a term to explain people deficient with regards to pleasure. 2. 'irascible' as the person who in anger goes to excess.

Celnick- Why was the nickname for some of the Tyrants "extreme democracy?" Is tyrant power necessarily bad?

Aristotle referred to Pesistratus's reign as "extreme democracy" because he claimed that Pesistratus ruled more as a citizen than as a tyrant. Thucydes confirmed this impression in his own writings of Pesistratus's reign. Pesistratus did not consider himself above the law. He followed the laws as if he were any other citizen (for example, when sued over a murder, he appeared in court to defend himself). He kept Solon's Reforms, and his own policies helped stabilize Athens, create a rule of peace and prosperity. For these reasons, it is clear that tyranny is not necessarily bad. The negative associations with tyranny developed later in response to a large number of cruel tyrants. Pesistratus's policies lessened the gaps between the rich and poor, weakening the nobles control and the dependence of the common people on local nobilities through the appointment of 30 local judges, who replaced the local nobility as sources of authority and judgement. This laid the foundation of the common people turning to the central government for aid, as well as removing power of the nobility over the commoners in a specific geographical area. His general raising up of the demos through redistribution of land and other reforms helped stabilize the lower classes of society, another important element to the later development of democracy. However, despite these characteristics, tyranny was not democracy. The demos had no real power, and Pesistratus's policies and actions distanced the common people from political circles by appointing his own people to the positions of archons and holding a private army. Similarly, although geographical loyalties were weakened at this time, they still existed.

Aristotle- Ethics Explain the analogy between types of governance and types of order of houses: Why is a democracy the least deviant form among the 3 deviant forms of government? • הסבר/י את האנלוגיה בין סוגי משטר לבין סוגים של "סדרי בתים". • מדוע הדמוקרטיה היא משטר בו הסטייה הכי פחות גרועה מבין שלוש המשטרים ה"סוטים"?

Aristotle was appointed three types of regimes - monarchy, aristocracy, Timocrathy. The relationship between a father and his sons is similar to the relationship between a king and his subjects, he takes care of them before he takes care of himself. The relationship between husband and wife is parralleled to aristocrat (best) because they share our activities each doing what they do best as possible. Brothers share, and that is similar to Timocraty for the presence of equal status. b/w democracy and Timocracy difference only in property, equal rights and the commonalities shared between the people. In a democracy there is more room for "friendliness" because of the increased equality.

What are the prices that citizens of Athens will pay as individuals and as a collective if they will listen to the advice of those who spew hate and how does Pericles portray the situation in contrast to them (Third Oration)?

As individuals they will be giving up their freedoms to tyrants. As a community, Athens will be ruined by people who are persuaded by them because it is damaging for a state to live in "safe slavery." In contrast Pericles says remember that we all voted for the war together and it was war that brought Athens to the glory which they have. And naturally, once something peaks it is going to be somewhat diminished and yet Athens will still be the greatest Greek state that has ever existed. It is okay to be hated, hate passes and splendor and glory remain and are passed from generation to generation.

According to Pericles, what is the governance system of Athens and what are the characteristics from which the greatness of Athens sprouted?

Athens is a democracy. Men advance on merit rather than on wealth. Class considerations don't matter. Equal justice to all. And all people partake in government. "Favors the many instead of the few"

Augustinus- City of God How does Augustine relate to obedience to national authority? • מה היחס של אוגוסטינוס לסוגית הציות לרשויות ארציות?

Augustine specifically says that all is part of the will of God, and that nothing is "outside of the laws of His providence." In theory, it does not matter what government a good Christian lives in as long as he has been allowed to live piously according to Christianity. He condemns valuing human honor and glory through conquest too highly, criticizing the Romans. (He also might say something about how the Romans aren't so bad/could be worse with others)

Explain the magical secret of Augustus in light of the story told in the book by Svetinus • הסבר/י את סוד קסמו של אבגוסטוס (Augustus) לאור המסופר בקטע מתוך ספרו של סויטינוס.

Augustus was known for his being good hearted, forgiving, simple, humble. Augustus understood the importance of the senate and of traditions, he did not want to be a dictator, and gave place to everyone from every level of society to approach him.

Explain the response of Aquinas to the question of: Can an unbeliever establish a new dominion or governance over a believer?

Background: Just as in nature higher beings necessarily move lower ones so to in human affairs. In order to establish order men must obey their superiors according to the order contained in the natural and divine law. Only when a command is either contrary to that of a higher power or is not within his authority is man allowed to not obey. However this doesn't preclude a Christian from obeying secular authorities to maintain natural order. They are free in soul but not in body. Two possibilities: A: No. Unbelievers cannot establish government as it gives rise to scandal and endangers the faith (because they will rule in a manner that doesn't line up with divine will). Also they will move their subjects to do things that are against divine will because subjects are easily malleable. Additionally, if the unbelievers rule over disputes of believers they will learn about their failings and despise their faith. B. If the government is already established then the rules are different. Governance is human law while belief and non belief is divine law. The Church can decide when it feels necessary to take away the dominion of the unbelievers over believers who are on the way to becoming sons of G-d. . Sometimes it has interfered and sometimes not.

What were the calculated mistakes that the people of Athens made after Pericles death?

Bereft of his leadership, the Athenians made mistake after mistake in their military decisions leading eventually to their defeat by the Spartans in 404 BCE, the destruction of their city's walls, and their occupation and rule by Sparta. They went to war against his advice and didn't invest in their Navy. In his histories, Thucydides makes abundantly clear what a disaster Pericles' death was for Athens in that those who came after him desired to be popular rather than effective, and in so doing doomed the city to ruin.

According to Thomas Aquinas: What is the way of governance that is the most correct and what is the least just way? What are the criteria for the basis of this evaluation?

Best form- Kingship (slightly better than Aristocracy in which a few virtuous men that carry out the administration of a polity) because it is easier for one person to preserve peace in the community which is the primary role or a ruler(just as a captain preserves safety of his ship). This is also proven by nature in which the heart moves all the other parts and G-d is the maker and ruler of all. Art imitates nature and in nature plurality derives from unity (as explained by heart and G-d examples). Worst Form- opposite of best form. Tyrant who rules for his private good and not the common good. If there are a few bad rulers then its' an oligarchy. Unjust government in which common people oppress rich is also bad (democracy). Just like a unified force is more effective for good so too for bad making a tyrant the worst. Additionally the more far from the common good the more unjust; Oligarchy benefits the few while tyranny benefits one. Men all by nature have an end and have reason to help us get to that end. As we live in relation to other to achieve that end we all need to help one another and fill the role suited for us (doctors, fishermen...). Because man lives with others there must be governance to ensure that there is a proper direction for the good of the entire group.

Socrates

Born about 469 Fought for Athens in Peloponnesian War. During Athen's downfall, heavily criticized democracy and tried improving Athenian's sense of justice. This made him a gadfly to the Athenian government and lead to his trial and death. Killed in 399 Loved dialogue and engaging in deep conversation/changing peoples views. Until then they would look at nature as a means to understand what goes on in the world, such as math. He started unique way of studying the world by studying man himself. What is wisdom and knowledge and are they natural or acquired? His ideas were spread through works of his students (mainly Plato) and plays by his contemporaries forming the basis of Western philosophy. Socratic Method- ask many questions to determine your knowledge and eliminate hypotheses Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for instance, of material wealth.

Thucydides- Short Biography

Born around 460 BCE 424- Chosen to be Strategos (prerequisite of being 30 years old) 424/3 Lost at the battle of Amphipolis as an Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War Exiled due to accusations of treason. 404- Returned to Athens Died around 400 Herodotus (predecessor) views history as a source of moral lessons, with conflicts and wars as misfortunes flowing from initial acts of injustice perpetuated through cycles of revenge. In contrast, Thucydides claims to confine himself to factual reports of contemporary political and military events, based on unambiguous, first-hand, eye-witness accounts, although, unlike Herodotus, he does not reveal his sources. Basic ideas: Historian with strict evidence gathering rules. Didn't account for intervention of Gods. Took a political realist perspective. Scholars traditionally view Thucydides as recognizing and teaching the lesson that democracies need leadership, but that leadership can be dangerous to democracy.

Plato's Biography

Born in 427 BCE to aristocratic family. Served in military in Athenian war against Sparta Died 347 BCE Studies under and with Socrates Travelled world to learn about different societies. Tried using connections to bring his political ambitions into reality. Founded the Academy in 370. Aristotle was most famous graduate. Wrote 29 works including the Republic(Politea) and mostly in dialogue form. Politeia deals with why his teacher Socrates was killed. After the death he traveled from place to place to deepen the philosophy learned under Socrates. Plato learnt by Pythagoras . Pythagoras was against the idea that any person can free ride on the knowledge of the philosophers. He dealt in math, geometry, and the harmony of musical notes.

Augustinus- City of God What characterizes Abel's relation to life in the land and what characterizes the city that Cain established? • מה מאפיין את יחסו של הבל לחיים בארץ, ומה מאפיין את העיר שיסד קין?

