FP

Social Interactionist Theories

-4 theoretical perspectives: labeling, symbolic interactionist, conflict, & restorative justice -theories that derive their explanatory power from the give-and-take that continuously occurs between social groups & between inds & society

Deviant Careers

-Becker; labeling theory -argued that once a person is caught & labeled, that person becomes an outsider & gains a new social status, with consequences for the person's self-image & his public identity → ind now regarded as a diff kind of person -before a person is labeled, he participates in a process of social INTERACTION, but once labeling has occurred, the ind is assigned a status within a social STRUCTURE

Opportunity Theory

-Cloward & Ohlin; conceptualized success (Merton) & status (Cohen) as sep strivings that can operate independently of each other -theory where authors portrayed delinquents who seek an increase in status as striving for membership in the middle class, whereas other delinquent youths try to improve their economic position without changing their class position/ argued the most serious delinquents are those who experience the greatest conflict with middle-class values -uses Merton's theory to explain delinquency that youths commit; assume these youths have no legitimate opportunities to improve their economic position & therefore they will become involved in one of 3 specialized gang subcultures: 1) Criminal Subculture= subculture developed based on the values of the criminal enterprise/ youths within this focus on theft & fraud to achieve success/ as new members master techniques & acquire values of criminal world, they become hostile toward & distrustful of reps of the larger society, whom they regard as "suckers" 2) Conflict Subculture= subculture developed based on the value of violence & intimidation/ youths within this emphasize toughness as a means of rising through the ranks/ A rep for toughness ensures respect from peers & fear from adults, & provides a means of gaining access to scarce resources that provide pleasure & opportunity in underprivileged areas 3. Retreatist Subculture= subculture developed based on the value of illegal substances/ Youths within this use drugs as a means to escape reality/ generates a new order of goals & criteria for achievement, but instead of attempting to impose their system of values on the rest of the world, retreatists are content merely to strive for status & deference within their own subculture ^although the three subcultures exhibit diff orientations, the lines between them may become blurred -Eval of theory→ important bc of the impact its had on the development of public policy & other criminological theories/ However, the findings of several studies sharply disagree with the assumptions

Theory of Delinquent Subcultures

-Cohen; suggested lower-class youths are fully internalizing the goals of middle-class culture but that they experience status frustration (stress inds experience when they cannot attain their goals bc of their socioeconomic class) bc theyre unable to attain them/ consequently, strain explains their membership in delinquent gangs & their nonutilitarian, malicious, and negativistic behavior -pivotal assumption in Cohen's theory is lower-class males internalize middle-class norms & values but then find themselves unable to attain middle-class goals/ status frustration then occurs, & the mechanism of reaction formation is used to address it (becoming hostile toward an unattainable object)/ on one hand, delinquent claims the middle-class standards do not matter; but on the other, he reacts by directing hostility toward the norms of the respectable middle-class society -defined 9 norms that make up middle-class measuring rod: 1. Ambition 2. Individual responsibility 3. Achievement 4. Temperance 5. Rationality 6. Courtesy and likeability 7. Lowered physical aggression 8. Educational recreation 9. Respect for property ^failing to achieve many of these goals, the delinquent subculture offers lower-class males the status they cannot achieve in the larger culture, but the status offered by the delinquent subculture is status only in the eyes of fellow delinquents -delinquent subculture: nonutilitarian (delinquents commit crimes "for the hell of it")/ characterized by "short-run hedonism" (members have lil interest in planning activities, setting long-term goals, ect)/ emphasis on group autonomy, which makes gang members intolerant of any restraint except the informal pressures of the gang itself

Deliquency & social policy

-Delinquency & social policy asks what can be done to improve the quality of young people's lives & provides ideas for effectively treating & controlling youth crime -to encourage juveniles to stay on the path to successful adulthood, its ness to champion policies & programs that lift children out of poverty, protect them from abuse & neglect, & ensure their access to health care, quality education, & a solid moral & spiritual foundation -one of the most important issues facing juvenile delinquency NOW is the continued reduction of youth violence

Integrated Social Process Theory

-Elliott -explanatory model that expands & synthesizes traditional strain, social control, & social learning perspectives into a single paradigm that accounts for delinquent behavior & drug use -all 3 theories are flawed: strain theory does not adequately explain why some juveniles enter into delinquent careers, whereas others avoid them/ control theory unable to explain prolonged involvement in delinquent behavior in light of there being no reward for this behavior/ social learning theories portray delinquents as passive & susceptible to influence when they are confronted with delinquency-producing reinforcements -integrating the strongest features of these theories into a single theoretical model, Elliott contended the experience of living in socially disorganized areas leads youths to develop weak bonds with conventional groups, activities, & norms -high levels of strain + weak bonds with conventional groups, lead some youths to seek out delinquent peer groups, & these groups provide both pos reinforcement for delinquent behavior + role models for this behavior -THUS, theres a high prob of involvement in delinquent behavior when bonding to delinquent groups is combined with weak bonding to conventional groups -Eval → gen positive, yet some doubt has been raised about its application to various types of delinquent behaviors/ questions have even been raised about its power & utility with different types of drug activity

Psychological Positivism: Psychoanalytic theory

-Freuds psychoanalytic theory contributed 3 insights that shaped the handling of juvenile delinquents throughout the last century: (1) kids who havent yet learned to control the primitive drive of the id have difficulty distinguishing socially acceptable behavior from unacceptable behavior (2) kids must learn to control their sexual & aggressive drives, which create inner tensions that a child must resolve in socially acceptable ways (3) what a child has experienced emotionally by the age of 5 affects that child for the rest of their life

General Theory of Crime

-Gottfredson & Hirschi -authors identified a lack of self-control (degree an ind is vulnerable to temptations of the moment) as the common factor underlying problem behaviors -other pivotal construct in this theory is crime opportunity (function of the structural or situational circumstances encountered by the ind) -in combination, these 2 constructs (SC & crime opportunity) r intended to capture the simultaneous influence of external & internal restraints on behavior -empirical work indicated: self-control is an important predictor of crime/ evidence in support of the theory is weaker with longitudinal data/ that social learning variables continue to receive support -this theory part of a trend that pushes the causes of crime & delinquency further back in the life course into the family/ also a return to the emphasis found in the works of the Gluecks & also resembles important themes in Wilson & Herrnstein's reinforcement theory -LIMITATIONS→ lack of conceptual clarity/ key elements of the theory remain to be tested/ the theory does not have the power to explain all forms of delinquency & crime/ questions remain regarding the ubiquity of self-concept

Social Control Theory

-Hirschi; linked delinquent behavior to quality of the bond an ind has with society, stating delinquent acts result when an inds bond to society is weak or broken -argued humans' basic impulses motivate them to become involved in crime & delinquency unless there is reason for them to refrain from such behavior/ most important question becomes "Why don't they do it?" -commitment to the social bond

Rationality & Delinquency

-In 70s & 80s, scholars began to view crime as the outcome of rational choices & decisions -ecological tradition in criminology + the economic theory of markets have applied notion of rational choice to crime -in economic models of criminal decision making, crime is assumed to involve rational calculation & is viewed as an economic transaction or a question of occupational choice -consists of: Rational Choice Theory, Routine Activities Approach, Rational Choice & Delinquency

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDPA) & Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP)

-JJDPA Act of 1974= (NOW DEFUNCT) encourage the elimination of jailing juveniles & encourage community-based alternatives to juvenile detention/ most significant impetus for the nationwide DSO/ contained a DSO provision that requires status offenders to be kept sep from delinquents in secure detention facilities as a condition for states to continue receiving federal funding for their juvenile justice programs/ DSO core protection of JJDP Act premised on believe that juveniles who exhibit problematic behavior but havent violated criminal laws r more properly served by social & mental health services -OJJDP= federal agency established with the passage of the JJDPA Act/ soon after the adoption of the JJDP Act & its DSO requirement, the OJJDP recorded approx 171,581 violations of the federal DSO requirement/ a recent OJJDP compliance monitoring report found that the number of annual DSO violations had dropped a little -some arguments FOR removal of status offenders from the jurisdiction of juvenile court: lack of clarity of many status offender statutes makes them unconstitutionally vague in their construction/ such laws are often discriminatory/ although status offenders have not committed a criminal act, they are freq confined with chronic offenders, in defiance of the federal DSO mandate/ procedure of processing & confining status offenders is not in the child's best interests, & therefore violates the parens patriae principle -unlikely that more states will remove status offenders from the juvenile court's jurisdiction in the near future/ widespread resistance comes from those who feel that status offenders need the close supervision available thru the juvenile court in order to prevent them from becoming involved in increasingly criminal behaviors

Primary and Secondary Deviation

-Lemert; labeling -a social reaction theory that provided a distinct alternative to the social disorganization theory, differential association, & social structural approach -focused attention on the interaction between social control agents & rule violators + on how certain behaviors came to be labeled criminal, delinquent, or deviant -concept of primary & secondary deviation is one of the most important theoretical constructs of labeling perspective -primary deviance= initial deviance that is normative among youths/ inds normative behavior -secondary deviance= deviance thats a consequence of societal reaction to an initial delinquent act/ behavior in response to society's reaction to the initial behavior -process of becoming deviant= concept that the process of acquiring a delinquent identity takes place in a number of steps; sequence of interaction leading to secondary deviation (1) primary deviation; (2) social penalties; (3) further primary deviation; (4) stronger penalties & rejection; (5) further deviation, perhaps w hostilities & resentment beginning to focus upon those doing the penalizing; (6) crisis reached in tolerance quotient, expressed in formal action by the community stigmatizing of the deviant; (7) strengthening of deviant conduct as reaction to stigmatizing & penalties; (8) acceptance of deviant social status & efforts at adjustment on the basis of the associated role -social reaction to the deviant= forces a change in status or role; critical in understanding the progressive commitment of a person to a deviant mode of life/ summarizes the moral indignation of others toward deviance + the action directed toward its control; as an organizational response, this concept refers to the capacity of control agents to impose such constraints on behavior of deviant person as are reflected in terms like treat, correct, & punish

