GEO G option
Hierarchy of settlements
"order" or "importance" . Way of arranging settlements into a hierarchy based upon their population based on: • Settlement size or e.g. number of jobs provided and/or amount of wealth generated. Hierarchija: isolated dwelling, hamlet, village, small town, large town, city, conurbation(kylant decrease in frequency, daugeja teikiamu paslaugu kiekis)
6. Precipitation
(a. Noticebly more intense storms, particularly during hot summer evenings; b. Probably ↑ incidence of thunder; c. ↓ snowfall and briefer covers).
4. Pressure and winds
(a. Severe gusting and turbulence around tall buildings ; b. Deep, narrow streets much calmer aligned with prevailing winds to funnel fows along them (the "canyon effect");
Temperatures
(a. Stronger heat energy retention and release (e.g. from fuel consumption); b. Up to 1.5°C warmer during winter nights (snow in rural areas increases albedo); c. Heating from below notably during summer afternoons and evenings.; d. Big local contrasts between sunny and shaded surfaces)
2. Clouds and fogs
(a. Thicker cloud cover in summer and fogs or smogs in winter because of increased convection and air pollution; b. Concentration of hygroscopic particles, accelerating the onset of condensation);
5. Humidity
(a. ↓ relative humidity because lack of available moisture and higher temperatures.; b. Partly
Greenfield site
- An area of agricultural or forest land, or some other undeveloped site earmarked for commercial development or industrial projects.
Children from depredated areas:
- Are often less ready to start schooling (because vocabulary, social skills, knowledge) - Have higher absenteeism rates (because sickness) - Less access to learning resources (academic books, internet) - May have lower aspiration - Live within a community culture
Chalanges for planners is how to deal megacity problems
- high rates of unemployment and underemployment, (absorb the growing number of job seekers) - insuffcient housing and shelter (growht of slums and squatter settlements) - overloaded and overcrowded transport systems - air, water and noise pollution - deteriorating infrastructure (basic services, public transport, waste disposal and health care) - Growing inequalities between areas or districts within a city - Inadequite sanitation, water supply - health problems - Social problems - crimes, suicides, drugs, haomelessnes - Decline of quality of life
The street economy
- informal activity on the street e.g. begging, street vendors, shoe-shiners, thieves and prostitutes.
Dvipusiskas megacity
- some pats are modern, others - poorly developed, unhygienic, unplanned and dangerous to live
REDUCING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS
Cities can reduce their ecological footprint by: • burning less fossil fuel • increasing number of resources which can be recycled, reused and reduced. • expanding the bus lanes, cycle lanes and footpaths (↓fossil fuel usage) • bike-sharing schemes • open spaces and clean up derelict sites. Densely populated cities have certain advantages over less dense cities. They : • produce less CO2 per capita and have greater potential for public transport. • savings in the heating and cooling of buildings (emissions per person in apartments tend to be lower than from a detached house)
Brownfield site
Abandoned, derelict or under-used industrial buildings and land that may be contaminated but have potential for redevelopment.
Cycle of deprivation
Areas of social deprivation are found in cities of both - developed and developing countries The factors associated with deprivation are varied, but they result in a cycle of urban social deprivation and a poor quality of life. People find they are trapped in disadvantage that passes from one generation to the next. Cycle begins in when children born into deprived household. Breaking free from the cycle is difficult, but one of the best chance to doing so occurs with education
Centrifugal/outward movements (or decentralization)
Centrifugal population movements is the outward growth of towns and cities to engulf (apimti) surrounding villages and rural areas. • This may result from the out-migration of population from the inner urban area to the suburbs or from inward rural-urban movement.