Cain lives in the way of man, and Abel in the way of God. This too is designated by God's grace. No person can live in the way of God without first being wicked (as is the nature of original sin). So God chose to create Abel in the form of honor, after creating Cain in man's natural form of wickedness. Abel considers himself a visitor in this life, and does not build a city. Instead he awaits the eternal kingdom that will exist after the messiah comes with God as its ruler. He is considered a citizen of that kingdom, merely on earth for a time. In contrast, the city that Cain builds is often torn apart by war, conquests and internal conflict because of the vice of bondage, and humans' desires to dominate each other. IF conquest is carried out because the victor is JUST and follows the ways of God then conquest is good and fine, but if the rulers of the conquering society are not just, then only misery will follow. *This is a way of integrating Christian beliefs in humility and desire to condone Roman rule, by saying that if the society is just with a just ruler, conquest is in the name of God and is good.*

Plato's Rejection of Other Views on Justice

Cephalus-'justice consists in speaking the truth and paying one's debt. ' (proper conduct) Rejection- Sometimes giving man what is due to him is detrimental (i.e. giving a man that has gone mad weapons that are his) Polemarchus- justice is doing good to friends and harm to enemies." Rejection- Who knows who is a friend and who is an enemy? Thrasymachus- "interest of the stronger" An unjust is superior to a just in character and intelligence. Injustice is a source of strength. Injustice brings happiness. Rejection-Justice implies superior character and intelligence while injustice means deficiency in both respects. Therefore, just men are superior in character and intelligence and are more effective in action. As injustice implies ignorance, stupidity and badness, It cannot be superior in character and intelligence. A just man is wiser because he acknowledges the principle of limit.

Plato- What is the compromise of the distinction between state of pigs and a refined and swollen? מה פשר ההבחנה בין מדינה של חזירים למדינה עדינה ואף "תפוחה"? מדוע מדינה מעודנת מביאה מן ההכרח למלחמה עם שכנים ולצורך בצבא?

Country of pigs is a country where everyone is satisfied with only what is necessary. Sleeping on leaves, eating simple foods, not overdoing anything. Country refined (swollen) is a country where there is a culture on the minimum outlined in the country of pigs, people eats on the table and sleeps in beds. מדינה תפוחה will need space to properly support the country, so it is imperative to take land from the neighbors of the country.

Celnik- What are the prevailing attitudes of contemporary research about the nature of political organization in Athens? Are these approaches consistent with the political situation in Athens at that time? מה הן הגישות הרווחות במחקר בן זמננו בעניין אופי ההתארגנות הפוליטית באתונה? האם עולות גישות אלה בקנה אחד עם המציאות הפוליטית באתונה באותה עת?

Dahl's approach was that the restriction of Athenian democracy was the limiting of citizenship to a small number of people who fit the criteria and the removal of many people from the definition of a citizen. He claimed that there was no democracy in all of Greece but only among citizens of the same polis, therefore no efforts were made to turn all of the cities into one larger entity. These things match the reality in Athens but are also compatible with the reality that exists today. According to Mill, institutions such as the People's Assembly and the courts raised the intellectual level of the citizen in Athens. Political activity educates the citizen and gives him the skills to make decisions and to influence his surroundings, while being a direct part of the administration of the polis. According to Finley, todays societies cannot sustain such a direct democracy like there was in Athens, but it raises the question whether it is possible to find a way to encompass the 'spirit of Athenian democracy' and involve the people more directly today.

Plato- The Republic What is the nature of a democratic person and what characterizes his behavior? מה טיבו של אדם דמוקרטי ומה מאפיין את התנהגותו?

Democracy is characterized by equality, with a variety of choices of constitution and different types of people. A democratic person shows equality in all things, meaning that he has a balance of self-discipline and of following his impulses to fulfill unnecessary desires. Plato refers to the "democratic man" as the son of an oligarchical, thrifty father who only valued wealth and its absence. Because of this stingy upbringing the man then throws himself into fulfilling his desires when he meets people who govern themselves without self-discipline. However, because he was brought up with self-control, he will be able to maintain some discipline over himself and functions in moderation.

Plato- The Republic מה הם התנאים להיווצרות משטר דמוקרטי? What are the conditions for creation of a democratic government?

Democratic government is created from the extreme form of oligarchy. In oligarchy, the value most upheld is wealth. The gap between the rich and the poor becomes extremely large, and the rulers focus only on accruing more wealth. These conditions create a brittle and unstable state, in which the balance is easily overturned. At some point the poor will turn against the rich, and the poor will take over and gain an equal share in the constitution and public office. Plato's analogy to the body here refers to it only taking a slight catalyst to cause an unhealthy body to become sick, and fight within itself.

New Testament- Matthew 5 General Overview

Discussion of reaching almost an inner peace. Strive for greatness and goodness. Be righteous. The severity of sin The idea of punishment in an afterlife. Accountability for actions. You must love your fellow man before you can love god. Be perfect in the image of your heavenly father Don't swear if you can't perform on it. Don't allow your eyes to stray after other women. Thinking can lead to sin. Love your neighbor, hate your enemies but continue love and pray for them.

Celnick- How did Ephialtes' reforms cause a growth in power for the demos?

Ephialtes took power from the limited two upper noble classes and redistributed it to the boule and agora (אספת העם), giving more authority to the masses

Plato- What was the contribution of the Myth of Er to the understanding of the nature of political governance?

Er came to explain the life cycle of good people and bad people. The parable begins with a show of good and bad people and the price they pay after their death, and then a lot of these people are replacing their good lifestyle with a worst one and their bad one with a good one. You can go further and assume that after they're dead roles are reversed. This principle corresponds to the Platonic thesis that "no one is voluntarily wicked.'' ; If someone commits bad acts this is because of ignorance and if we knew that, we would not participate and would prefer to engage our lives in virtue. Thus, those who were righteous in their past life as an habit, so involuntarily, can choose lives that promise the vice, while those who know what real good is and practice virtue are careful when they choice, they avoid the extremes and are held in a balance. Plato thinks that to be good, the best is to practice philosophy, to contemplate and to know it, also allows to the philosopher's practitioners to detach themselves from sensible things and to preserve the purity of their soul

Pericles- Defense of Himself- Third Oration

Given before an assembly in Athens to defend himself due to violent criticism for bringing the Athenians into Peloponnesian War. Argues that the people voted to go to war and against those are criticizing him. Some claims: • Better to be an unfortunate individual in a fortunate state than a fortunate individual in an unfortunate state. Because a fortunate individual shares in its' destruction but an unfortunate individual can recover. • We are the most powerful Greek State ever and were bound to lose some of our control. • We are the most powerful on land and can sail wherever we want. • Liberty will easily recover from the losses incurred whereas others have their losses wiped away forever.

New Testament- Matthew 10 General Overview

God needs to be your number 1, if he isn't you're not worthy of him. You must accept your torture stake. If you find your soul you will lose it, if you lose it you will find it.

Greek Polis

Greeks gave us the word politics that stems from the Greek polis. Greek polis had a city surrounded by open area and with a high area that had a wall and housed the important institutions and was called acropolis. There was also an area where the citizens met called the agora (later ecclesia). Every polis had a king, a council of elders, and then an assembly of citizens. A member of the assembly would speak, generally a power figure, and the king was not required to relate to what he says. The cheers or boos of the crowd attested to the popularity of his statement. Rule by tyranny was not considered a bad thing, but rather was an efficient way to rule. Athens at its peak had 45,000 citizens. They were divided according to two categories: Tribes (biological) and Achvot (territory and cult). Celnick- Every Achvah had its' own institutions. During times of peace, there was the ruling parties that organized between the different Achvot.

Plato- What is the common expectation for a man that lives a life of doing deceitful acts that appear to be just? Why do common concepts of Justice fail to prevent this type of life? מה הרווח הצפוי לאדם החי חיים של עשיית עוול (עם מראית עין של עשיית צדק)? מדוע תפיסות צדק רווחות אינן משכנעות לחדול מחיים מעין אלו?

He will be governor of his city, will marry a woman, do business with and who wants and he will use the money it will earn, because he does not hesitate to do an injustice to make sacrifices to the gods and then he will be a favorite of the gods. He will use his wealth to benefit his friends. The existing concepts of justice do not glorify the "justice" but the appearance of "justice" and the reputation of the "righteous" is actually more important.

Plato's- Degrees of Intensity of Being

Heraclitus argued that ultimate reality was constantly changing; Parmendies argued that reality was unified and changeless. Plato solved this by creating a scenario in which there are "degrees of intensity of Being" in which the real world was changeless but the world of appearances (the lesser) was changing.

According to Heraclitus what characterizes the Logos?

Heraclitus claims to announce an everlasting Word (Logos) according to which all things are one, in some sense. Opposites are necessary for life, but they are unified in a system of balanced exchanges. The world itself consists of a law-like interchange of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus the world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change. Heraclitus' interesting metaphysics, according to which the world is ordered, guided, and unified by a rational structure, a single divine law, which he calls the "logos". Matching the divine cosmic logos, happily, is a logos that resides in each of our souls. Our private logos (presumably something like our faculty of reason) allows us access to the divine logos, and thus reopens the possibility of human knowledge. Observation without an understanding of the logos is useless, but observation coupled with an understanding of the logos yields true knowledge.

What is the logic in the requirement that the guardians are prevented from wealth and the state should not extend beyond its' size that Socrates coins "one and self-sufficing"?

If the rulers are permitted to acquire private property, they will inevitably abuse their power and begin to rule for their own gain, rather than the good of the entire city. And even though this will detract from their personal happiness, it will be better for the whole unit and that is what concerns us. (parable of a statue with beautiful purple eyes that are beautiful but detract from the whole because its' unnatural looking). Socrates argues that if a city were to become too large it will not be able to be properly governed and will no longer be unified and will require resources from other states and thus war.