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

-Matsueda & Heimer -perspective in social psychology that analyzes the process of interaction among humans at symbolic level & that has influenced the development of several social process theories of delinquent behavior/ sees social order as a dynamic process thats the ever-evolving product of an ongoing system of social interaction & communication -explains delinquent behavior in terms of self-development mediated by language (central medium through symbolic interaction occurs) -of importance is process by which shared meanings, behavioral expectations, & reflected appraisals are built up through interaction & applied to behavior -Mead's emphasis on the social act is basis of most versions of contemporary symbolic interactionism/ social act used as basic unit of analysis -authors began w immediate situation of delinquent behavior, made up of social interaction between 2 or more inds/ immediate situation can influence delinquency in 2 ways: 1) situation may present opportunities for delinquent behavior; 2) more importantly, the situation influences delinquent behavior through its effects on the content & direction of social interaction -in analyzing social interaction, symbolic interactionists define the unit of analysis as the transaction that takes place in interaction between inds/ the important mechanism by which interactants influence each other is role taking (key to social control)/ through reciprocal role taking, ind lines of action are coordinated, & concerted action is taken toward achieving the goal -discussion of role taking implies 4 features of a theory of the self & delinquent behavior: 1) the self is formed by how an ind perceives that others view him & thus is rooted in symbolic interaction 2) the self is an object that arises partly endogenously within situations, & partly exogenously from prior situational self being carried over from prev experience 3) the self as an object becomes a process that has been determined by the self at a previous point in time & by prior resolutions of problematic situations 4) delinquent behavior takes place partly bc habits are formed & partly bc the stable perception of oneself is shaped by the standpoint of others -"the self" thats relatively stable across situations (self as an object) is a process that consists of 3 components: how others actually see us, how we perceive the way others see us (reflected appraisals), & how we see ourselves (self-appraisals) --> a person's self, then, is made up in part of a "reflected appraisal" of how sig others appraise or evaluate him -from the interactionist perspective, racial & gender inequalities are consequential for law violation bc they restrict the positions of minorities & females & therefore constrain communication networks & the power needed to influence others

health causes SES

-Matza -theoretical perspective that juveniles neutralize the moral hold of society & drift into delinquent behavior -this theory & differential association have many assumptions in common, BUT drift theory places far greater importance than differential association on the exercise of juveniles' choices & on the sense of injustice that juveniles feel about the discriminatory treatment they have received as a result of their being nonconformists -fundamental to analysis was contention that delinquent youths remain integrated into the wider society & a violation of legal norms DONT mean surrendering allegiance to them -delinquency becomes permissible when responsibility is neutralized -Neutralization theory= theory examining how youngsters attempt to justify or rationalize their responsibility for delinquent acts/ 5 techniques of neutralization, or justifications, of delinquent behavior that precede delinquent behavior & that make such behavior possible by defining it as acceptable: 1. Denial of responsibility 2. Denial of injury 3. Denial of the victim 4. Condemnation of the condemners 5. Appeal to higher loyalties -will= missing element that provides the thrust or impetus by which the delinquent act is realized/ activated on mundane occasions & in extraordinary situations BUT delinquent not likely to have the will to repeat an old offense if they have failed in the past/ desperation can also activate one's will to commit infractions, esp desperation intertwined with the mood of fatalism/ crime then enables the delinquent to see himself as cause rather than as effect -feeling of injustice + situational group justification → neutrailzation of law → delinquent activity

theory of differential oppression

-Regoli & Hewitt; contends in the US, authority is unjustly used against children, who must "adapt to adults' conceptions of what 'good children are" -children experience oppression bc they exist in a social world in which adults look on them as inferior & in which they lack social power relative to adults -children must submit to power & authority of adults, & when children fails to conform to these pressures, a process begins that results in delinquent acts -theory organized around 4 principles: 1. bc children lack power on account of their age, size, & lack of resources, they are easy targets for adult oppression 2. adult oppression of children occurs in multiple social contexts & falls on a continuum ranging from benign neglect to malignant abuse 3. oppression leads to adaptive reactions by children (passive acceptance, exercise of illegitimate coercive power, manipulation of peers, & retaliation) 4. children's adaptations to oppression create & reinforce adults' view of children as inferior subordinate beings & as troublemakers

Eval of Symbolic Interactionist Theory

-STRENGTHS→ builds on symbolic interactionist sociology theory, a great tradition thats identified the locus of social control in process of taking role of the other & of linking with the broader social organization through role commitments, generalized others, & reference groups/ adds to insights of labeling theory/ insightful regarding how both law-abiding & delinquent youths form their conceptions of themselves & how these perceptions influence their decision making/ contributes helpful insights about influence of delinquent peers & the group context on youths' self-appraisals -CRITICISMS→ limited by fact that its been tested in only a few settings/ uncertain how much delinquency it explains, even among group delinquents/ many of the criticisms aimed at labeling theory also apply to this theory

Social Disorganization Theory

-Shaw & McKay -posits juvenile delinquency results when social control among the traditional primary groups (fam & neighborhood) breaks down because of social disarray within the community -suggests macrosocial forces (large-scale effects such as migration, segregation) interact with community-level factors (local-level poverty, family disruption) to impede effective social organization -focuses attention on structural characteristics & mediating processes of community social org that help explain crime + recognizing larger historical, political, & social forces -intellectual antecedents of social disorganization theory can be traced to the work of Durkheim's view, anomie -est that delinquency varied in inverse proportion to the distance from the center of the city; varied inversely with SES; & delinquency rates in a residential area persisted regardless of changes in racial & ethnic comp of area -viewed juvenile delinquency as resulting from the breakdown of social control among the traditional primary groups bc of social disorg of community (industrialization, urbanization, & immigration)/ delinquent behavior, then, became an alternative mode of socialization through which youths who were part of disorganized communities were attracted to deviant lifestyles -Social disorg & community--> used Park & Burgess social ecology pattern (cities dont grow at their edges but rather expand radially from their centers in patterns of concentric circles, each moving gradually outward), when they noted rates of school truancy, juvenile delinquency, & adult criminality varied inversely with the distance from the center of the city/ then, applying Burgess's concentric zone hypothesis of urban growth, they constructed a series of concentric circles, like the circles on a target, with the bull's-eye in the central city/ although delinquency rates changed from one time period to the next, relationships among the diffs zones remained constant, even though in some neighborhoods the ethnic compositions of the pop totally changed -Opportunity Structure & Delinquency--> economic & occupational structures of the larger society more influential in the rise of delinquent behavior than was the social life of the local community/ concluded the reason lower-class remained in the inner-city community was less a reflection of their newness of arrival & their lack of acculturation to American institutions than a function of their class position in society/ consequences of this differential opportunity structure (diffs in economic & occupational opportunities open to members of diff SES classes) led to a conflict of values in local communities: some embraced illegitimate standards of behavior, whereas others maintained allegiance to conventional values -Cultural Transmission Theory: cultural deviance component of social disorganization theory

Dramatization of Evil

-Tannenbaum; labeling theory -examined process whereby a juvenile came to the attention of the authorities & was labeled as diff from other juveniles, & theorized this process produced a change in both how those inds were then handled by the justice system AND how they came to view themselves -called this process the "dramatization of evil"/ process of tagging a juvenile resulted in them becoming involved with other delinquents & these associations rep an attempt to escape the society that was responsible for the neg labeling -delinquent then became involved in a deviant career, & regardless of efforts of the community & justice system to change his "evil" behavior, the neg behavior became increasingly hardened & resistant to pos values -less evil is dramatized, less likely youths r to become involved in deviant careers

Differential Association Theory

-Sutherland's view that delinquency is learned from others & that delinquent behavior is to be expected of inds who have internalized a preponderance of definitions that are favorable to law violations -outlined in 7 propositions: 1. criminal behavior is learned from others/ delinquent behavior is ACQUIRED trait 2. criminal behavior is learned through a youth's active involvement with others in a process of communication 3. principal learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups 4. when criminal behavior is learned, learning includes techniques of committing the crime & the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, & attitudes 5. the specific direction of motives & drives is learned from definitions of legal codes as favorable or unfavorable/ this creates culture conflict 6. differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, & intensity/ the impact that delinquent peers or groups have on a young person depends on those things 7. although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs & values, its not explained by those general needs & values, bc noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs & values/ the motives for delinquent behavior are diff from those for conventional behavior bc they are based on an excess of delinquent defs learned from others ^those propositions build on 3 interrelated concepts: normative (culture) conflict, differential association, & differential social organization/ these concepts operate at 2 levels of explanation: (1) society or group level & (2) ind level -**A person becomes delinquent bc he encounters (and assimilates) more definitions of criminality than of conformity