Smartens of the cities:
Cities are the complex • Sensors - gives, connect huge amount information about environment, find (identify) different scenarios • Respond - decision making, recreation of the systems • Innovations should be easily adopted, accessible • Diversification: What is suitable to Milan, bay be not suitable for Tokyo
"smart city
a city that is performing well in six categories: economy, environment, people, living conditions, governance and mobility. It a cities with investments in social and human capital, physical infrastructure and ICT, enable sustainable development, wise management of the resources available to the city and a high quality of life. Smart cities have creativity to develop innovative solutions to cities challenges. The smart technologies these cities are to manage cities more efficiently. In a smart city everything from roads, to buildings, to the electricity grid are controlled through a city operations centre. The data can be used to provide real-time travel information, manage energy supply and control lights. Often city governments works with large technology companies together with increasing role of citizenspeople are using smart phones, apps, social networks and DIY sensors to solve the problems that matter to them. Many smart cities are piloting solutions such as smart grids electric buses, driverless cars and healthcare apps. Some countries have set out to create smart cities from scratch such as Songdo in Korea and Masdar City in the United Arab Emirates. Smart city solutions need to be applicable to cities of all sizes, both old and new. There is great potential to apply smart technologies to city challenges. But as with all technology there is also potential for abuse. Privacy, sustainability and ethics are just some of the issues facing the development of smart cities.
Deindustrialization
Deindustrialization is the long-term, absolute decline in employment in the manufacturing sectors of an economy. It refers to a loss of jobs rather than a decline in productivity.
Effects of depleting the green space
Destruction of natural habitat Loss of species and habitat of animals and plants Building on greenfield sites leads to the need for transport, facilities, etc.
Impact of natural geographic environment on growth processes:
In extreme environments - whether too hot or cold, wet or dry - settlements are generally small and isolated - difficult to provide enough food. • In areas favouring food production, settlements have managed to grow - possibility for non-farming services to grow • Natural favouring for urban growth areas - lowlands, costal areas, potential for trade, with links inland
Ecological footprint
In many countries, one or two major urban centers are major contributors national Ecological Footprint and also run significantly higher per capita footprints than the average for their nations. Comparing city and national Footprints can shed more light for improving sustainability.
Residential segregation
Positive segregation-ethnic group gains advantages by being located in one place: • Helps to reduce isolation and vulnerability of minority groups • Support new migrants • there are enough of them • Cultural Preservation / Helps to promote and preserve a distinctive culture heritage and maintain culture solidarity Negative segregation: • Certain groups are excluded from particular areas, because higher costs or "redlining" - an illegal process whereby people and authorities prevent particular groups from locating in an area (e. g. South Africa in the apartheid era - sepatation of blacks, whites, coloured and Indians.
Types of deindustrialization
Positive • When industries reduce their workforce to increase productivity with machines and rationalization. • This makes the industry more competitive .Negative: • Occurs when particular industries decline without any compensating rise in productivity or mechanization.
Traffic congestion
a situation in which demand for road space exceeds supply.
Urban Heat Island
characterized by the significantly higher temperature (2-4°) in urban areas than in the rural surroundings. This climatic modification mostly induced by human Highest temperatures are generally found over the city centre - or downwind of the city centre if there is a breeze present.
An eco-city (or sustainable city). PASIZIURET ROGERS MODEL
city designed to have minimal environmental impact. Compact cities minimize travel distances, use less space, require less infrastructure (pipes, cables, roads, etc.), are easier to provide a public transport network for, and reduce urban sprawl. This makes them more likely to be sustainable. (Read the C.S Tokyo ecological footprint (p.380) and notice some facts to boost yours answer)
The central business district (CBD)
commercial and economic core of a city, because its characteristic features and internal zoning (clustering of similar types of business)
Case study: Deindustrialization in Detroit, USA
d
Contested land use C.S. Depletion of urban green space Bangalore(india)
d
Contested land use C.S. Dharavi slum(mumbai, India - population about 1mil)
d
Contested land use C.S. Rio de Janeiro olympic games(slum clarence in rio)
d
Evaluation of informal economy: (skaidrese)
d
Growth of Shanghai C.S
d
Managing urban social deprivation C.S. Barselona
d
Positive and negative aspects living in slums - skaidrese
d
Prisiminti niujorko C.S>
d
C.S. Air pollution in Delhi
ddd
C.S. Air pollution in Mexico City. Managing (1)
ddd
C.S. Songdo Smart city, South Korea
ddd
C.S. Sustainable traffic management in Curitiba, Brazil
ddd
Management of urban heat island (UHI) - C.S. Cheong Gye Cheon, Seoul, South Korea - the impact of river restoration on an urban microclimate
ddd
Microclimate
distinctive (savitas) climate of a small-scale area, such as a garden, park, valley or part of a city.