Plato- Book 2- What is the Myth of the Ring of Gyges and what does it teach? מה המשל והנמשל בסיפור גיגס הלודי (בעל הטבעת המופלאה)?

In Glaucon's recounting of the myth (which is clearly not based on historical fact), an unnamed ancestor of Gyges was a shepherd in the service of the ruler of Lydia. After an earthquake, a cave was revealed in a mountainside where he was feeding his flock. Entering the cave, he discovered that it was in fact a tomb with a bronze horse containing a corpse, larger than that of a man, who wore a golden ring, which he pocketed. He discovered that the ring gave him the power to become invisible by adjusting it. He then arranged to be chosen as one of the messengers who reported to the king as to the status of the flocks. Arriving at the palace, he used his new power of invisibility to seduce the queen, and with her help he murdered the king, and became king of Lydia himself. In Republic, the tale of the ring of Gyges is described by the character of Glaucon who is the brother of Plato. Glaucon asks whether any man can be so virtuous that he could resist the temptation of being able to perform any act without being known or discovered. Glaucon suggests that morality is only a social construction, the source of which is the desire to maintain one's reputation for virtue and justice. Hence, if that sanction were removed, one's moral character would evaporate.

Plato- The Republic What is Plato's reasoning against the way in which democracy develops equal values and freedom? מה הן הגיונות הביקורות של אפלטון כנגד האופן בו מתפתחים במשטר דמוקרטי ערכי השוויון והחירות?

In Plato's description of democracy, democratic people refuse the values that make up Plato's own idea of a just and good society in favor of equality. For example, democracy rejects Plato's idea that only people with a specific nature can become the best of society through a particular upbringing. Instead, they are willing to accept anyone into public office who has won the favor of the people, who Plato sees as not educated enough to make good decisions. Freedom comes at the expense of enforcement of laws and government rule. Plato mentions the examples of people who were by law exiled or sentenced to be executed staying in the city with no repercussions. These ideas are similarly expressed in Plato's analogy of the nature of a democratic individual. Plato describes the development of the democratic man as taking part in ALL things, which means that this man does not value fine and good desires above evil desires. Instead he indulges in whichever suits him on a day by day basis. This doesn't abide by Plato's ideas of just and right choices or self-discipline.

Plato's Allegory of the Cave

In the Allegory of the Cave, a group of prisoners in a cave are able to see shadows projected on a wall that lies in front of them. The prisoners, unable to see anything else, perceive the shadows to be reality, for lack of ability to know better. One prisoner is freed (unexplained how) and progresses to look at the fires. As he learns more his knowledge expands and he continues to progress until he is dragged out of the cave. Looking at the sun, he is blinded at which point he has achieved the highest level of knowledge. This parable, aims to show the need to educate those with the right nature to enable them to attain the ultimate level of knowledge and then return them to the cave, or the people, to guide and rule the city. The philosophers, who have now seen the light, desire to, "remain in the upper world" but this must not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labors and honors, whether they are worth having or not." Plato argues that upon receiving proper education, a process outlined in the subsequent sections, philosophers must be compelled against their will to return to society to lead. The wise men that refuse to rule will be penalized through being governed by those less fit to rule. Thus, the philosopher thus must rule for the betterment of society, even if he does not desire to do so.

Plato- The Republic What is the metaphor of the ship analogy and what is the moral in terms of political leadership? ה הוא משל בעל האנייה וקברניט ומה הנמשל במונחי הנהגה מדינית?

In the ship analogy, the ship represents the polis. The sailors all fight over the position of captain without the knowledge to properly steer the ship, and without the forethought to decide where the ship should be going. In the analogy, the philosopher who has studied and therefore has the knowledge of how to steer the ship remains outside of the power fighting. If the sailors were smart, they would acknowledge that only this scholar knows how to best steer the ship and would come to him, asking him to be their captain and to rule them. In this analogy, the sailors represent the politicians and citizens of the polis, who fight over power without the knowledge to rule properly, and without having a clear idea of what they want to create for government. The scholar with the knowledge to rule represents the philosophers, whose natural job it is to rule as they are the most qualified. The lesson of this analogy is that there are specific people, namely the philosophers, who are qualified to rule through extensive education and preparation. These are the people who will best rule the government and actively lead it with a clear vision and the proper tools to create Plato's concept of an ideal society, fulfilling the concept of justice through realizing the potential to live in the best way possible. This analogy also emphasizes that those who are most qualified to rule will do so because they will be the best rulers, and not out of desire for personal gain and benefit, as shown by their not entering into political infighting, which is below them. In a just world, in which people know what's good for them and acknowledge the distinction between natural role distribution, they will come to the philosophers and ask them to lead, understanding that the philosophers will lead them best. This analogy is also an answer to the claim that philosophers are useless. It illustrates Plato's belief that philosophers are considered useless in society only because society does not understand how to make use of them.

Celnick- What is the logic of the claim that interprets the method of fate (הפלת גורל)considered "democratic" as a form of sorting people into government office positions?

It has to do with the implication that every person is therefore equally qualified to lead. It also reflects large changes in power dynamics of how positions are chosen, because it means that richer, more influential people, or those with a large following, don't have a better chance of getting into office. Means common people have more of a chance to lead, and therefore will be more involved in politics even when not serving. Makes it more difficult for people to manipulate the system to their personal desires.

Plato's Influence of Christianity (and Western Thought)

It is arguable that Plato is the most influential of philosophers on Christianity, and especially Christian theology. There are two caveats to bear in mind, however. Plato's influence was almost always indirect, having been mediated by neo-Platonism, to which we will come when we have studied Aristotle. Plato was adapted and subdued as much as he was accepted and used. The Jewish tradition had many ideas of its own, some of which overcame Plato's in the development of Christian thought, some of which were overcome, and some of which combined in fascinating ways with Plato's. With these qualifications in mind, here are some of the areas of influence. The Apologists: Christian Doctrine as Purified, Definitive Greek Philosophy God as Immutable: Forsaking Hebrew Ideas The (Eventual) Triumph of Dualism: Nature vs. Spirit, Body vs. Mind Creation: Forms are the Creative Thoughts of God; Prepares way for Ex Nihilo; Inspires Neo-Platonic Hierarchy of Being Incarnation: Jesus Christ as Perfect Instantiation of The Logos Society: The Great Accidental Social Experiment Based on the Republic Mysticism: The Beatific Vision (of the Forms)

Thales

Lived from 624-546 BCE Developed mathematical thinking. Used thinking to investigate the nature of the substance(s), natural law and legality. Many, most notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition.[ Aristotle reported Thales' hypothesis that the originating principle of nature and the nature of matter was a single material substance: water. Used math to make predictions: Predicted the exact date of a solar eclipse (Likui Chama) 20 years before, in writing! Predicted changes in the weather. Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology. Almost all of the other Pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world without reference to mythology. In mathematics, Thales used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. He is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He understood that all prior assumptions were based and started asking questions and investigating all things related to nature from scratch. Huge revolution!

Explain the cycle of regimes and the logic that brings one type of government to another: • תאר/י את "מעגל המשטרים" ואת הגיון המעברים בין צורות המשטר.

Monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy. "Kyklos" as the term for the cycle of regimes. Explained by Polybius: There are 3 types of government which the other government stems from: democracy, aristocracy and monarchy (which lead to their degenerate forms) → ochlocracy, oligarchy and tyranny. • Anarchy- how society starts off. - Strong figure emerges → • →monarchy. The monarch's descendants lack virtue because of their family's power and become → despots and then the monarchy becomes a→ • → tyranny: because of the tyrant's excessiveness, he is overthrown by citizens→ • →aristocracy: the citizens who set up the aristocracy forget their virtue and the state becomes an →oligarchy. • → Oligarchy: the oligarchy is overthrown by people who create →democracy. • → democracy: it becomes corrupt quickly and spirals into "mob rule" → • → starting the cycle anew.

Explain the distinction between Citizenship as the moral political ideal (Greece) and Citizenship as a legal status (Roman Empire): • הסבר/י את ההבחנה בין אזרחות מוסרי-פוליטי ( יוון) לאזרחות כסטטוס משפטי (אימפריה רומית).

Moral- Political citizenship: Aristotle and Plato wrote about citizenship in Greece as the right way of living- a way for people to realize their purpose in life, Aristotle claims that man is a naturally political therefore when a person fulfills his duties as a citizen he is fulfilling his general life's purpose. As Plato and Aristotle both see the country as an entity made up of these citizens, they see the importance of having "good" citizens who serve the general public. Roman leaders took these foundations of citizenship from Athens and had to deal with the questions- who would be considered citizens in Rome.Citizenship as a legal definition, however, stemming from the Roman period denotes a formal status that an individual has that comes with rights and obligations in relation to the state. Originally, this understanding of citizenship arose from a studier of law, Gaius, who saw citizenship as a way to correctly categorize different groups and to provide the structure with which men can defy governments and express freedom and protection under the law (via suing, appeals and prosecution, etc.)Compared to Aristotle and Plato who thought civil action and political activity was necessary for everyone, this right in Rome was restricted to citizens only.

Plato- What can we learn about a State that has numerous hospitals and courts? What is different regarding standards to choose doctors to that of choosing judges? מה ניתן ללמוד על מדינה בה יש ריבוי של בתי חולים ובתי משפט? ומה מבחין בין אמות מידה לבחירת רופאים לאמות מידה לבחירת שופטים?