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program data

-The FBIs program for compiling annual data about crimes committed in the US -crimes the FBI collects info on are divided into 2 classes: Part I AND Part II offenses -Part I offenses: include both crimes against the person (murder) & crimes against property (burglary)/ used to form the crime index, which was used to compare crime rates from one year to another/ juveniles arrested for violent Part I offenses more likely to be held for trial as adults, while those arrested for less serious offenses processed by juvenile authorities -clearance by arrest= each month, police departments report to FBI the number of offenses that comes to their attention & number of offenses that the police were able to clear by arrest/ indicates a person was arrested bc he confessed to an offense or was implicated by witnesses or by other criminal evidence -UCR Program formulated National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), which presents detailed info ab crime incidents/ advantage is that, unlike UCR, it reports all offenses committed during a crime event, not just the most serious offense -LIMITATIONS → CIUS 2016 data problematic!/ in terms of validity, the police can report only crimes that come to their attention,, so vastly underestimates the actual amount of crime in the US/ theres also the reliability issue: do police departments manipulate the statistics reported to the FBI?( intent may be to make the prob appear worse or better)

Interactional Theory of Delinquency

-Thornberry -initial impetus toward delinquency comes from weakening of person's bond to conventional society -associations with delinquent peers & values make up the social setting in which delinquency is learned & reinforced ^these 2 variables, + delinquent behavior itself, form a mutually reinforcing causal loop that leads toward increasing delinquency involvement over time/ this interactive process develops over the person's life cycle -theory holds these process variables are systematically related to the youngster's position in the social structure/ youths from the most socially disadvantaged backgrounds begin the process least bonded to conventional society -views delinquency as result of events occurring in a developmental fashion/ delinquency not viewed as the end product; instead, it leads to the formation of delinquent values, which then contribute to disconnections in social bonds, more attachments to antisocial peers, & additional involvement in delinquent behavior -STRENGTHS→ make sense of literature on explanations of delinquent behavior/ studies that use an interactional framework are more commonly used among delinquency researchers & are being increasingly used in interdisciplinary research/ interactional approaches are consistent with the social settings in which inds live & interact with others -LIMITATIONS→ fails to address presence of middleclass delinquency & ignores racial & gender issues/ viewpoint that delinquency will persist throughout adolescence & into adulthood (with which Gottfredson & Hirschi would agree) leaves lil room for short-term discontinuation or permanent termination of illegal behavior patterns

Contemporary Biological Positivism: Sociobiology

-sociobiology= stresses the interaction between biological factors within an ind AND influence of the particular environment/ claim that what produces delinquent behavior, like other behaviors, is a combo of genetic traits + social conditions/ systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior -Twin Studies: comparison of identical twins with fraternal twins provides most comprehensive data for exploring genetic influences on human variation/ found support for genetic contributions to criminal behavior/ LIMITATIONS→ diffs in MZ & DZ twin similarities tell us about genetic involvement only to the extent the MZ-DZ diff is not related to environmental diffs/ the small number of twin pairs makes adequate statistical comparisons difficult/ not always easy to determine if twins are MZ or DZ/ official defs of crime & delinquency, with all their limitations, are used -Adoption Studies: found criminality of biological parents more important than the adoptive parents in predicting a child's propensity to offend/ suggests genetic transmission of some factor(s) associated with crime -Intelligence: idea that IQ is more important than race & social class in predicting delinquency/ seriously delinquent boys are gen impulsive, but the higher IQ serious delinquents seem to have better cognitive control systems/ researchers today understand whatever the correlation between IQ & delinquency may be, the association is further strengthened by environmental factors -Neuropsych factors: studies by Eysenck on ANS (noting interactions of both bio & environmental factors; contended that some children are more difficult to condition morally than others bc of the inherited sensitivity of their ANS)/ variants in any of 5-HTT, DRD4, & MAOA genes made offenders more susceptible to the adoption of the street code & patterns of behavioral aggression -Brain Functioning & Temperament: temperament is hard to define but can more easily be identified by the behaviors associated with it AKA activity & emotionality/ problem behaviors for kids w ADHD increase likelihood theyll become involved in delinquent acts & perhaps go to adult crime -Learning Disabilites→ link between LDs & delinquency questionable; however youngsters with LDs freq do fail in school, & officials seem to be influenced by this evidence of school failure to process them through the juvenile justice system/ dom explanations for cause of an LD lie in organic or neurological disorders, including birth injury or anything contributing to premature birth ect -Biochemical Factors→ some delinquent behavior can be attributed to an orthomolecular imbalance in the body or to brain toxicity (chemical imbalance in the body, resulting from poor nutrition, allergies, & exposure to lead & other substances)/ of all early health risk factors that influence neg behavioral outcomes, prenatal & postnatal periods emphasized the most/ SOME support for the idea that chemical imbalances in the body, resulting from faulty nutrition, allergies, & exposure to substances are related to delinquent behavior, however, link is very weak

Maj Data Sources in Deliquency

-Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program data -juvenile court statistics -cohort -self-report -victimization surveys ^ the maj sources of data used to measure extent & nature of delinquent behavior -knowledge of prevalence & incidence of delinquency is ness if we are to understand the extent of youth crime

Conflict Theory: Power and Authority Relationships

-Weber's theory: like Marxist perspective, contains theory of social stratification thats been applied to the study of crime/ DIDNT believe such a Marxist unidimensional approach (of only looking at economic context) could explain the phenomenon of social stratification; added power & prestige to Marxist emphasis on property & held these 3 variables responsible for the development of hierarchies in society/ argued "life chances" were differentially related to social class; so, criminality exists in all societies & result of political struggle among diff groups attempting to promote or enhance their own life chances -BOTH Dahrendorf & Turk extended Weberian tradition in criminology by emphasizing the relationships between authorities & their subjects -Dahrendorf: contended power is the critical variable explaining crime, arguing that although Marx built his theory on only one form of power, a more useful perspective could be constructed by incorporating broader conceptions of power -Turk: constructing analysis from work of Weber & Dahrendorf, argued the social order of society is based on relationships of conflict & domination between authorities & subjects -power-control thesis= Hagan; view that the relationship between gender & delinquency is linked to issues of power & control/ suggested the presence of power among fathers & greater control of girls explain why boys are delinquent more often than girls/ based measurement of class on authority that parents have in their positions at work, & assumed authority of parents at work translates into conditions of dominance in the household -differential oppression theory

Psychological Positivism: Reinforcement Theory

-Wilson & Herrnstein considered potential causes of crime & of noncrime within the context of reinforcement theory (behavior is governed by its consequent rewards & punishments) -rewards of crime r material gain, revenge against an enemy, peer approval, & sexual gratification, while the consequences include pangs of conscience, disapproval of peers, & most important, possibility of punishment -**rewards tend to be more immediate, whereas rewards of noncrime gen are realized in the future -other finding said youth may begin their involvement in delinquency in pursuit of intrinsic gratification but continue involvement bc of external gratification from peers

status offense

-a nondeliquent & noncriminal offense -besides committing many of the same crimes as adults, juveniles can also be arrested for status offenses of truancy, incorrigibility, curfew violations, & runaway behavior -they would not be defined as criminal if adults committed them -3x as many youth r typically arrested for these as for violent crimes

Psychological Positivism: Cognitive Theory

-a perspective on human development that says children develop cog abilities through interaction with the physical & social worlds -indebted to Piaget, who proposed children build cog abilities through self-motivated action & that children develop through 4 main periods -Kohlberg found that criminals were sig lower in moral judgment than noncriminals (many hard-core delinquents would be placed at the punishment stage (Stage 1), bc they only believe something is right or wrong bc it hurts if you do what society thinks is wrong) -Beck found offenders' sense of personal vulnerability is seen in their hypersensitivity to specific kinds of social confrontations, including domination or disparagement; violent offenders see themselves as victims and others as victimizers & their thinking is shaped by such rigid beliefs

juvenile

-a youth at or below the upper age of juvenile court jurisdiction in a particular state -by 2050, the pop of juveniles will be 36% larger than it was in 2000

human agency

-active role that people take in their lives -fact that people are not merely subject to social & structural constraints but also make choices & decisions based on the alternatives that they see before them -life-course theory relates inds to a broad social context, & it recognizes that within the constraints of their social world, inds purposely plan & make choices from among the options facing them, & those decisions determine their life course

high risk adolescents

-adolescents who have the most negative or problem-oriented factors in their lives 1. often experience multiple difficulties: theyre freq socialized in economically stressed families & communities, usually have histories of physical abuse & sexual victimization, have edu & vocational skill deficits, & prone to become involved in alcohol & other drug abuse & forms of delinquency 2. adolescent prob behaviors r interrelated, or linked 3. tend to become involved in behaviors that contribute to unintentional injury & violence -high risk children can be divided into delinquents & status offenders

Restorative justice

-advocates argue: legal standards are not sufficient to create healthy, ethical community behavior/ legal system too complicated & abstract for citizens to feel that theyre a part of setting those standards/ legal system can set only min standards of behavior -restorative-justice processes that encourage cooperation & voluntary engagement can establish standards for max behavior -one lesson of restorative justice taught to youths is empathy development/ development of empathy requires (1) feedback about how our actions affect others, (2) relationships in which we feel valued & our worth is validated, & (3) experience of sympathy from others when we are in pain -restorative justice also provides a framework for community membs to reestablish more appropriate relationship between community members & young people & reduce the fear adults have of young people/ processes of restorative justice, esp face-to-face processes, involve the telling of personal stories in intimate settings -community conferencing & sentencing circles

juvenile delinquency

-an act committed by a minor that violates the penal code of the government with authority over the area in which the act occurs -a law violation by a young person is considered an act of juvenile delinquency ONLY IF: (1) the act involved would be a criminal offense if it were committed by an adult (2) the young person charged with committing the act is below the age at which the criminal court traditionally assumes jurisdiction & (3) the juvenile is charged with an offense that must be adjudicated in the juvenile court or the prosecution & the juvenile court judge exercise their discretion to lodge & retain jurisdiction in the juvenile court