Contaminants
gases (nitrous oxides, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide/ poison hydrochloric acid, Particulate matter such as PM10 (particles with very small diameter)
Urban growth and economic development
here is a clear correlation between urban growth and economic development • High proportion of people living in urban areas lead to increased wealth, or does increased wealth lead to a high proportion of people living in urban areas? Towns and cities : • provide the market and exchange centers • may provide a stimulus for development - the larger the town the provide more possibilities for skilled and unskilled labor • provide possibilities for health and education
The depletion of green space
involves the use of natural, environmentally friendly land for other developmental causes e.g. new factories, industrial buildings, offices, tourist attractions
A residential area
land use in which housing predominates, as opposed to industrial and commercial areas.
Megacity ir kodel auga
large metropolitan areas (cities) with a population of 10 million population or more. grow as a result of economic growth, rural-urban migration and high rates of natural increase
Pull factors:
lower costs of living; • very low interests rates; • increased public transport and providing services such as sewers, electricity, gas and water supply.
The structure of the air above the urban area
more dust in the air means a greater concentration of hygroscopic particles, less water vapour, but higher proportions CO2 and of noxious fumes from the combustion of fuel and emition ofwaste gases by industry.
The structure of the urban surface
more heat-retaining materials are used, with lower albedo and better radiation-absorbtion. • Tall buildings, rougher surfaces - distribution of the wind • Deep streets are sheltered and shaded - temperature, wind differences
Managing urban crime
more police oficers on patrol ● greater use of cecurity cameras ● improved street lighting ● buildings designed to reduce dark areas ● greater availability of taxi services around the closing time of clubs and bars ● adopting zero-tolerance policies towards crime, as in New York City.
The informal sector or informal economy
part of an economy that is not taxed, monitored by any form of government or included in any gross national product (GNP), unlike the formal economy. Servants, Gardeners, Maids, Cleaners, Taxi drivers, Prostitutes ... Small scale, locally owned
High frequency goods, or low-order goods/services -
people except locally, purchased quite often (perhaps every day or every few days) - need to be located close to the peoples residences.
growth of the cities lead to problems such as:
pollution (air, water and noise), destruction of ecosystems and poor living conditions. • high rates of unemployment and underemployment (as urban labor markets are unable to absorb the growing number of job seekers) • insuficient housing and shelter, causing the growth of slums and squatter settlements • overloaded and overcrowded transport systems • deteriorating infrastructure (basic services) and shortfalls in service delivery (public transport, waste disposal and health care) • growing inequalities between areas or districts within a city in terms of access to infrastructure and services • inadequate sanitation and water supplies and associated health problems • increasing prevalence of social problems, such as rising crime rates, suicide rates, drug and alcohol abuse, family breakdown and homelessness • general deterioration in the perceived quality of life
Commercial activities
provision of intangible (nematerialūs) products e.g. banking, cleaning, consultancy, education, insurance, expertise, medical treatment, or transportation.
Long range goods, or highorder goods,
purchased infrequently, perhaps only every few years or so
Land in urban areas is used for:
residential - where people live • industrial - manufacturing industries that process raw materials • for services - education, health care, retail, entertainment • open space - parks, gardens, sports facilities, rivers • for recreation - including open space, sports centers, playgrounds, sports areas • transport routes
Caunter urbanization, like suburbanization
response to growth of metropolitan, population, increasing stress, overcrowding, congestion, pollution. Lack community and declining services
Consequences
s inhaled into lungs, remain lead to cancer, poison doses carbon monoxide, higher infant mortality, expendures on treatment, low quality of life, stresses
The bazaar economy
small trade and service establishments, and craft workshops. That has some kind of regular work space e.g. a building or market stall. • Cheap goods and services for low-income households are produced • Farming, servies or industrial activity can be organized in such way • Many family enterprises employing children as well as the elderly.
Byblos, Lebanon (CS - resilient city)
ss
weather variables of microclimate
temperature, rainfall, wind or humidity, may be different due to albedo, water bodies, vegetation, altitude, slope, pollution ... Urban and rural environments differ in their micro-climate.
The cities that dominate in the politic, economic, social and cultural focus of their country are known as primate cities
tend to attract most of the foreign investors, best infrastructure, educational and research facilities.