Multiplicity of courts and hospitals in the country which means overcoming degeneration and disease, the result of poor education and obscene acts. Doctors : at the beginning of their way they should recognize multiple diseases, and even when they will be sick themselves with many diseases because the remedy comes from their soul and not from their bodies. Judges: at the beginning of their way it was forbidden to be corrupted so they connected to others corrupted souls to learn the corruption. But the judges have to be pure, without corruption.

According to Heraclitus and Parmendies: Is wonderment about the mental activities relevant to thinking about the political order? Explain

No. We are limited by the present. We must view political order as it is and not what it should be because there is no what should be (Parmenides). According to (my understanding of) Heraclitus the world is ever changing and everything is contained in the logos, but we can't decide good and evil and similar discussions about political order for the logos contains them and they are just a matter of perception.

Epilogue of Socrates: What are the crimes (old and new) he is accused of? מה היו האשמות (הישנות והחדשות) בגינן הובא סוקרטס למשפט בפני חבר המושבעים

Old Ones: 1. Investigates what is underground and above heavens. 2. Uses rhetorical persuasion to convince them that his claim is correct when it isn't. 3. Teaches others to do like him. Brings s othes down the wrong path. New claims: 1. Corrupts the youth and makes them worse. 2. Doesn't believe in gods that the state believes in them. 3. Believes in daimon actions. (admits to this)

What is the significance of the word demos, and why were the leaders known as demagogues? (For a complete solution called Demos also refers to previous chapters). מה המשמעויות של המילה דמוס, ומדוע כונו מנהיגי הדמוס דמגוגים? (לשם מענה שלם קראו התייחסות למונח דמוס גם בפרקים קודמים).

One meaning of the word demos is all citizens. The second meaning is the common people. Another implication is a small community that became an administrative unit after the reforms of Clisthenes. The leaders of the demos are citizens who are non-noblemen who became the leaders as a result of the support they received from their demos after their proposals at the Ecclesia. they worked to expand the abilities of their demos and provide benefits to their poor. They did not necessarily serve officially, but gained influence through persuasion at the ecclesia of the people, and so they were the leaders of their demos and were called demagogues. Demagogues were accused of inflaming passions of the people, and were accused of the radicalizing of democracy to an anarchic level and were concerned much of the time for their personal interests. Hence the negative implication that the word demagogue has today.

What are the qualities of the citizen-orator that makes him worth listening to(Pericles Third Oration)?

One who is honest and loves his city (and knows whats best for them). And above the influence of money. If one lacks either of these qualities then he is not worthy of being listened to.

Augustinus- City of God What characterizes the conduct of a Christian Caesar? • מה מאפיין את אורחותיו של קיסר נוצרי?

One who rules justly: • This comprises of - • If they remain humble, and never forget to offer to God for their sins-sacrifices-humility contrition and prayer (And do NOT rule for glory!) • If they fear, love, worship God • If they truly love their kingdom and its subjects • If they prefer to rule a nation that is in sin, because they are then able to help people repent • If they are slow to punish and ready to pardon • Applying punishment in order to protect the government, in the hopes that the transgressor will repent • If they are merciful and benevolent

Parmenides

Parmenides (530-470 BCE)- Parmenides is one of the most significant of the pre-Socratic philosophers. In "the way of truth" (a part of the poem), he explains how reality (coined as "what-is") is one,change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. In "the way of opinion," he explains the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful. The section known as "the way of truth" discusses that which is real and contrasts with the argument in the section called "the way of opinion," which discusses that which is illusory. Under the "way of truth," Parmenides stated that there are two ways of inquiry: that it is, on the one side, and that it is not.[18] on the other side. He said that the latter argument is never feasible because there is no thing that can not be. Parmenides claimed that there is no truth in the opinions of the mortals. Genesis-and-destruction, as Parmenides emphasizes, is a false opinion, because to be means to be completely, once and for all. What exists can in no way not exist. n the next section, the Way of Appearance/Opinion/Seeming, Parmenides proceeds to explain the structure of the becoming cosmos (which is an illusion, of course) that comes from this origin.

According to Celnik pp 104-105, which are unique values of Athenian democracy, and what type of equality exists? על פי צלניק עמ' 104 - 105, מה הם הערכים הייחודיים לדמוקרטיה האתונאית, ואיזו תפיסות שוויון הם מנחילים?

Pericles argues that although there is a requirement to comply with laws, there should be no coercive intervention in an individual's private life. He emphasizes values such as courage, sense of honor, competitiveness and the pursuit of fame which are not necessarily a characteristic of democracy, but some relate to the understanding of citizenship in Democratic Athens. The democratic ideology emphasized political equality, but combined with these values, one could clearly see a lack of social and economic equality. For example, the rich were entitled to demonstrate their wealth and their difference from others through liturgically (Services for the rule, where the rich financed the city/government).

What are the justifications that make it proper and worthwhile for citizens to give up their lives for in war(Pericles Second Oration)?

Pericles notes that there are practical advantages from fighting ("what is to be gained by beating the enemy back"), but he wants to stress more idealistic motives: citizens should fall in love with their city, so that they willingly sacrifice themselves it and thus receive eternal glory. Happiness depends on freedom, and freedom must be defended, so it's necessary to risk death for the happiness of all. And their forefathers did the same thing to enable them to live freely and happily. And by fighting they are spreading the good of Athens to the world. The dead are idealised - these are men who knew their duty and had the courage to do it, who made the ultimate sacrifice to their city and fellow-citizens, and who would risk anything but dishonour. They now live on eternally in people's memories. They have eternal glory and are memorialized by the people at every ceremony. Death is not as bad as dishonor. Indeed, as Pericles argues in sections 5-6, if you're prosperous and successful you should be less afraid of death than someone who is poor and wretched; the unfortunate man hasn't got much honor or much hope of improving his situation, whereas the fortunate man runs the constant risk as long as he's alive that his fortunes will change and he'll suffer the abject humiliation of losing everything. Much better to die when you're being courageous and patriotic.

What are the 3 waves of opposition that threaten to 'wash to sea' the arguments of Plato on his ideas of the central and customary ways of a community of guardians?

Plato advocates three waves of socio-political change in the Republic: 1. Rulers should be intelligent, with soul; no other criteria should be allowed to interfere (eg. sex, money, family, etc.). They should receive the same education. 2. Rulers should live communally; they should hold no property and no family in private, though the larger population should have both families and property. 3. Rulers, having to be intelligent, should be chosen on the basis of their expertise in philosophy, demonstrated through education; philosophers should rule, and rulers should be philosophers. Challenges: 1. Women are not equal. First off the Law regarded men as superior (Women couldn't hold property, vote...) Second, even Plato attests to Male superiority. (Plato's response is is that although men as a whole are superior, Women can be equally as capable and thus it would be wrong to say any specific man is greater than any women and therefore they must be treated equally and educated equally) 2. Problem on grounds of both propriety and ability. Propriety: Improper for women to exercise naked and have common husbands. Ability: Everyone should go according to their nature so if men and women are different they shouldn't both rule (Answer: Propriety- once it was consider improper for men to exercise naked. People will become used to it. Ability- If bald people can be shoemakers that does not mean those with hair cannot. Women and men can have similar natures. Women can fit any nature as can men.) 3. How can a city like this ever come into being (rulers won't want to give up their power, children, possessions...that a philosopher should or could be king...)? (Socrates answers that we may not get to the ideal but even a slight alteration towards this is an improvement. This can only happen when a philosopher becomes a king or a king a philosopher.)

Plato's Justice

Plato in his philosophy gives very important place to the idea of justice. He used the Greek word "Dikaisyne" for justice which comes very near to the work 'morality' or 'righteousness', it properly includes within it the whole duty of man. It also covers the whole field of the individual's conduct in so far as it affects others. Plato contended that justice is the quality of soul, in virtue of which men set aside the irrational desire to taste every pleasure and to get a selfish satisfaction out of every object and accommodated themselves to the discharge of a single function for the general benefit.

Plato- Why does Socrates turn to look at the formation of the state as a way to understand "charitable soul"? What characterizes a state in the making? מדוע סוקרטס פונה להתבונן בהתהוות המדינה כדרך להבין "צדקה בנשמה"? ומה מאפיין מדינה בהתהוותה?

Practicing righteousness in a country will make it easier for us to identify charitable. Because this is easier to identify charitable people in big acts than in little acts. The emergence of a country is caused because no one can live alone without other people.

Terms from Homer that Socrates was aware of:

Psuche- Greek word for something hidden that gives power to life (soul?) still exists after death and existed before the body. Leaves the body and goes to its place. Daimon- mediator between the man and the supreme being. As one gets older his understanding reduces itself and daimon strengthens. (some people translate daimon as conscience) Arete- Virtue, excellence, can also mean goodness. Arete understood as "excellence" is tied to the end/goal/ or purpose of something. A thing's excellence comes from its successfully meeting its end or goal.

Socrates- Republic 4-5: What is the content of the "noble lies" (parable of the metals) and what is its' purpose?