Routine Activities Approach

-approach that links variations in crime rates to changes in the routine activity structure of U.S. society, & to a corresponding increase in target suitability & to a decrease in the presence of "guard-ans" (neighbors, friends, & fam) -contention that crime-rate trends & cycles are related to nature of everyday patterns of social interaction that characterize the society they occur in

Classical school & Juvenile Deliquency

-association between criminal behavior & the rationality of crime has roots in 18th century classical school of criminology -these thinkers viewed humans as rational creatures who are willing to surrender enough liberty to the state so that society can est rules & sanctions for the preservation of the social order -theoretical constructs: humans seen as rational creatures who, being free to choose their actions, could be held responsible for their behavior (doctrine of free will)/ punishment is justified bc of its practical usefulness, or utility/ according to utilitarianism, the aim of punishment is the protection of society, & the dom theme is deterrence -Beccaria: based the legitimacy of criminal sanctions on the social contract (unstated or explicit agreement between people & their government as to the rights & obligations of each)/ saw punishment as a ness evil & suggested it should be public, immediate, & necessary; the least possible in the case given; prop to the crime; & determined by the laws -Bentham: contended punishment would deter criminal behavior, IF it was made appropriate to the crime/ punishment has 4 objectives: (1) prevent all offenses if possible, (2) persuade a person who has decided to offend to commit a less rather than a more serious offense, (3) dispose person who has resolved on a particular offense to do no more mischief than is ness to his purpose, & (4) prevent crime at as cheap a cost to society as poss -**according to principles of the classical school, then, juveniles who commit serious crimes or continue to break the law are presumed to deserve punishment rather than treatment, bc they possess free will & know what theyre doing

Integrated Theories of Delinquency

-attempts to combine theoretical explanations of delinquency into a coherent sequence of connecting events and outcomes has been one of the most highly praised concepts in criminology -But, LIMITATIONS: bc the specific form of delinquent behavior to be explained may vary from one theory to another, variations will likely be present in their power & utility/ question of which theoretical explanations to use as a rep of the various perspectives used in the model/ issue arises as to the generalizability of the theory to all segments of the pop/ included theories may have diff basic assumptions with respect to motivations, attitudes, & specific factors contributing to delinquency/ not uncommon for structural or process theories to have divergent views on delinquents' attitudes & motivations & on the effects of stimuli -theories: General Theory of Crime/ Integrated Social Process Theory/ Interactional Theory

4. SES & delinquency

-decades of debate have still not produced a consensus on the relationship between SES & delinquency -may be that lower-class kids are not so diff from mid & upper-class kids in the FREQ with which they commit delinquent acts, but in the TYPES of delinquent behavior -may also be the delinquent acts of adolescents from lower-class are more serious than those committed by youths from upper-class

Early Biological Positivism

-belief that juveniles' bio characteristics & limitations drive them to delinquent behavior -attention given to this in US may be divided into 2 periods: 1. period characterized by nature-nurture debate during 19th-20th century & 2. influence of Italian criminologist Lombroso's 19th century theory of physical anomalies, genealogical studies, & related theories of human somatotypes (body types) -born criminal= Lombroso; an ind who is atavistic, who reverts to an earlier evolutionary level, & who's unable to conform his behavior to the requirements of modern society/ thus, an ind who is innately criminal -IQ studies of delinquents: today we concluded the lower IQs of offenders were related more to testing methods & scoring than to the offenders' actual mental abilities -German medical researcher Kretschmer advanced idea that there are 2 body types/ schizothymes were strong & muscular, hence, more likely to be delinquent than were the cyclothymes, who were soft-skinned & lacked muscle

Rational Choice Theory

-borrowed from the utility model in economics, is a theory based on assumption that the criminal chooses to violate the law & has free will -can be seen as an extension of deterrence doctrine found in the classical school/ BUT while traditional deterrence theory focuses ONLY on costs of committing crime, this theory includes a focus on potential benefits that offenders receive as a function of committing crime -rational choice, according to Paternoster, recognizes there are "choice-structuring" variables & choices do not require complete info or rational analytic methods/ similarly, inds tend to increase the accuracy of their risk perceptions over time in response to cues they receive during their offending experiences -Fagan: legal socialization AND rational choice factors influence patterns of criminal offending over time/ when punishment risks & costs increase, crime rates are lower over time/ also showed both developmental maturity & mental health moderate the effects of perceived crime risks & costs on criminal offending

resiliency

-capacity to regain personal power & develop a strong sense of self in the face of poverty, severe family hardship, & community devastation -one of the most important concepts in the area of delinquency prevention -Garmezy categorized protective factors that insulate youths from high-risk environments into 3 important areas: (1) ind attributes of the child or adolescent, (2) the climate & resources within the family, & (3) the availability of & dependence on support systems existing within the community

Crime by Age Group

-chief findings of CIUS data as they relate to juveniles: 1. delinquency widespread in U.S. society 2. percentages of total arrests involving juveniles are highest in curfew breaking, disorderly conduct, liquor-law violations, drug abuse violations, vandalism, larceny-theft, & runaways 3. juveniles are arrested for serious property offenses as well as violent offenses 4. juvenile murder rates increased between 1987-1993, BUT between 1993-2003, however, juvenile arrests for murder declined hella 5. not all types of juvenile crime are declining (drug abuse violations & disorderly conduct have increased) 6. Juvenile females arrested in 2016 rep 9.9% of all female arrests for that year -overall, juvenile violent crime has been DECREASING in the past 20 years/ juvenile arrests for property offenses have also been decreasing in the past 30 years

Community Conferencing & Sentencing Circles

-community conferences= make it possible for victims, youths, & community members to meet one another to resolve issues raised by an offender's trespass/ a promising form of community conferences is termed sentencing circles -sentencing circles= form of restorative justice that incorporates principles of ancient, aboriginal tribal justice to address the harm suffered by crime victims & their fams, the responsibilities of offenders, & role of the community/ participants in them typically speak out while passing around a "talking piece"/ sep healing circles are initially held for victim & offender; after the healing circles meet, a sentencing circle determines a course of action, & other circles then follow up to monitor compliance, whether that involves, restitution or community service

Developmental life-course (DLC) theory

-concerned with 4 main issues in study of delinquency: (1) development of offending & antisocial behavior (2) protective factors (3) risk of offending at diff ages (4) effects of life events on course of a person's social & personal development -attempts to integrate what is known about ind, family, school, peers, & community with situational influences on offending -integrates key elements of preexisting theories that attempt to explain delinquency (strain, control, differential association, & social learning theories) -holds human development & aging are lifelong processes & that people are rational actors who make informed choices as they go through life

anomie

-condition of normlessness within a society -intellectual antecedents of social disorganization theory can be traced to the work of Durkheim's view, anomie -resulted from society's failure to provide adequate regulation of its members' attitudes & behaviors -loss of regulation particularly likely when society & its members experienced rapid change & laws did not keep pace

Eval of Conflict Theory

-contribute 2 important pieces to puzzle of why juveniles commit delinquent acts → 1. the various conflict criminology perspectives call attention to macrostructural flaws that contribute to high rates of juvenile delinquency 2. radical humanism, also rooted in structural inequalities of the social order, emphasizes dignity of the person & is quick to identify instances where children experience oppression in the US

Containment Theory

-control theory -Reckless -can explain conforming behavior AND deviancy, and has 2 reinforcing elements: an inner control system & an outer control system -assumption that strong inner containment & reinforcing external containment provide insulation against deviant behavior -inner containment= self-control, positive self-concept, well-developed superego, ego strength, high frustration tolerance, high resistance to diversions, high sense of responsibility, ect -outer containment= or external regulators, reps structural buffers in person's immediate social world or environment that are able to hold him within bounds -internal pushes toward crime consist of drives, motives, frustrations, restlessness, disappointments, & feelings of inferiority/ environmental pressures are those associated with poverty or deprivation, minority group status, ect -juveniles who have strong external AND internal containment much less likely to become delinquent than those who have only either strong external or internal containment/ youths who have weak external AND internal controls most prone to delinquent behavior, although weak internal controls appear to result in delinquent behavior more often than do weak external controls -a good self-concept, the product of favorable socialization, steers youths away from delinquency by acting as an inner buffer or containment against delinquency -LIMITATIONS→ difficulty of defining self-concept in way that researchers can be certain theyre accurately measuring the key variables of this concept/ poor self-concept might have other outcomes besides vulnerability to delinquency

Cultural Transmisson Theory

-cultural deviance component of social disorganization theory -Shaw & McKay elaborated on social disorg theory by arguing delinquent behavior became an alternative mode of socialization through youths who were part of disorganized communities were attracted to deviant lifestyles -cultural transmission theory= the delinquent values & traditions that replaced traditional social standards were not the property of any one ethnic or racial group but were culturally transmitted from one generation to the next/ evidence is that certain inner-city areas continued to have the highest delinquency rates despite shifts in population of nearly all of these areas

Miller's Lower-Class Culture & Delinquent Values

-cultural deviance theory -motivation to become involved in delinquent behavior is endemic to lower-class culture -argued a set of focal concerns of the lower class characterizes youths of this SES group (trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, & autonomy) from middle class youths -belief that persons of lower SES share a distinctive culture of their own & the focal concerns, or values, of that culture make lower-class boys more likely to become involved in delinquent behavior -Eval of Miller Theory→ most plausible when applied to the behavior of lower-class gang members/ contention that the lower classes have distinctive values widely criticized, as some argue the evidence shows that lower-class youths hold the same values as those of the larger culture