Sustainability
the ability to continue a defined behavior indefinitely. It is maintaining or "sustaining" something at a certain level.
site of a settlement
the actual land on which a settlement is built
Ethnicity
the cultural differences, between immigrants and existing residents often led difficulties of communication, resulting various degree of residential segregation (the physical separation of population by culture, income or other criteria)
The large the settlements are in size:
the lower number they will be (there are many small villages, but few large cities). • the greater distance between them. • the range and number of its functions increases. • The number of higher-order services will also increase
Industrial activities
the production of merchandise for use or sale using labor and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing
Social deprivation causes:
the reduction of culturally normal interaction between an individual and the rest of society. - lacking a full range of economic opportunities and devalued.
Retail
the sale of goods and services from individuals or businesses to the end-user.
Noise pollution one of the main problems of traffic congestion. Road traffic noise depend on:
traffic volume / density of traffic • traffic composition • speed • noise screens • distance from the source of the noise • reflection of noise from barriers • retaining walls or mitigation techniques • weather conditions • terrain and road su
Social deprivation areas
urban areas asociated with poor quality of life, low equality of opportunity and social justice.
land use
ways that land is used.
Government attempts to maintain or revitalize retailing in central areas increasing importance by projects:
y projects: • full-scale development (Princes Square in Glasgow and Newcastle) • Large-scale redevelopment schemes (Les Halles in Paris); • Creation of traffic-free zones (Bruges and Cologne) Also government can prevent the development of certain areas for particular activities
Urbanization:
• Urbanization is an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas. • Whereas urban growth is the increase in population size of an urban area • Urbanization can be caused by: • rural-to-urban migration, • higher rates of natural increase in urban than in rural areas, • reclassification of rural areas as urban areas. • In many rich countries, the process of urbanization is almost at an end and the proportion of urban dwellers is beginning to fall
the most dangerous component of air pollution; SAVOKA OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
• ozone or photochemical smog is produced ,suspended particulate matter (which includes microscopic particles of benzene(benzolis- Fenolis pirmoji medicinoje naudojama antibakterinė medžiaga)
Cities attract because:, bet paaiskinti lemti tu kurie atvaro is rural
: job prospects, better services ... However the reality defers - fever rural-urban migrants find that they experienced in rural areas - many become shanty dwellers or live in pavements. Result - shanty settlements is one of the characteristics of most megacities ind developing world.
High income residents
1) generally live close to the city center, however density in CBD low because HPV. 2) suburb areas individual houses, on high land, because view, higher-quality land ; 3). Where accessibility greater because transport routs (emerge higher price land); 4) Will not locate near heavy industry areas, because pollution.
Low income residents (main factor - low land value):
1) inner city - low income residential, high density flats. 2) Near industrial areas, transport routs, railways, because pollution. 3) in the periphery (ourscrits), on poorquality land, and on land that may be at risk from hazards, such as landslides and floods. 4) Segregate areas because race and ethnicity. s evident.
Retail economic activity
1. In the CBD (Central shopping areas or high street - traditionally concentrated department,chain, specialist stores (high order goods); large sphere of infuence) 2. Nearby residential areas (shopping parades - cluster of small supermarkets, schops, newsagent, other low-order outlets) 3. On greenfield suburban sites (In the rural-urban fringe - outer urban areas (in recent decades trend of move) - superstores and retail parks Causes of relocation to outer urban areas - rising CBD land values and greater mobility of the population, improvement
Causes of paterns of Retail/ commercial
1. In the CBD - the highest land prices - only a few types of very profitable business that would benefit from being at PLVI (department, large retial chain, stores) to which high accessibility by public transport, high concentration of pedestrians is important can afford to pay the highest rent prices demanded there. • Retail are not prepared to pay high prices if they are not highly accessible, therefore the curve or retail shops is very steep. • Commercial enterprises, such as financial companies, solicitors, corporate offices require high accessibility, but they can not afford high prices, therefore are situated further from the PHLVI to the edge of CBD. The rent curve falls away a little more gently because for them. accessibility is not crucial • 2. Nearby residential areas - impact market (consumes daily need-food, newspapers and confectionery) • 3. Location in suburb sites because of cheaper land values, better access to private transport, free parking and possibility for expansion. Relocation to suburb is caused by: 1. demographic change (falling population, more elderly) 2. suburbanization and counter-urbanization (relocation of residential areas); 3. technological change (freezers - not need to shop daily); 4. economic change (increased standards of living - car ownership; 5. ccongestion and high land prices in city centers); 6. the increased accessibility of suburban.