Socrates argues that a noble lie is a myth that makes people more inclined to care for the state and one another. Socrates proposes a "noble lie" in the fictional account of his proposed republic and its three classes(producers, auxiliaries, and guardians). He talks about a society where different people contains different types of metal. Rulers contain gold, auxiliaries silver, and farmers bronze and iron. In this society, if children of rulers have silver or bronze, they would be demoted to lower classes, and auxiliaries or farmers born with silver and gold would be promoted. Socrates claims that even though this is false, if believed by the people, it would result in an orderly and just society since it explains the origin and the importance of the three classes.

Plato's Soul

Soul- Invisible, rational life principle of a human being. Tri-Partite Soul- Intellect, Spirit(emotional), and Appetite. Every person is characterized by their balance of the 3 types of souls. Tyrannical Soul- Appetite>Spirt>Intellect Democratic Soul- All 3 equal Oligarchic Soul- Spirit rules over Appetite and Intellect Timocratic Soul- Appetite for lobe and recognition (honor) influence Spirit and Intellect Philosophical Soul- Intellect rules over Spirit and together they subdue Appetite. (chariot parable- Chariot rider is intellect which directs 2 horses (lead horse is Spirit and back horse is Appetite)

New Testament- Luke 12 Overview

Stop being anxious about material things like food and cloth, for life is worth more. Example of the ravens to show that god will care for you even if you're not productive in life. Stop being like the nations of the world with your anxieties and worrying about the small things, the lord shall provide. God will take care of you no matter what Refers to his followers as a flock

New Testament- Luke 17 General Overview

Stumbling blocks come up, pay attention. If your brother commits a sin- rebuke him, when he repents, you must forgive him. You only need faith the size of a mustard seed. Parallel of a slave to slaves of god- a slave master will not be thankful when a slave fulfills his duties, because they are his duties, so to you should fulfill your duties. The lepers. Ten were purified by the priests, but only the one (who was a Samaritan) thanked god (by god they mean Jesus). The kingdom of god doesn't "come" it is "in your midst" Man is fallible. Man (likened to the story of noa) must first undergo sufferings and only then may the sun of man will be revealed. The story of Lot's wife, she was left behind, so to not everyone will have a revelation.

Plato's Community of Guardians (Second Wave)

System of communism among the philosopher rulers, to guard against corruption. no private property, no money provisions for living come from the state communism of men and women (no marriage); some women wooed from other classes, others earn their way in through education—there is no sex barrier sharing of children, to the point that no parent in the ruling class knows precisely who his or her children are, and no one (in theory) cares pacifist in orientation Other members of the state (those outside of the ruling class) marry and have families in the conventional way. Military protection is necessary, especially to defend the state from outside interference.

How does Livius describe the circumstances surrounding the removal of the last Roman king- Tarquinius ? • כיצד ליויוס מתאר את נסיבות סילוקו של אחרון מלכי רומא, טארקוויניוס?

Tarquinius's removal was a very violent event in the history of Rome, the king's son raped a noblewoman, she then called her husband and father to avenge her and committed suicide. Brutus (a friend of her husband) owed to avenge her. He came out against the king, where he used the rape as way of a uniting of the masses against the monarchy that was brutal period. After Brutus and his supporters took Rome, the conquered king, his wife and family fled, while his son was murdered by his supporters. Brutus vowed there would never be a king of Rome again, and so began the republic with the rule split between two consuls.

Plato- The Academy's Curriculum

The Academy is the first institution of higher education in the Western world. Aristotle is the most famous graduate. The curriculum of the Academy is indirectly summarized in the Republic. age 1-10: physical education; utopia begins in the body age 10: rescue children from their families and place them in schools age 11-16: music education to balance and complement physical emphasis; refines character and increases sensitivity to feelings age 16-20: moral training introduced to complement previous studies, which themselves are now greatly intensified age 20: Big Test—practical and theoretical; those that fail go into economic positions such as business, farming, trades, etc. age 20-30: another decade of physical, intellectual, moral education age 30: Bigger Test—those who fail become executives and military leaders age 30-35: only now is philosophy taught, i.e. the disciplined seeing of the forms (generalizations, regularities, ideals, laws) age 35-50: Bigest Test—rejoin the world and survive and thrive there; those who fail stay there; those who pass... age 50: ...automatically become rulers

Identify cultural codes of the Melians and of the Athenians. What is the level of distinction or similarity between the two sides?

The Athenians are confident in their strength and believe that strength is the ultimate decider. The Melians meanwhile recognize they might not be as strong but believe in justice of the G-ds, possibly through the hands of the Spartans. The distinction is major; belief in power as 'justice' vs. belief in justice as what is right. "the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must. (Athenians)" "Nevertheless we trust that the gods will give us fortune as good as yours, because we are standing for what is right against what is wrong;(Melians)"

What were the Reforms of the Gracchus brothers, and what was their influence on the stability of the republican government? מה היו הרפורמות של האחים גארקכיוס, ומה היתה השפעתן על יציבות המשטר הרפובליקני?

The Gracchus brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, were Romans who both served as tribunes in the late 2nd century BC. They attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major aristocratic landholdings among the urban poor and veterans, in addition to other reform measures. After achieving some early success, both were assassinated by enemies of these reforms. Tiberius was elected to the office of tribune of the plebeians in 133 BC. He immediately began pushing for a programme of land reform, Tiberius established a commission to oversee the redistribution of land holdings from the rich to the unlanded urban poor. Even liberal senators were agitated by the proposed changes, fearing their own lands would be confiscated. Senators arranged for other tribunes to oppose the reforms. Tiberius then appealed to the people, and argued that a tribune who opposes the will of the people in favour of the rich is not a true tribune. he challenged the conventional political process by bypassing the senate in his proposed reform. The senators were left with only one constitutional response - to threaten prosecution after Tiberius's term as a tribune ended. This necessitated Tiberius to stand for a second term. The senators obstructed his re-election, they had Tiberius and some 300 of his supporters clubbed to death. Ten years later, in 123 BC, Gaius took the same office as his brother, as a tribune for the plebeians. Gaius was more practical minded than Tiberius, and so was considered more dangerous by the senatorial class. He gained support from the agrarian poor by reviving the land reform programme and from the urban poor with various popular measures. The central reforms implemented by Gaius included fixing prices on grain for the urban population and granting improvements in citizenship for Latins and others outside the city of Rome. He passed these reforms in an unconventional manner as well, pitting the senate and the higher classes against each other, which eventually turned on him, causing his death and the overturning of all but his grain reform. The emergence of new forces of urban factions, rural voters, and others, engaging in continued conflict with each other for their own interests, meant that the problem of effective governance awaited resolution. The populist government of the Gracchi had come to an end by violence; and this provided a brutal precedent that would be followed by many other rulers of Rome.

What is the basis for the belief of the Melians that during the war the Lacedaemonians (Spartans) will come to their aid?

The Lacedaemonians and Melians share a common identity (Dorians) and therefore won't want to abandon their kin. Additionally, Lacedemon is close geographically to Melia and perhaps the Athenians will attack them too later.

Describe the roles of the Archons and Astrategim. What was their attitude to the democratic regime? תארו את תפקידיהם של הארכונים והסטרטגים. מה יחסם של אלה למשטר הדמוקרטי?

The archon was the chief magistrate in many Greek cities, but in Athens there was a council of archons which exerted a form of executive government. From the late 8th century BC there were three archons: the archon eponymos, the polemarchos (replaced in 501 BC by ten strategoi), and the archon basileus (the ceremonial vestige of the Athenian monarchy).[4] These positions were filled from the aristocracy (the Eupatridae) by elections every ten years. During this period Archon Eponymous was the chief magistrate, the Polemarch was the head of the armed forces, and the Archon Basileus was responsible for the civic religious arrangements After 508 BC the offices were held for only a single year, and the year was named after the archon eponymous.[citation needed] The year ran from July to June.[5] The archon eponymous was the chief archon, and presided over meetings of the Boule and Ecclesia, the ancient Athenian assemblies. The archon eponymous remained the titular head of state even under the democracy, though with much reduced political importance. Under the reforms of Solon, himself archon eponymous in 594 BC, there was a brief period when the number of archons rose to ten. The Archons vowed to serve by the law and did not take bribes. This oath attests to the importance of integrity and that officials monitored the citizens of Athens. After 487 BC, the archonships were assigned by lot to any citizen and the Polemarch's military duties were taken over by new class of generals known as stratēgoí.[citation needed] The ten stratēgoí (one per tribe) were elected by the people, and the office of Polemarch was rotated among them on a daily basis. The strategoi jobs still stayed mainly with the aristocracy, due to the necessity of experience and skill, however this still came about democratically. Polemarch thereafter had only minor religious duties, and the titular headship over the strategoi.

Plato's Divided Line

The basic features are as follows: Using a line for illustration, Plato divides human knowledge into four grades or levels, differing in their degree of clarity and truth. First, imagine a line divided into two sections of unequal length. The upper level corresponds to Knowledge, and is the realm of Intellect. The lower level corresponds to Opinion, and concerns the world of sensory experience. Plato says only that the sections are of "unequal" length, but the conventional view is that the Knowledge section is the longer one. Then bisect each of these sections. This produces four line segments, corresponding to four cognitive states and/or modes of thinking. From highest to lowest, these are: noesis (immediate intuition, apprehension, or mental 'seeing' of principles) dianoia (discursive thought) pistis (belief or confidence) eikasia (delusion or sheer conjecture) In any case, it is evident that these four states correspond to the stages of prisoners' ascent in the Cave Allegory The line image lets Plato point out instructive ratios concerning truth quality amongst the states. Specifically: As Being is to becoming, so Knowledge is to Opinion. As Knowledge is to Opinion, so noesis is to pistis, And dianoia is to eikasia, And (though Plato does not say this explicitly, but rather lets us see it ourselves) noesis is to dianoia. Plato's idea of dualism in which spiritual things are good and material are bad stands in contrast to Judaism which stated that material creation was good.