Conflict Theory: Group & Cultural Conflicts

-culture conflict theory= perspective that delinquency or crime arises bc inds are members of a subculture that has conduct norms that are in conflict with those of the wider society -conduct norms= rules of a group concerning the ways its members should act under particular conditions/ violation of these rules arouses a group reaction/ each ind is a member of many groups & each group has its own particular conduct norms -Sellin noted an ind experiences a conflict of norms when divergent rules of conduct govern the specific life situation a person finds himself in -the act of violating conduct norms is "abnormal behavior," & crime reps a particular kind of abnormal behavior distinguished by fact that crime is a violation of the conduct norms defined by criminal law -Sellin also developed a theory of primary & secondary culture conflict= primary culture conflict occurs when an ind or a group comes into contact with an ind or a group from another culture & the conduct norms of the 2 cultures are not compatible/ secondary culture conflict refers to conflict arising whenever society has diverging subcultures with conduct norms -Vold: formulated theory of group conflict & applied it to particular types of crimes, but DIDNT attempt to explain all types of criminal behavior/ group members are constantly engaged in defending & promoting their group's status; as groups move into each other's territory & begin to compete in those areas, intergroup conflict is inevitable

juvenile court statistics

-data about youths who appear before the juvenile court, compiled annually by the National Center for Juvenile Justice -released annually by the Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), an arm of the U.S. Department of Justice -shows that number of delinquency cases has declined significantly -OJJDP describes what happens to young people brought into the system: 1. 56% of all delinquency cases are petitioned (youths came into juvenile court as a result of the filing of a petition or complaint requesting the court to declare the youths either delinquent or dependent, or to transfer youths to an adult court) 2. 44% of non-petitioned delinquency cases were informally handled cases in which authorized court personnel screened the cases prior to the filing of a formal petition & decided not to prosecute offender -LIMITATIONS→ validity is compromised by usual time lag between gathering & publishing these statistics/ cases reported make up only a small percentage of the total number of juvenile offenders & offenses

cohort studies

-delinquency cohort studies usually include all ppl born in a particular year in a city or county & theyre followed through part or all of their lives -procedure is extremely costly, but permits researchers to document inds lives over time by examining police files, community records, & conducting interviews -PROBS→ their findings cannot be generalized confidently beyond the persons in the cohort/ very expensive & time-consuming/ keeping track of a sample of youths, up to age 35, next to impossible/ to provide a true picture of crime rate annually would require that a sample be taken each year in every area of the country -most sig findings on which studies agree: lower-class minority males committed the most serious offenses/ a few offenders committed maj or serious property & violent offenses/ punishment by the juvenile justice system tended to encourage rather than discourage future criminality/ males committed more & more serious offenses than females/ youth crime progressed from less serious to more serious

deliquency & parens patriae

-delinquency is one of the prob behaviors with which almost all high risk adolescents become involved -"delinquency" is legal term initially used in law in 1899 when Illinois passed the first statute pertaining to delinquent behavior among juveniles, which was based on the parens patriae philosophy of the state's newly est juvenile court -parens patriae= medevil doctrine that sanctioned the right of the crown to intervene in natural fam relations whenever a childs welfare was threatened/ enacted to deal w youth more leniently bc they were seen as not fully responsible for their behavior/ the fact that the juvenile court could legally assume the parental role over juvenile lawbreakers/ max age at which an ind is subject to the jurisdiction of juvenile court varies among states, but it is gen 16 or 17 years of age; after that, lawbreakers become adults in the eyes of the law

Social Context of Deliquency

-delinquent behavior takes place in a social context & its within this that social & structural conditions influence the development, definition, reform & punishment & policy decisions of delinquency -the social setting in which delinquency occurs is shaped by historical, legal, sociocultural, economic, & political contexts -historical context: recognizes how juvenile delinquents were handled in the past & influences how they are perceived & handled in the presen -legal context: est the def of delinquent & status offense behavior/ determines roles & jurisdictions of the juvenile courts -sociocultural context: shapes the relationship between the delinquent & societal institutions -economic context: sets the conditions under which delinquents live & determines the extent to which economic factors contribute to delinquent behavior -political context: influences local & national policy decisions that deal with youth crime; decisions are made to toughen or soften the approach to juvenile crime

Psychological Positivism: Sensation Seeking & delinquency

-derived from optimal arousal theory, sensation seeking is an inds need for varied, novel & complex sensations & experiences & the willingness to take risks for them -ideas about SS assume organisms are driven or motivated to obtain an optimal level of arousal -Katz said when inds commit a crime, they become involved in an emotional process involving seductions & compulsions that have special dynamics & this wild experience makes crime "sensible," or sensually compelling; offenders' immediate social environment & experiences encourage them to construct crimes as sensually compelling

juvenile court codes

-exist in every state & specify the conditions under which states can legitimately intervene in a juveniles life/ ex parents patriae -specify that the court has jurisdiction in relation to 3 categories of juvenile behavior: delinquency, dependency, & neglect -the. courts may intervene when... 1. a youth has been accused of committing an act that would be a misdemeanor or felony if committed by an adult 2. a juvenile commits certain status offenses 3. in cases involving dependency & neglect -an examination of the various juvenile court codes, or statutes, shows the diverse defs of delinquent behavior that have developed/ so a juvenile could be considered a delinquent under some juvenile codes & not others

victomization studies

-findings from 2015 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics & admin by U.S. Census Bureau, showed the number of victimizations uncovered by survey was much higher than the number of offenses reported to the police -NCVS's data show juveniles are highly overrepresented in comparison to other age groups in the pop of those victimized/ juveniles between 16-19 experience the highest victimization rate of any age group for all violent crimes -adolescents are more likely than adults to commit violent crimes against peers & to report knowing their assailants -within adolescent pop, males more likely than females to become victims of most violent crimes, but females more likely to be victims of rape & sexual assault -blacks several times more likely than whites to be victims of violence overall -victimization surveys have not been used as widely in analyzing delinquency as have the other pop forms, BUT they add sig to what is known about crime in US -found much more crime is committed than is recorded, & the discrepancy between the numb of people who say theyve been victimized & number of crimes known to police varies w type of offense -LIMITATIONS→ similar probs with validity & reliability as do self-report studies/ inds may define their personal victimization experiences diff than the official survey instrument; ppl queried more than once about a specific event may give diff answers to interviewees' questions/ victimizations of people under age 12 are not included

1. Age & Delinquency

-gen agreed that offending rates precipitously increase in the teenage years, peak in the late teens & early twenties, & decline thereafter/ thus, offenders 15-24 account for ab 40% of all arrests, even though theyre only about 14% of pop -factors that account for this pattern^: 1) peer relationships matter more during this time of one's life than later; hence peer relationships during this time more likely than those in later years to draw peers into crime 2) adolescents & young adults are more likely than older adults to lack full-time jobs, SO theyre more likely to need money & thus commit offenses to obtain money & other possessions 3) as adolescents age out of their early 20s, their ties to conventional society increase & these events increase their stakes in conformity, &, consequently, reduce their desire to break the law

Eval of social control theory

-greater attachment to parents less likely the child was to become involved in delinquent behavior/ more than communication with parents, however, the quality or intimacy of the communication was the critical factor -Strengths→ amenable to empirical examination (works! Unlike other theories)/ valuable insights into delinquent behavior like the importance of the intrafamily relationship AND relationship between school & delinquency/ esp valid is proposition that attachments & commitments to societal institutions (the social bond) are associated with low rates of delinquency -LIMITATIONS→ cannot explain all acts of delinquency; question can be raised as to whether its findings apply as well to serious delinquency/ fails to describe the chain of events that weaken the social bond -although social control theory cannot explain all acts of delinquency, it has more empirical support today than any other explanation of delinquency!!

Psychological Positivism: Psychopathy

-hard-core juvenile delinquents sometimes diagnosed as psychopaths -according to DSM-IV, these inds are usually diagnosed with a CD -Hare developed new psychopathy checklist for those with antisocial personality with a CD (cunningness, lack of remorse, ect) -Mealey argued there are 2 kinds of sociopaths: primary sociopaths (have inherited traits that predispose them to illegal behavior) & secondary sociopaths (constitutionally normal but influenced by such environmental factors such as poor parenting) -relationship between psychopathy & violent behavior in juveniles

youth culture

-has emerged in recent decades in US & in other nations, consists of the unique beliefs, behaviors, & symbols that rep young people in society -how, when, where, & with what & with whom they interact is part of this culture/ a primary feature is the incorporation of trends or fads

Delinquency prevention & philosophy of punishment

-if delinquency is rational behavior, --> then it can be prevented via punishment -objectives of criminal punishment can be grouped into: general deterrence, specific deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, restoration, & equity/restitution -deterrence= goal of punishment designed to prevent others from committing similar crimes -general deterrence= public application of punishment prods a general deterrence effect designed to signal the community at large that crime or delinquency does not pay/ by severely punishing juveniles convicted of delinquency, others who are contemplating delinquency will be deterred from their planned actions -specific deterrence= goal of criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent a particular offender from engaging in repeat criminality/ suggests the suffering caused by punishment should inhibit future criminal or delinquent activities/ fact that most convicted criminals reoffend weakens the argument that experiencing punishment prods this effect -incapacitation= a goal of punishment to incapacitate dangerous people so they dont have the opportunity to harm others/ offenders are sentenced to prison to restrain them physically so society is protected during the time they are confined/ sentencing for this purpose is embraced by both liberals & conservatives