The impact of structure of the air above the urban area urban surfaces on characteristics of urban microclimate:
1. Radiation and sunshine • 2. Clouds and fogs • 3. Temperatures • 4. Pressure and winds • 5. Humidity • 6. Precipitation
Management of traffic congestion:
1. Road engineering (road widening (not always possible because limited space) elevating roads, building tunnels, reversing direction of lines during different time of a day, separated lines for busses, usage information technologies) • 2. Promotion of mass transit systems (usage bus and railways systems, car sharing) • 3. Discouraging motor vehicle usage in certain congested areas (reducing the speed of cars, traffic lights, discouraging or prohibiting motor vehicles, banning cars, restrict traffic, creation pedestrian plazas, bicycles networks, park-and ride schemes) Setting up access policies - regulations of traffic and e.g. working hours • Limit the number of cars allowed to enter an area (by price or by number plate) • Road pricing policies • Banning traffic during peak hours • Planning and coordinating of roadworks • Development of public transport • Banning vehicles with old technologies and vehicles with heavily polluting engines, encouraging modern, less polluting technologies
Industrial
1. inner-city areas - central location: (need skilled labor - medical instruments; need access to the CBD (such as fashion accessories, clothes), need the whole urban market for distribution (newspapers) 2. Close to railways and/or canals, because imports and exports 3. Brownfield suburban sites (expansion) close to airports (imports and exports) 4. Sites away from residential locations (polluting industries; wind, rivers flow direction is important) Pattern and factors affected (causes)of urban economic activities and government management (plan
Consequences of noise pollution (2):
Affect people's livelihoods as well as economic development. • Street noise exposure is believed to account for 4 % of the average individual's annual noise dose (USA) • May cause people in urban areas to move or consider moving from cities of high population density to quieter environments. • Associated with raised blood pressure, coronary heart disease, psychological stress and annoyance, and sleep disturbance
Characteristics of informal sector skaidrese
Although the informal economy is often associated with developing countries, where up to 60% of the labor force (with as much 40% of GDP) works, all economic systems contain an informal economy in some proportion - common in both LIC and HICs countries
Kam reikia services in urban areas?
As urban areas grow, there is increased need to provide access to clean water, sanitation and waste disposal; If these are not provided, the risk of disease and other cities stresses increases, placing further burdens on the city authorities. Cities growing without associated infrastructure improvements struggle with significant problems of poor roads, buildings, railways and others structures (vital for urban industries to operate in viable manner) and the ability to attract new economic activity is limited.
DAR KITI FAKTAI
Asia contains the largest number of people living in urban areas, while India, China and Nigeria are expected to account for over 33 per cent of the urban growth by 2050. India alone is expected to have over 400 million more urban dwellers by then. • Currently, almost half of the world's urban population lives in cities of fewer than 500,000, while about 12% live in megacities. Some cities in low-fertility countries in Europe and Asia have experienced decline. • Cities of all sizes are growing, and megacities and large cities are growing slightly faster than medium-sized cities and cities of 500,000 to 1 million. • In fact, by 2050 there are very few countries where rural shares are expected to be higher than urban. These include several across Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Pacific Island States and Guyana in Latin America. many of the world's most populated countries have comparably low urban shares (just over 1/2 or less) e.g. India (expected to be the world's most populous country) is projected to have an urban share of only 53% in 2050 • Some cities in low-fertility countries in Europe and Asia have experienced decline.
Causes of counter-urbanization
Assumptions (Causes)/ Pusch factors of counter-urbanization: • The same as suburbanization + high land prices, congestion, pollution, high crime rates, lack of the community, declining services in urban areas • Pull factors: • Advantages of smaller settlements (closer sense of community, better environments and safer location) + the same as in case of suburbanization
Putrajaya in Malaysia
City 25 kilometres south of the capital city of Kuala Lumpur, established in 1995 • Built according to comprehensive policies and guidelines for land use, transportation systems, utilities, infrastructure, housing, public amenities, information technology, parks and gardens. • City mission to provide: administration, services to ensure customer satisfaction, infrastructure, creating an ideal environment for living and working.