Celnik- According to Protagoras, what is the best political measure, and how does it influence the stability of a country? על פי פרוטאגורס, מה היא המידה הפוליטית הטובה, וכיצד היא מתקשרת ליציבותה של מדינה?

The best political measure, Arte, is all good qualities such as courage, justice and self-restraint or excellence. According to Protagoras good political measure can be taught, and it includes the side and shame. In the Political reality of Athens, in the discussions of the Ecclesia in which characteristics such as justice and shame were required, the opinion of every citizen was heard even he was not noble-born. According to Protagoras, polis management did not require special skills that only a few possessed, instead these skills could be acquired by any willing to learn. This allowed the participation of all citizens in the management of the polis and conduct of the regime through discussions.

Plato- The Republic Explain the cave analogy and explain its meaning. תאר/י את משל המערה והסבר/י את הנמשל.

The cave analogy consists of an allegory in which a group of people (humanity) sit chained in a cave, so that they can only face the wall and see the reflected shadows of objects passing by a fire that is placed behind them. They are unable to see the actual objects, only the blurry shadows of them, and are unable to see true light. In the analogy, certain people are able to break the chains (unexplainably), and manage to struggle out of a tunnel into the light, where they see the sun once their eyes adjust. The cave analogy describes the enlightenment that philosophers are able to attain through the aid of correct education, in comparison with everyone else, who are stuck in the world of the cave, unenlightened. The sun represents ultimate knowledge. In the analogy, those who have seen the sun have a responsibility to return to the depths of the cave and attempt to convince those still there to accept the truths that they have learned. Another aspect of the cave analogy refers to the process it takes for one's eyes to adjust to light and darkness, referring to the minds capacity to learn and become enlightened. This process refers both to the journey of becoming enlightened through education, as well as the difficulty in re-adjusting to see in the dark, referring to the difficulty of philosophers to function on the lower, less knowledgeable level of the common people when trying to convince them of their knowledge on how to live. The duty of these enlightened philosophers to return to the cave to lead refers to the belief that just society contains a distribution of abilities, and that those who have the ability and succeed in achieving enlightenment through the education given to them by the state have a duty to return and lead, since they have the knowledge to rule well. They do so out of a sense of duty and the knowledge that they are best equipped to rule, not out of a desire to lead. The analogy expresses that Plato saw the world as having two forms, one the "world of ideas," the perfectly realized world in which every object is the perfect, most real version of itself, and the other is the world of the cave, a world in which objects are shadows of their real selves. The key to unlocking the world of ideas is through consciousness of human intellect.

Augustinus- City of God What is the connection between two types of love and two types of cities? • מה הקשר בין שני סוגי אהבה לשני סוגי ערים?

The city of flesh represents living in the way of man. In this city, "love of self" exists, in which people glory the self, and become so wrapped up in their own supposed wisdom and glory that they become fools and debase God, even if they do pray. The rulers rule because they enjoy ruling itself. In the city of the spirit people follow the way of God. They love God, and give glory to God, understanding that His will is divine, and that they have no human wisdom. They don't take credit for their own glory, but attribute their successes to God. In this city the rulers rule in love, serving as the thinkers for the good of all.

Celnick- What were the causes of the emergence of political thought in Greece, according to Breker ? מה היו הגורמים לצמיחתה של המחשבה הפוליטית ביוון, לפי ברקר (עמ' 64-65)?

The factors contributing to the growth of political thought was the attempt to understand things through intelligence and wisdom- science, rather than by relying on religion or accepting the world as it is. According to Breker, the Greek man attempted to criticize himself objectively. Greece recognized the contrast between the individual and the state, they understood that the value of the individual in the Athenian regime and the concept of free citizens in local self-government was the very heart of the polis. A Citizen in the Greek polis identified completely with his polis, but still identify himself as independent of it. Changes and growth in the polis have created a collection of research data over a series of different regimes. In addition, Greece of course had a number of Poleis and not just one. This has raised questions about what definition of a citizen, different conditions in different Poleis meant different types of citizenship and different opinions on what the best type of state is.

Augustinus- City of God Heavenly city אפיין/י את היחס של אזרח כל עיר לסדרי משטר, ממשל ו/או משילה. עבור כל עיר זהה/י לפחות שישה מאפיינים (חלקם כמובן ניגודים).

The heavenly city clearly considers the teachings of God to be FAR more important than the laws of government on earth, and are willing to put up with them in order to keep the peace unless they challenge Christianity. No patriotism, instead feel kinship with other Christians from different places • uses as little of MAN's structure of government ("necessary for mortal life") as possible • accepts and adopts differences in laws, manners and institutions unless they interfere with practicing Christianity • Is willing to tolerate earthly laws to keep harmony, although they are considered temporary • it's citizens consider themselves captives or strangers stuck there until messiah comes, not proud residents-no patriotism • Faith: Believe in the ONE Christian God alone • City will rise up against the Earthly city because of the difference in religious beliefs. This is the only thing that they are willing to actively rise up against and oppose, and call to all others who share their belief, regardless of what city they belong to. This is an example of the universality of Christianity, as well as the importance of God's religious rulings over civic law

Celnick- What allowed the fall of democracy and leadership of an oligarchical government starting in year 413 BCE? Why did the suggestions presented before אספת העם symbolize an actual cancellation of the democratic government?

The historical circumstances surrounding the Oligarch Coup greatly affected the readiness of Athens to accept the oligarchs. The coup took place in 411, right after a horrible defeat in 413 at the battle of Cecilia. Athens was going through a recession because of the war, had suffered many defeats, and was disheartened. The suggestions of the oligarchs symbolize a cancellation of democracy because it took away the right to power of many through the appointment of a council of 400 oligarchs with unlimited power, paired with stripping many of the other government officials rights. Salaries were expended, citizens were given less rights, the ability of citizens to sue other citizens for crimes against each other or against the state were disbanded.

What were the major powers of the People's Assembly (Ecclesia)? מה היו הסמכויות העיקריות של אספת העם (אקלסיה)?

The main purpose of the ecclesia was to discuss security and foreign affairs, declaration of war and peace alliances. In addition, any action that involved spending "government" money could not be made without the approval of the Ecclesia. Assembly officials were elected by lot or by direct elections and the ecclesia also supervised the officeholders work. the Assembly reapproved each tenure of the strategoi. In time, the ecclesia was given the added jurisdiction to decide whether to judge by itself or to transfer to the court on claims submitted to treason or conspiracy to overthrow the government. In addition, the Assembly had legislative powers and its decisions were binding.

Plato Book 1- What is the logic of Socrates' claim that in a state of good men "immunity from office-holding would be as eagerly contended for as office is now"? מה היגיון הטיעון של סוקרטס שבמדינה של אנשים טובים הם "יתחרו בה על הימנעות משררה"?

The most terrible thing that can happen is that the head of state will be controlled by someone worse than the people he governs. Good people who did not found them or an equivalent of them, they turn to power to avoid this fate, and not because of a desire to control. In addition, when a regime of good people is not a regime that worries about them but about others everyone knows how much this form of regime is bothering and is a burden. (Basically they would only rule to avoid being ruled by others who would be worse)

Plato- What is the basis of the Myth of Er?

The myth of Er tells its journey in a divine place, Er of Pamphylia died on the battlefield and is presented as an observer of what happens to every soul after life or even before life according to the will of the judges of souls. In the first part we explain that each soul (except Er's soul which is only here as an observer) goes to heaven if they were good in their lives, and the bad ones fall underground. Those decisions are given according to what they did in their lives multiplied by ten times, representing 1000 years of what they did with their lives, if they did good they receive good, if they did bad they receive bad. In the second part, after a few days of travel, the souls are facing the goddess Ananke, the personification of Necessity and Fate. Every soul has to choose a model of life, which is the life they will lead once they will be reincarnate in a new body. The first one immediately chooses the life of a tyrant, after choosing, he realizes that life includes a lot of aches. Everyone has his turn to choose, we can see among them passing many famous souls. The poet Orpheus, full of aversion for the female sex chooses to reincarnate into a swan for avoiding procreation. Conversely, the soul of a swan decides to lead a human existence. Ulysse carefully examine each models of life which are still available and finally discovered what he wanted to choose from the beginning "the life of a simple man, devoted to his work."

What is the one way of inquiry and what are the obstacles that stand in the way of it (Parmenides pre-Socrates)?

The only way of inquiry, which he coins the way of truth, is to think about what does exist. Anything that can exist does exist and therefore one cannot inquire about something which does not exist. Obstacles- women fall astray to the ideas of multiplicity of truths that they arrive at through limited senses. However the truth can only be reached through the way of inquiry.

Aristotle- Ethics What are the connections between education, legislation, and development of good virtues? • מה הקשרים בין חינוך, חקיקה ופיתוח סגולות טובות?

The potential for these virtues comes from human nature. Nature is always in motion, so an uneducated man can by nature get an education, Aristotle's belief in the fluidity of nature means that with education and good legislation we can improve our virtues.