Eval of Differential Assoication Theory

-important to field bc: provided general theoretical perspective that could be used to integrate findings/ idea that juvinelies learn criminal behavior patterns from sig others seems irrefutable/ prop that youngsters learn from people whose defs are favorable to law violations fits our understanding that juveniles r vulnerability to the influence of the group/ doesnt reduce delinquency to psychological & biological models; Instead, saw inds as changeable & as subject to the opinions & values of others -modifications of the theory: differential identification theory/ differential reinforcement theory AKA social learning theory -CRITICISMS: terminology of differential association theory is so vague that its impossible to test theory empirically/ fails to deal with several critical questions relating to the process of learning crime from others (ex why do youths who are exposed to delinquent definitions still engage in conforming behavior most of the time?)/ has no room for human purpose & meaning, bc it ultimately reduces the ind to an object that merely reacts to the bombardment of external forces & cannot reject the material being presented (says youth has no control)

Labeling theory

-in 60s & 70s, was one of the most influential approaches to understanding crime & delinquency -AKA interactional theory of deviance or social reaction perspective/ based on premise that society creates deviants by labeling those who are apprehended as diff from other inds when in reality they are diff only bc they've been tagged with a deviant label -focus on processes by which inds become involved in deviant behavior & stress part played by social audiences & their responses to the norm violations of inds -Tannenbaum (dramatization of evil) , Lemert (primary & secondary deviation), & Becker (deviant careers), 3 of chief proponents of labeling perspective/ focus on process by which formal social control agents change the self-concept of inds through these agents' reactions to their behavior -early versions of labeling theory came under serious attack for theoretical flaws & lack of support & pronounced dead by 80s/ however, this perspective later enjoyed a resurgence bc of its more sophisticated application

5. Peers & Delinquency

-in neighborhoods w greater opportunities for crime, the peer effect appears initially strong, but decreases as peer substance use increases -in neighborhoods w fewer opportunities for crime, the effects of peer behavior are initially small, but as delinquent peer association increases, so does the influence of the peers on the behavior of other youth -debate exists about the importance of closeness with delinquent others (proposed that deliquents cold & brittle w eachother) -delinquent youths report more freq contact with their romantic partners than other teens/ also durations of romantic relationships did not differ according to the level of respondent delinquency, but more delinquent youths reported higher levels of verbal conflict with their partners

self report studies

-in the 50s & 60s, use of delinquency studies that relied on official statistics declined, while SR surveys using community or school samples increased -study of juvenile crime based on surveys in which youths report on their own delinquent acts -main justifications for using are that a large prop of youthful offenders are never arrested & a large amount of hidden delinquency is not contained in official arrest statistics/ desire to uncover the true rate of delinquency & recognition that official statistics on have serious limitations have led to a growing reliance on the use of SR studies! -LIMTATIONS→ research designs have often been deficient, resulting in the drawing of false inferences/ the varied nature of social settings in which the studies have been undertaken makes it difficult for investigators to test hypotheses/ the studies validity & reliability are questionable/ validity: SR studies underestimate the illegal behavior of seriously delinquent youths, bc any juvenile who has committed freq offenses is less likely to answer questions truthfully than is the youth who is less delinquent/ reliability measures are impressive, & the maj of studies produce validity coefficients in the moderate to strong range -FINDINGS: commonly show that almost every youth commits some act of delinquency/ a surprisingly large prop of juveniles committed violent acts/ a large prop of those who become involved in violent behavior at an early age later become chronic violent offenders/ sizable number of juveniles self-report being arrested without having a corresponding official arrest record, while a sizable prop of juveniles with an official arrest record failed to self-report they had been arrested/ considerable undetected delinquency takes place, & police apprehension is low

General Strain Theory

-ind-level strain theory -Agnew; extended Merton's OG strain theory by broadening the potential sources of strain to include (1) failure to achieve positively valued goals, (2) removal of positively valued stimuli from ind & (3) presentation of negative stimuli -indicated strains ultimately led to negative affective states (anger)/ Juveniles may cope with these strains through delinquent behaviors -certain strains more likely to lead to delinquency than others: those high in magnitude, viewed as unjust, those associated with lower self-control, & those creating some pressure or incentive to engage in crime -presents guidelines, or a strategy, for measuring strain & explores under what conditions strain is likely to result in "nondelinquent & delinquent coping" -Eval--> theory can adequately explain delinquency & crime, in general, + specific behaviors like bullying, intimate partner violence, & white-collar crime -in sum, after a period of neglect, ind-level strain theory experienced a revival, primarily through the work of Agnew, esp in the form of his general strain theory

Eval of Restorative Justice

-instead of relying on legal intervention to deal with youths' misbehavior & community conflicts, restorative-justice groups are increasingly used -youths who participated in a restorative-justice program less likely to recidivate than juveniles in a comparison group -juveniles with a minimal offense history exhibited the most success from participating in these programs → restorative justice appears one of the most hopeful approaches to juvenile crime, esp with minor forms of juvenile delinquency

Social Process

-interactions between inds & their environments, especially those that might influence them to become involved in delinquent behavior -theories employ an interactionist perspective & examine the interactions between inds & their environments for clues to the root causes of crime & delinquency -the process of socialization occurring within social institutions (fam, school, peers), along with social structure, provides the forces that insulate youths from or influence them to commit delinquent acts/ AKA says criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others & socialization processes that occur as result of group membership are the primary way learning occurs -became popular in the 1960s because they provided a theoretical mechanism for understanding aspects of the social environment as a determinant of individual behavior -theories: differential association/ drift/ control theory/ social control theories

status offenders

-juvenile who commits a minor act that is considered illegal only because he or she is underage -in various jurisdictions, status offenders are known as someone in need of supervision or assistance -status offenders place blame on their probs on parental figures & believe fulfilling their need for a warm & loving relationship w their parents is not possible -parents view status offenders as defiant, demanding & obnoxious/ believe they have no control of their children & a power struggle results/ as a result parents call police to intervene -societys response to status offenders, esp female ones, is maj contributing factor in defining who has this legal status/ societies expectations ab men grant them leniency while girls r discriminate against

crossover youth

-juveniles in child welfare system often cross over into the juvenile justice system -many crossover youth experience mental health, drug abuse, & poor school probs -child welfare placements in group home settings r esp predictive of future involvement in juvenile justice system -disproportionate # of crossover minority youth bc disproportionate minority kids in welfare system

Differential reinforcement theory AKA social learning theory

-modification of differential association theory -Burgess & Akers -proposed a step-by-step restatement of differential association according to such ideas as reinforcement & punishment (operant conditioning) -this reformulation contended that criminal or delinquent behavior is learned primarily in those groups which comprise the individual's major source of reinforcements

Differential identification theory

-modification of differential association theory -applies the interactionist concept of the self, allows for choice, & stresses the importance of motives -person pursues criminal behavior to the extent that he identifies himself with real or imaginary persons from whose perspective his criminal behavior seems acceptable

Control Theory

-not a learning theory like drift & diff association, instead is focused more on an internal mechanism that helps youngsters avoid delinquent behavior -control theorists agree on sig point that humans must be held in check, or somehow controlled, if delinquent tendencies are to be repressed -also gen agree delinquency is the result of a deficiency in something, & that juveniles commit delinquency bc some controlling force is absent or defective -includes containment theory

2. Gender & Delinquency

-official arrest statistics show adolescent males are involved in more freq & serious delinquent acts than are adolescent females -victimization data show adolescent females are victimized more often than adolescent males & that this victimization is influenced by their gender, race, & SES/ exactly what leads to such correlation, however, is not clear

3. Racial/Ethnic Background & Delinquency

-official statistics & SR data produce conflicting results: official statistics reported black ppl are overrep in arrest, conviction, & incarceration relative to their pop base/ studies using SR measures found that black ppl are more likely to be adjudicated delinquent but are NOT sig worse than whites in their prevalence or freq of offending/ appears to b evidence that black ppl & other minorities are involved in more serious & violent forms of delinquency than whites, but such involvement may be influenced by neighborhood context & SES -racial threat hypothesis: the finding that school-level characteristics (% of black students) were related to overall discipline levels consistent w this hypoth/ holds that a larger racial minority pop causes the maj to feel more threatened by minority, & consequently to prefer use of stronger social control measures when it comes to offenses committed by minorities/ explains why minority students fare less well in school & are more likely to disengage from schools at younger ages than white students

life-course perspective

-organizational framework that allows scholars to investigate the lives of inds within the broader structural, social, & cultural contexts within which these inds live -attempts to identify how specific life events unravel over time to shape how inds behave over an extended period of time -increased emphasis on the life course in both sociology & delinquency studies has been accompanied by a resurgence of interest in human agency -at root of the life-course perspective is a complex debate about the nature of inds criminal careers

commitment to the social bond

-part of social control theory -Hirschi theorized inds who are most tightly bonded to pos social groups (family, school, & successful peers) r less likely to commit delinquent acts -social bond made up of 4 main elements: 1. Attachment= sensitivity toward others relates to ability to internalize norms & to develop a conscience/ also includes the ties of affection & respect children have to parents, teachers, & friends; stronger this attachment is to others, more likely it is an ind will take this into consideration if he's tempted to commit a delinquent act/ attachment to parents most important variable insulating a child against delinquent behavior 2. Commitment= commitment to conventional activities & values/ an ind is committed to degree that hes willing to invest time & energy in attaining conventional goals such as edu/ if juveniles are committed to conventional values & activities, they develop a stake in conformity & will refrain from delinquent behavior 3. Involvement= bc any inds time & energy are limited, involvement in conventional activities leaves no time for delinquent behavior 4. Beliefs= delinquency results from absence of effective beliefs that forbid socially unacceptable behavior (respect for the law & social norms of society)/ this respect for values of the law & legal system develops through intimate relations with other people, esp parents