Augustinus- City of God What is the difference between a rich and poor man? Between a minimalist and maximizer? How can we justify a Christian Caesar despite our explanation? • מה ההבדל בין אדם עני לעשיר, בין המסתפק במועט לחומד שררה ורכוש? לאור המענה שלך, כיצד ניתן בכל זאת להצדיק קיומו של קיסר נוצרי?

The rich man is always nervous and fearful, wanting more possessions and worrying about maintaining the possessions he already has, until it becomes incredibly burdensome. He is in conflict with those around him and has enemies. No matter what position the rich man holds he is in essence a slave to his desires and possessions, even if he rules. If he rules, he will corrupt all who are under his rule, as he is overcome by vice. In contrast, the poor (moderate) man is content with what he has, and exercises control and moderation in all aspects of his life. He lives peacefully and at peace with his neighbors. Even if he is a slave he is considered free, because to him trials are a test of his virtue. In chapter 4 emperors are compared to pirates with a title, implying that they are also thieves trying to improve their personal circumstances. A Christian Caesar would be ideal, and better than a non-believer, because he is assumed to be just, and therefore to have the characteristics of a good man, one who leads for the benefit of the people and not for personal gain. Under a ruler of this type society will flourish.

What are the 3 basic principles of the Roman Government? Explain the manner in which Polybius sketches the balances that exist between them: • מה הם שלוש היסודות של המשטר הרומי והסבר/י את האופן בו פוליביוס משרטט את האיזונים שמתקיימים ביניהם.

The roman constitution has 3 powers: The senate, the consuls and the people. Consuls - responsible for the country, responsible for war policy almost completely. Subject to the Senate for: food, supplies and equipment, and subject the people to determine the treaties of peace or a declaration of war. At the end of tenure consuls are accountable for their actions to the people. Senate - responsible for Finance and Foreign Policy. is subject to the people on and for the harshest punishments. People - responsible for determining penalties, and provides jobs, make laws and treaties of War and Peace. Subject to Senate for public works and anything connected to helping businesses of citizens. People subject to consuls because they serve under them in the army.

Pericles' Funeral Oration (Second)

The speech was delivered by Pericles, an eminent Athenian politician, at the end of the first year of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) as a part of the annual public funeral for the war dead. Pericles chosen due to his exceeding wisdom and dignity. Designed to stir a state that was still at war. • He focuses on why Athens is great and glosses over its' weaknesses. • The greatness of Athens has been achieved by their ancestors through work and war. • The Athenian government is a model for many others and includes trust, duty, courage, action, and involvement. • "Power of the city" (repeated over and over)- make itself felt through citizen action and institutions. • Intelligence of Athens leaders and zeal (passion) of its citizens fuel the power of the city. • Athens following of laws makes Athens great and is what makes Pericles give this speech, he too is subject to the laws of Athens. • Some who fell didn't deserve such praise but they all fell in a praiseworthy way- for the city. • Service and praise of the city come not from compulsion but through generosity, courage, and freedom. • We all die but what matters is what we do while we live. • Our ancestors achieved immortality through their suffering and achieved while protecting the status the current generation would attain through courage while maintaining Athenian freedom. • Uses Sparta to criticize them but only in comparison to Athenian characteristics and institutions. • Qualities mentioned by Pericles: custom of public funeral, greatness of our ancestors, equal justice for all, allowing our (internal) neighbors to do what they like, open our city to the world (foreigners), class considerations don't interfere with merit in choosing public servants, ordinary citizens judge public matters, ready to encounter every legitimate danger, versatility of the Athenians, courage that is not hindered by wealth or poverty, choose to die resisting rather than live submitting. To be happy means to be free, and to be free means to be brave. (Wikipedia)

Aristotle- Ethics What are the necessary conditions for doing just acts or settling of the mind which will aid the development of virtues and justice and settling the mind? How can this in-depth discussion steer wrong those who wish to learn? • מה הם התנאים ההכרחיים כדי שעשיית מעשי צדק או יישוב דעת אכן יסייעו לפיתוח סגולות של צדק ויישוב דעת? כיצד דיון עיוני עלול להטעות את מבקשי תהליך הלמידה הנדון?

The tnaim are: 1. By doing them knowingly 2. If he decides to do them, he decides to do them for himself. 3. Does them from a firm and unchanging disposition A diyun iyuni- The example given is when a person listens in depth to their doctors but don't do what is prescribed for them to do, so they won't be in good bodily condition. If they philosophize, their souls won't be in good condition. Philosophizing doesn't involve actions

Plato- The Republic What dictates a tyrant's relations to his enemies and supporters, and how do his priorities affect his need to engage in war? מה מכתיב את יחסו של רודן לתומכים ולאויבים, וכיצד סדרי העדיפויות שלו משפיעים על הצורך שלו לחרחר מלחמות?

The tyrant is ruled according to his own desires, and so his relations with his enemies and supporters are dependent only on what he wants from them at the time. A tyrant knows no true friendship, and will take everything from someone deemed to be his friend or supporter, even his family, if he is seized by desire for it. Because of this, the tyrant becomes surrounded by enemies alone, and is ultimately a slave with no freedom, because he cannot leave the house without fear of being assassinated by his multiple enemies. The presence of so many enemies, means that he is constantly in need of conflict, constantly at war trying to protect himself against everyone, since he is left with no true supporters. At first the tyrant engaged in war to try to wipe out threats from strong citizens who would stand against him, and to make the people feel they need him to create order, but as he accrues more and more enemies, the war becomes a struggle for survival instead of a tool for gaining more power.

Explain the meaning of these phrases: We step and do not step into the same rivers; we are and are not(49a) You cannot step into the same river twice (91) (Heralictus- pre-Socrates)

The world is ever changing. While it may seem that it is the same entity, in reality everything is constantly changing and is never the same even momentarily later.

Parallels between some Athenian concepts and ours today

Then: Kingship, Assembly of Elders, Assembly of People. Met in Agora. Today: President (or PM) and Upper and lowers House. Meet in Capital in Washington, DC.. Then: Herodotus argued that people Ethnos includes people who have the same origin, language, ceremonies, and traditions. Today: Nationalism. David Miller's definition- 5 components: self-identification as a community, historical continuity, group participation, territory-specific homeland and a distinctive trait or set of traits that the vast majority of the members distinguish themselves from non-community members. Then: Loyalty to Polis or Ruler Today: Loyalty to President or State (and to what extent)

Aristotle- Ethics What are the characteristics of each of the 3 types of friendship? What are the conditions for the existence of each type? Characterize the relationship between good ones, and explain why "the most genuine is friendship between the best?" • מה הם מאפייני כל אחד משלוש סוגי הידידות? מה הם התנאים להתקיימות או להתפוגגות של כל אחד מסוגי הידידות? • אפיין/י את הידידות בין טובים, והסבר/י מדוע "אמיתית ביותר, אפוא, הידידות שבין הטובים"?

There are 3 types of friendship: 1. Those who love for they are useful and do not love them for their selves. - They feel fondness for it is good for themselves. 2. Those who love each other because of pleasure that they get from them - They do not love the person for who they are, but rather for the feeling of pleasure they get with them 3. "it is the friendship between good people, those resembling each other in excellence, that is complete" - Those who wish good things for their friends, for their friends sake The first two can dissolve very easily while the third one is everlasting.

Plato- The Republic What are the characteristics of the 50 year olds who Plato would appoint to government, and why won't they want to govern, what are the circumstances that will allow them to be released from the yoke of leadership? מה הן התכונות המאפיינות את אותם בני חמישים שאפלטון מייעד לתפקידי משילה, מדוע לא ירצו למשול, ומה התנאים שיאפשרו להם להשתחרר מעול המשילה?

They are to be those who are enlightened, those who have undergone all of the education and training of the philosopher kings. They are those who have adopted a just and good lifestyle and live according to it. Looking at the cave analogy, these are the people who have left the cave and seen the light in the world of ideas that exists at its surface. Governing is compared to returning to the cave to try to convince people of the light. They don't desire to return to the cave, to govern, because they would prefer to enjoy the greater knowledge that they have been granted. However, due to their sense of responsibility to the law and to the society that gave them their education, they will take their turn to govern because they know they are the most qualified.

Plato- The Republic How does a tyrant government come about and what is the nature of the life of a tyrant? כיצד מתהווה משטר רודני ומה טיב חייו של רודן?

Tyranny springs from the collapse of democracy. Plato's logic is that one extreme begets another. Democracy's extreme form is when individual freedom begins to be valued above the law, and each person begins to follow his own desires in whatever direction they take, without a collective direction, goal, or strong governing body. This becomes ungoverned chaos, and tyranny rises as it's natural opposite. The opposite of freedom is slavery. First the tyrant rises as a champion of the people, making many promises to individuals and to the society. Then he requests a contingent of personal body guards, and once he has gained power, he cleanses the city of those strong or good enough to be a threat to him, by exiling and persecuting landholders and independent minded thinkers. He then engages in many wars, in order to assert his authority and make the public feel that they need him to create order. The nature of a tyrant is that he has no balance between necessary and unnecessary desires. He is governed solely by lust to fulfill extravagant desires, with no boundaries or self-discipline aside from those external limitations set by others that he cannot break. This is the closest form to a "lawless" person, and the furthest from Plato's idea of a philosopher. Philosophers seek the truth, seek not to be led astray by unnecessary desires, but to follow the true way of being. In contrast, tyrants follow their every whim with no thought to their subjects whatsoever. Because of the many enemies a tyrant has, and because it is assumed that all decent people will turn against him, the tyrant is highly suspicious and removes all good and intelligent people from the city, and is left with slaves and foreigners as his supporters. Plato compares tyrants to the opposite of doctors. Instead of cleansing the body of humors and leaving the good, the tyrant cleanses the body of the good, (because he sees it as a threat) and leaves only the bad or corrupt.

In the beginning it appears that both sides listed conditions to prevent war. However, what do you believe the reasons are that the two sides didn't succeed in preventing a war from breaking out?

Very simple. The Athenians knew they would win (as happened) and didn't want anything less than money and strategic location of Melios. Melios was not ready to sacrifice their sovereignty and rather have taken their chances against Athens which were aided by having the gods on their side (and possibly the Spartans). To them the settlement offered by the Athenians was no better than losing itself.

New Testament- What is the view on Governance, Authority, Political Power? מה היא התפיסה על אודות משילה, סמכות משילה ושלטון מדיני העולה מהקטעים שקראת מתוך הברית החדשה?

View on Governance, Authority, Political Power: Generally speaking: Need to differentiate between state and god. Follow the laws, give the ruler their taxes and god your spirituality, difference b/w national and divine. Difference b/w domestic law and divine law. Calls for judges to be merciful for the divine law will punish harshly. If you are a believer- that is all that matters.

What are the reasons that the Athenian delegation gives to the Melians to surrender?

We are powerful and going to destroy you. Surrender and you will just have to pay a tribute but the city will remain intact.

What is the logic of the distinction between wisdom, injustice, and folly?

Wisdom- Knowledge of the forces within us and not allowing them to mingle and cause confusion. (i.e. don't let desire dominate or learning to protect us). Injustice- Allowing the wrong force to do the job of another (i.e. allowing desire to protect us) Folly- to think that the right state is when they are mixed. (assuming injustice is the proper state).

Plato- The Republic What is the content of a good education and what characterizes the bad process of education that creates people who are "lacking in education and won't be truly educated?" מה התכלית של חינוך טוב ומה מאפיין תהליך חינוכי (גרוע) שבסופו בני אדם "חסרי [חינוך] שלא התחנכו באמת"?

[this is a partial answer, I had trouble finding the answer for the 2nd part of the question for some reason.] Directs our soul towards truth. People must love hard work, self-disciplined, courageous, good memory, great resilience, tremendous energy Education begins with education of the other guardians: education in poetry, music, physical education. They will also then receive education in mathematics-arithmetic and numbers/calculations, plane geometry, and then astronomy and harmonics. Then dialectic, study leading to understanding of what is good. Then undergo 15 years of practical political training before becoming of the rank of philosopher king at age 50. (Ed. Note- Suggestion for bad education- his is to be contrasted with what Plato presents as a common practice of educators, who "claim to introduce knowledge into a soul which doesn't have it, as if they were introducing sight into eyes which are blind" (518B6-C2). Such a view of education neglects the fact that the power to learn and the organ with which to do so is present in everyone. Or If they were freed and made to turn around towards the firelight, the prisoners would be dazzled and unable to make out the objects that cast the shadows on the wall (515C4-D1). If they were compelled to look directly at the fire, this would hurt their eyes, and they'd probably prefer to go back to the comfortable and familiar darkness of their prison (515E1-5). If they were forced out of the cave entirely, out into the sunlight, this would be even more painful, and objects outside the cave would be even harder for them to make out (Basically learn in a gradual manner and not immediate)

What was the attitude towards foreigners living in Athens and were called "Mtoikim"? What was the role of women in Athenian social order? מה היה היחס לזרים שחיו באתונה וכונו "מטויקים"? מה היה התפקיד של נשים בסדר החברתי האתונאי?

mtoikim are people who emigrated to Athens, they live there permanently but are not citizens. The very word mtoikos was different from that of the word for an Athenian citizen, the word hmtoikos emphasized that the person lives in the Polis but does not belong to her. Hmtoikos needed an Athenian citizen to "take responsibility" for him, make sure that he would keep the law and also represent the foreign citizen before the polis. The status of Hmtoikim was inferior to that of normal citizens which was expressed in such things as sale into slavery in the event of a conviction, extra taxes and the fact that they could not buy land or a house. Women were also considered non-citizens, but their role in the social order was to give birth to more civilians. Because of Pericles Law both parents must be citizens, therefore it was important for women whose fathers were a citizens, because only they can give birth to a citizen.

Celnick- Which Reforms did Cleisthenes institute, what were their goals, and what were the effects they had on development of a democratic consciousness in Athens? -pay attention to Tribal identity and שותפות המדינה*

• Created Boule-all citizens could choose and be chosen for Boule representation -*foundation of democracy* o Each citizen can sit on boule council twice in his lifetime, serve for 1 year • Recreated 4 tribes into 10, decided by location. Split Athens into city-coast-hills ""tribe (שבט) reform"-broken into 10 districts within each area, and within those=demos! Demos was the smallest governing unit by which people learned to identify themselves. The tribal reform gave people shared goals and interests that connected the various areas of Athens to the central government. o Tribe reform also distributed noble family's powers o *marks movement from family loyalty to location loyalty (to demos) • Name reform-referred to people by name of demos instead of family name, helped ot create a bond between people and their polis. • Ostracism laws-אספת העם/agora every year could choose to ostracize someone who has too much power • **ARCHON positions were still only open to top 2 tiers of social classes

Celnick- What were the main form of governments in Athens, and what were the main causes that brought about the changes between them?

• Kingdom(bloodline inheritance)→Aristocracy → Tyranny • Kingdom • Aristocracy(oligarchy) • Tyranny • Cause of kingdom→oligarchy./aristocracy ("rule of the few") o This transition took place through distribution of king's responsibilities to nobles. Gave them more power: o Power distributed into specific positions held by nobles, controlling army and judgements(law?)-because the noblemen were landowners they saw themselves as having the right to rule the rest of the population. o Creation of status by wealth-The nobles held the belief that only those who have enough money to be properly educated could develop moral traits and rule well o The council of nobles was in charge of important decisions of running polis and relations with other states, council picked the people who would serve in positions of power (army, judgement, religion head jobs) o אסיפת ה עם exists, but no political power-just way to know what way the winds blowing, brought to session by nobles • Cause of Oligarchy→Tyranny o Tyranny popped up when one nobleman(usually from council) took over the government because of multiple factors causing strife/instability • 1.Oligarchy threatened by OTHER noble families not included who wanted to minimize power of rulers-caused instability • 2.Gap widened between rich and poor because of change in crop industry from crops that only grow one season per year to those that grow more often, such as olives. This caused people's fields to lose soil fertility if they did not rest them for a year, which could financially ruin a person quickly, cause them to lose their lands. Since landowners were those in power, losing land meant losing access to power and decision making • 3.Growth of new non-land owning classes who wanted access to power and decision making: • Merchant class-growth of a new, wealthy merchant class, that ALSO didn't have power-wanted to • Warriors(hoplitai)- change of main fighting style to infantry with heavy armor-warriors(hoplitai) had to buy their own armor, were main defenders of the polis.they also wanted power

Celnick- What is "Aristocratic government" and what are the democratic foundations they are comprised of?

• Made up of 9 archons-1 basileus(religious and judge) and 1 polemarch(army), 1 archon(time period named after him), 6 thesmoi (law enforcement/courts-rule upholders) • Democratic elements of aristocratic government: (The change from one king holding power to a group of nobles holding power in the aristocracy represents a large shift in underlying assumption of the nature of rulers and the nobility. This political process was based on the belief that many people are capable to lead, and equally so. (although this only referred to nobles at this point, not to lower classes). ) o 1. Equal opportunity (between nobles) to be elected o 2. Right to elect and be elected-all those in the relevant noble class had the ability to be chosen for leadership positions o 3. positions were only held for a limited time period-the switch of power enforces the right of all to participate/have a chance to hold government office o 4.Right to lead and be led in turn as citizens • 4 stages of Government Development in Athens: o 1. Authority split into 2-the "king" with religious and law powers, and the "polemarcus", the head of war. Marks introduction of personal abilities and talents as a criteria for being picked for the position, not only chosen by wealth and status, lifetime service. o 2. Shortening of service time from lifetime to 10 years each. o 3. Shortening of service from 10 years to 1 year each. AND addition of 3rd position, "archon." Had responsibility for logistics and order, as the circles of decision makers widened. o 4.Creation of the other archon positions, 6 "thesmoi" positions. They were created to uphold and interpret religious rulings. 2 thesmoi for of the 3 big archons, to help them with law discussions and rulings

Celnick- What is the basis for the evaluation that tyrant governments laid the foundations for democratic government?

• Pesistratus' rule created a time of peace and good relations with other polises. He broadened Athens merchant influence and political importance. He neutralized waring noble factions, weakened power of the nobles-allowed the government to function the way it was supposed to. • Citizens got used to using their rights, because more involved and connected to central power • Weakened power of nobles, and weakened dependency of citizens/common ppl on the nobility through policies such as: o Allowing loans to poor o Instating local village judges representing the central government, who came to the peasants, and weakened their dependence on local nobility for authority and judgement. o SO→his tyranny strengthened the order and economic stability that Solon instated, strengthened military and merchantship of Athens and Athenian identity BUT also distanced the people from politics-keep the people happy, keep the political spheres full of his own people