Conflict Theory

-perspective that holds delinquency can be explained by socioeconomic class, by power & authority relationships, & by group & cultural diffs -sees social control as the end result of the differential distribution of economic & political power in any society, & conflict theorists view laws as tools created by the powerful for their own benefit -development of conflict model indebted to the concept of "dialectics" (art of conducting a dispute or bringing out the truth by disclosing & resolving contradictions in the arguments of opponents) -peacemaking= perspective that holds that crime-control agencies & citizens they serve should work together to alleviate social problems & human suffering & thus reduce crime/ goals of ideal humane society are reduced inequality/ this peaceful society can be attained by using compromise & negotiation on a community level to defuse violent social structures

Progressive Era & Positivism

-positivists argue the social world operates according to laws or rules just as the physical world does/ hence, delinquents are affected by bio or psycho factors that (1) impair or alter their decision-making abilities & (2) can be identified through the use of social scientific techniques -Progressive Era= period from 1890-1920/ wave of optimism that swept through U.S. society that led to the acceptance of positivism, or a social scientific approach to social probs/ doctrines of emerging social sciences led reformers to believe that social probs could be solved through the application of positivistic principle -some positivists looked to environmental factors, others believed certain bio features drove youths to delinquency/ BUT eventually the psych origins of delinquency came to be more widely accepted than either environmental or bio perspectives -positivist approach to youth crime based on 3 assumptions: 1) character & personal backgrounds of inds explain delinquent behavior 2) existence of determinism is a critical assumption of positivism; delinquency is seen as determined by prior causes (so deterministic position, positivism rejects view of free will) 3) delinquent is fund diff from the nondelinquent; in attempting to explain this diff, positivism concluded that wayward youths are driven into crime by something in their physical makeup, by psych impulses, or harshness of their social environment -biological, sociological, & psychological positivism are the 3 types of positivism that have been used to explain delinquency

prevalence & incidence

-prevalence of delinquency= the prop of members of a cohort or specific age category who have committed delinquent acts by a certain age -incidence of delinquency= frequency of offending or to the number of delinquent events

Strain Theory

-proposes the pressure the social structure exerts on youths who cannot attain cultural success goals will push them to engage in nonconforming behavior -includes Merton's OG societal Theory of Anomie & newer ind-level General Strain Theory -strain theory, esp in form of anomie, dominated criminology in 60s/ maj reason was that its central thesis of blocked opportunity (limited or nonexistent chance of success; according to strain theory, a key factor in delinquency) resonated with Americans' growing concern over equal opportunity, & with fear that social injustice had deep cultural roots -theory met increased criticism in late 70s, when people began to argue that it had found little empirical support & ought to be abandoned -Agnew's revised strain theory of delinquency: points to the blockage of pain/avoidance behavior as a source of frustration & strain/ when juveniles are compelled to remain in painful or aversive environments, the ensuing frustration is likely to lead to escape attempts or anger-based delinquent behavior/ found boys most driven to achieve autonomy were most likely to turn to delinquency -then gen strain theory -SO after a period of neglect, ind-level strain theory experienced a revival, primarily through the work of Agnew, esp in the form of his general strain theory

Conflict Theory: Socioeconomic Class & Radical Criminology

-radical criminology= perspective that holds the causes of crime are rooted in social conditions that empower the wealthy & the politically well organized but disenfranchise the less fortunate/ inspired school of criminology in early 1970s that was described as Marxist, critical, socialist, left-wing, new, or radical criminology/ Marx concerned with deriving a theory of how societies change over time & with discovering how to go about changing society (praxis) -Marx saw history of all societies as history of class struggles & viewed crime as a result of these class struggles -capitalism ripped apart the ancient regime & introduced criminality among youth in all stations of life/ socialization agents within the social system, like school, tend to reinvent within each new generation the same class system: children of fams that have more get more, bc the public edu system converts human beings into potential commodities -in Marxist perspective, the state & law itself are tools of the ownership class & reflect mainly the economic interests of that class/ conventional crime is caused by extreme poverty & economic disenfranchisement, products of the dehumanizing & demoralizing capitalist system

Eval of Labeling Theory

-received mixed reviews -STRENGTHS→ provides explanation for why youths who become involved in juvenile justice process freq continue delinquent acts until the end of their adolescent years/ emphasizes importance of rule making & social power in creation of deviance/ consideration of broader contexts of labeling process lifts focus of delinquency away from ind & places emphasis on the interactions of actor & their social context/ points out inds take on roles & self-concepts that are expected of them (self-fulfilling prophecies)/ changed understandings of delinquent behavior from unidimensional process involving ind choice to a more complex process of social interaction -CRITICISMS→ fails to answer several critical questions like are the conceptions that we hold of one another actually correct?; Whose label really counts?/ delinquency clearly related to factors other than official labels/ its extremely questionable to ascribe too much sig to the influence of the labeling process on adolescents' subsequent identities & behaviors

Eval of Disorganization Theory

-reemergence of interest in this theory -studies addressed problem of crime in terms of multiple levels of analysis -shifted attention away from ind characteristics of delinquents & nondelinquents toward group traditions in delinquency & the influence of the larger community/ contributed to a rediscovery of the importance of the community in studies of delinquency/ this led to the conclusion that an adequate understanding of the causes of illegal behavior requires an examination of the social structure, ind, & other social contexts (such as primary groups) that mediate -influenced research on how people & institutions adapt to their environment -in terms of the vitality, a meta-analytic review of macro-level predictors of crime revealed "concentrated disadvantage" as measured via their conception of poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, residential mobility, ect. remains one of the strongest predictors of rates of crime & delinquency

Social Structure

-relatively stable formal & informal arrangements that characterize a society, including its economic arrangements, social institutions, & values & norms -leads to delinquency by factors such as child poverty, racial disparity, disorganized communities, & rising levels of unemployment -causes of delinquency, as suggested by social structural theorists, include the social & cultural environment in which adolescents grow up and/or the subcultural groups in which they become involved -theories urge that social reform, not individual counseling, be given the highest priority in efforts to reduce crime & delinquency -theories: social disorganization theory/ cultural deviance theories/ strain theory/ theory of delinquent subcultures/ opportunity theory

Contemporary Biological Positivism: Biosocial Criminology

-sees interaction between biology & the physical & social environments as key to understanding human behavior, including delinquency & criminality -do NOT seek to identify a criminal gene or to find a particular area of the brain that causes delinquency; instead, attempt to eval many diff aspects of human physiology & assess how the human interacts with the environment around it to produce behavior -emphasize that its the interaction between biology & the cultural & social environments that prods behavior, & both conformity & criminality are a consequence of such interaction -brain development in children & teenagers is a central area for biosocial investigations/ recent understandings of human neural development have had an impact on U.S. Supreme Court decisions involving adolescents (driving & prefrontal cortex)

Triplett & Jarjoura Recent Application of Labeling Theory

-sep labeling into formal (reactions by official agents of justice system to illegal behaviors) & informal labeling (attempt to characterize a person as a given 'type' by ppl who ARENT acting as official social control agents aka parents, friends) -also divided labels into subjective (an audiences reaction to an actor; importance of these emphasized in symbolic interactionism) & objective labels (actors interpretation that reaction) -also sep labels into exclusive social reactions (attempts at social control which operate to reject rule-breaker from the group & revoke his privileges & status as an ordinary member) & inclusive social reactions (attempts at social control premised on assumption that rule-breaker is & will continue to be an ordinary member of the community)

Cultural Deviance Theory

-social disorganization theory focused on the structural breakup of urban communities, while cultural deviance theory focuses on the delinquent values found in some lower-class cultures/ both perspectives termed "cultural transmission theories" bc disorganization of the environment seen in SDT leads to cultural deviance -cultural deviance theory= belief that delinquent & criminal behaviors are expressions of conformity to cultural values & norms that are in opposition to those of the larger society -includes Miller's Lower-Class Culture & Delinquent Values

Rational Choice Theory & Delinquency

-some youthful offenders engage in delinquent behavior bc of what they see as the low cost or risk of such behavior/ hence, much of delinquency can be interpreted as a form of problem-solving behavior in response to the pressures of adolescence -desistance from crime= maturing out of crime/ process of deciding that the benefits of crime are less than the advantages of ceasing to commit crime -rational choice theory based on notion that delinquent behavior is planned/ planning has to do with (1) formulating a scheme for doing something before doing it, (2) assessing possible alternative courses of actions available, (3) choosing a particular course, & (4) constructing a complex set of acts to achieve results/ BUT most delinquent behavior is NOT planned; spur-of-the-moment decision making most freq characterizes juvenile wrongdoing -concept of rationality also assumes that inds have free will & are not controlled by their emotions, but many youngsters do not have such control -apparent there are degrees of freedom for all juveniles & juveniles' rationality is contextually oriented/ contextual nature of rationality suggests in most situations delinquents do have some control over their acts but that in some situations they may have little or no control -soft determinism= perspective that freedom of choice varies from one person or situation to another/ Agnew's examination of this led him to conclude that freedom of choice varies from one ind to another; its dependent on factors (one's biological, psychological, or social nature) that exist prior to choices that arise

Merton's Theory of Anomie

-strain theory -placed emphasis on 2 elements of social & cultural systems: 1. culturally defined goals (set of purposes & interests a culture defines as legitimate objectives for inds) 2. institutionalized means (culturally sanctioned methods of attaining ind goals) -the 2 elements must be reasonably well integrated if a culture is to be stable & run smoothly/ if inds believe that a particular goal is important, they should have a legitimate means to attain it; but when a culture lacks such integration, then anomie, or intense pressure for deviance, occurs -typology of 5 modes of ind adaptation used when confronted with anomie: (his theory uses these modes of adaptation to explain how deviant behavior is produced by the social structure) 1.conformity: If a society is well integrated & anomie is absent, conformity both to cultural goals & to institutionalized means will be the most common form of adaptation 2.innovation: when adolescents accept cultural goals but reject institutionalized means of attaining them, they may pursue other paths that freq are not legitimate in terms of cultural values (crime) 3.rituatlism: when juveniles abandoned the attempt to achieve approved cultural goals, but will continue to participate in acceptable means for attaining them 4.retreatism: some people reject both culturally approved goals & means & retreat from society (Homeless people) 5.rebellion: consists of rejecting the goals & values of one's culture & substituting a new set of goals & values for them (Anarchists & revolutionaries) -Institutional Anomie Theory= Messner & Rosenfeld/ agreed with Merton that the success goal is widespread in society, & described "American dream"; as a goal, it involves accumulating materialistic goods & wealth; as a process, Americans are socialized to believe that this goal is attainable & are taught they can achieve it/ the desire to attain the American dream generates pressures toward delinquency -EVAL of Merton theory→ has been called the most influential formulation in the sociology of deviance/ one of the main emphases of Merton's theory (thats been largely ignored) is that its a theory of societal anomie, not of individually felt strain

Eval of Drift theory

-strengths→ builds on assumption that delinquent behavior is a learning process that takes place in interactions with others/ helps account for fact that the majority of adolescents commit occasional acts of delinquency, but then go on to become law-abiding adults/ helps us understand the situational aspects of delinquent behavior (youths are influenced by group processes to commit behaviors that they might not otherwise commit)/ challenged notion that delinquents are "constrained" to engage in delinquency; contending that soft determinism (view that delinquents are neither wholly free nor wholly constrained in their choice of actions) more accurately explains delinquent behavior than hard determinism -mixed findings on belief that attitudes of delinquents and nondelinquents toward unlawful behaviors are basically the same -received less attention than neutralization theory in recent years, BUT its still one of the most useful explanations of the dynamics of why inds become involved in delinquent behavior

evidence-based practices (EBP)

-the most effective intervention in juvenile justice & are supported by evidence of achievement -a practice that involves the use of scientific priniples to access the various evidence on program effectiveness & develop principles for best practices in any particular field

deinstitutionalization of status offenders (DSO)

-the removal of status offenders from secure detention facilities -has received considerable acceptance in the past few decades -successful in encouraging states to amend laws, policies & practices that prev led to confinement of juveniles who committed no criminal act

Psychological Positivism

-theories claim that juveniles commit delinquent acts bc they have some underlying emotional problems or disturbances & these emotional behaviors, which exist across gender, race/ethnicity, & class, r ultimately more important than social factors in explaining delinquency/ thus, psych positivism differs from classical & contemp biological positivism bc its focus is more on the emotional makeup of the personality than on the biological nature of the ind -theories: Psychoanalytic explanations/ Sensation Seeking & delinquency/ Reinforcement Theory/ Personality & Crime/ Psychopathy/ Cognitive Theory **an overview of psych theories would conclude most delinquents have psychological traits within the normal personality range, but that some delinquents have acute emotional deficits

Eval of Deliquent Subcultures Theory

-theory is important bc it views delinquency as a process of interaction between delinquent youths & others, rather than as the abrupt & sudden product of strain or anomie in Merton's theory -one critic questioned the feasibility of using status frustration as the motivational energy to account for delinquency bc most delinquent boys eventually become law-abiding citizens, even though their lower-class status does not change -another critic that Cohen doesnt offer any empirical evidence to support his theory

Psychological Positivism: Personality & Crime (trait based model)

-trait-based personality model= theory that attributes delinquent behavior to an inds basic inborn characteristics/ offers another perspective on possible sources of criminal behavior -traits are essential personal characteristics of inds that are relevant to a wide variety of behavioral domains, including delinquency & criminality

Validity and Reliability

-validity= extent to which a research instrument measures what it says it measures -reliability= extent to which a questionnaire or interview yields the same answers from the same juveniles when they are questioned 2 or more times

radical nonintervention

-when youths are arrested & brought before the court, theyre stereotyped as diff/ having acquired this label, they receive greater attention from authorities, & theyre processed more deeply in the justice system bc of this → delinquency laws are counterproductive bc they produce more delinquency than they deter -radical nonintervention= Schur argued for this policy, which means to "leave the kids alone whenever possible" -studies suggested that under certain circumstances, official punishment appears to increase the likelihood of subsequent deviance as suggested by labeling theory

Social Factors Related to Delinquency

1. Age & Delinquency 2. Gender & Delinquency 3. Racial/Ethnic Background & Delinquency 4. SES & delinquency 5. Peers & Delinquency

Handling of juvenile deliquents throughout history

1. Colonial Period (1636-1823): -juvenile lawbreakers didnt face a battery of police, probation, or parole officers, nor would the juvenile justice system try to rehabilitate them; instead, most young offenders were sent back 2 their fam for punishment/ if still bad after that they could be returned to community officials for more physical punishment 2. Houses of Refuge Era (1824-1898): -houses of refuge= institution that was designed by 18th & 19th century reformers to provide an orderly, disciplined environment similar to that of the "ideal" Puritan family/ reflected new direction in juvenile justice; fams authority had been superseded by that of the state, & wayward children were placed in facilities presumably better equipped to reform them/ worked first half 19th century, then by mid reformers suspected these werent as effective as they wished (grown too large, desired level of order disappeared ect) 3. Juvenile Courts Era (1899-1966): -first created in Cook County, Illinois, the juvenile court came into existence to handle all illegal behavior among people under a certain age (based on parens patriae)/ court promised it would be flexible enough to pay ind attention to the specific problems of wayward children/ hope was that juveniles would be kept out of jails & prisons, thereby avoiding corruption by adult criminals -period didnt see radical change in the philosophy of juvenile justice, BUT what differed was the viewpoint that children were not altogether responsible for their behavior!! (seen as victims) AND state under control of juvilnes now 4. Juvenile Rights Era (1967-1975): -mounting criticism of the juvenile court culminated in 60s when the court was accused of dispensing capricious & arbitrary justice/ U.S. SC responded with a series of decisions that changed the course of juvenile justice/ intent of the Court decisions was to ensure that children would have due process rights in the juvenile justice system -late 60s & early 70s: community-based programs received enthusiastic response as more states began a process of deinstitutionalization under which only hard-core delinquents were sent to long-term training schools/ also w children's rights movement, the rights of children were litigated in the courts 5. The Reform Agenda Era (late 70s): -reform agenda emphasized reducing the use of juvenile correctional institutions, diverting minor offenders & status offenders from the juvenile justice system, & reforming the juvenile justice system/ maj purpose was to divert the handling of status offenses from a criminal to a noncriminal setting; emphasis bc of JJDP Act of 1974 -BUT at time public concern ab serious juvenile crime was high critics thought correctly that the failure to address this would fail reform process 6. Social Control & Juvenile Crime Era (1980s): -factors that led to a national reassessment of minor & status offenders: young people seemed to be "out of control"/ nationwide, politicians assured constituencies the answer to youth problems was to crack down/ "tough love" movement/ Reagan admin made concerted effort to show the soft-line approach had had disastrous consequences in children's lives -maj thrusts of Reagan admins crime control policies for juveniles were to "get tough" on serious & violent crime & to undermine reform efforts of 70s/ new fed mandate encouraged development of 5 activities: (1) preventive detention, (2) transfer of violent juveniles to adult court, (3) mandatory & determinate sentencing for violent juveniles, (4) increased confinement of juveniles, & (5) enforcement of death penalty for juveniles who commit brutal murders -juvenile court, however, continued to have 3 approaches to juvenile lawbreakers: on one end, court applied parens patriae doctrine to delinquents & status offenders; BUT on other end, juvenile lawbreakers deserved punishment rather than treatment bc they possessed free will/ between these 2 extremes fell young ppl who saw crime as a form of play & committed delinquent acts bc they enjoy thrill of getting away w it; courts thought this group not as bad as serious delinquents, only mischievous 7. Delinquency & Growing Fear of Crime (1990s-2010): -one of the consequences of the growing market for crack & the accompanying growth of street gangs was the arming of many young people on the fringes of society/ also beginning in 80s thru 90s young ppl became increasingly involved in hate crimes -increased media coverage of violent juveniles w weapons & in gangs continued to harden public attitudes toward juvenile deliquents/ "get tough" attitude toward them led to hella juvenile justice initiatives in 90s that went beyond those in 80s/ in the 1990s nearly every state enacted legislation that led to 9 state initiatives in juvenile justice that continue today: (1) an expanded use of curfews, (2) innovative parental responsibility laws, (3) organized efforts to combat street gangs, (4) movement toward graduated sanctions, ect. -NOW --> some ppl now question "get though" approach & many advocate for increased use of evidence based programs & restorative justice programs/ much of this is increased understanding of juvenile behavior resulting from recent studies in neurobiology & developmental psychology that recognize sig diffs between the minds of juveniles & adults

positivism

view that just as laws operate in the medical, biological, & physical sciences, laws govern human behavior & these laws can be understood & used