Impact of external forces on growth processes:
Colonial interaction (p. 338) • Dominance of large cities acting as centers of inovation for external comercial forces • Development of transport links (increase of accessibility) • Political factors - attemptsto reduce the importance of very large cities (building new towns and new capital cities - Brasilia, Canberra, Putrajaya in Malaysia (339-340p.) (Cayro - Sadat city (aim - reduce overspill population from Cairo) + Egypt is building a new capital city
Patterns of the urban crime
Concentrated in the most urbanized and industrialized areas and, within these, the poorest working-class neighbourhoods. • Some crimes, such as fraud (sukčiavimas) and sexual offences - more common in lower-density neighbourhoods with plenty of open spaces and a limited police presence. • In the UK, the risk of being a victim of household crime, risk of vandalism, burglary and vehicle related theft is higher in more deprived areas;
Urban growth often takes place without sufficient investment in transport infrastructure
Congestion Almost it is related with the transport and can be permanent - everyday traffic, occurs when the capacity of the road is exceeded or not-permanent - events that occur on a non-regular basis, such as accidents, maintenance work or holidays/special events
To sustainability can be achieved by:
Environmental sustainability involves making responsible decisions and taking action that are in the interests of protecting the natural world, with particular emphasis on preserving the capability of the environment to support human life. It is not simply about reducing the amount of waste you produce or using less energy, but is concerned with developing processes that will lead to be sustainable in the future. To sustainability can be achieved by: ● reducing the use of fossil fuel (e.g. by promoting public transport) ● keeping waste production to levels that can be treated locally ● providing suficient green spaces ● reusing and reclaiming land (e.g. brownfeld sites) ● encouraging active involvement of the local community ● conserving non-renewable resources ● using renewable resources
Gentrification
Gentrification is the reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas. It refers mostly to improvement residential areas. • The process also involve redevelopment commercial activities too. • It is common in areas where there may be browneld sites (abandoned, derelict or underused industrial buildings and land, which may be contaminated but has potential for redevelopment). • Assumptions: there are a lot of abandoned houses, old industry areas (brown field areas) in inner city areas. Gentrification has occurred in many large old cities e.g. in New York (Greenwich Village and Brooklyn Heights); London (Fulham and Chelsea).
pattern of land use reflect land values
In cities where economic forces are the main influence on land uses (mostly in North America, Europe, Australia, some parts of Asia), the pattern of land uses reflects land values.
Effects of having green space
Improved ecology/environment of the urban area Improvement in quality of environment Creates job opportunities Growth of businesses within the company (especially tourism)
FAKTAI ABOUT FUTURE SUSTAINABLE URBAN GROWTH
In 1950, 30% (1/3) of the world's population lived in urban areas. • By 2014 this had risen to 54% • By 2050, it is expected growth to 66% (2/3) Currently, North America is the most urbanized region (82% of the population living in urban areas), followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (80%) and Europe (73%). The world's urban population has grown rapidly, from 746 million (in 1950) to 3.9 billion (in 2014). By 2050, a Urban and rural populations by world regions, 1950-2050 further 2.5 billion people will live in urban areas. (6.4billion)
Commercial
In central business district (CBD) - clustering of similar types of business because, the area most accessible to public transport, and the location with the highest land values. The highest concentration of pedestrians Has a number variations of internal zoning
Land value and pattern of residential areas within urban areas
In the City centre - low density, because of high land values. • In the Inner-city areas - the highest residential densities (terraced housing may date from the 19th century, traditionally, poorer households, close to jobs. • Increasing distance from the city centre, residential density decreases, high-quality housing, because the greater availability of land in the suburbs.
Location of informal activities areas
Informal activity has no specific location in the city; • 1. around city (CBD) center (street vending's; personal services), where the pedestrian density is greatest. • 2. In residential areas, often in ground floors, slums, river embankments ...
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the basic systems and services, such as transport telecomunication networks and power supplies, that a country or organization uses in order to work effectively. Social infrastructures - physical assets that support social services (hospitals, schools, etc.) Socio-technical - structures that enable supply and utilization of natural endowments to support human activity (such as energy and water) Communications infrastructures - involve the transmission, processing and distribution of humansourced flows (transport and information); The improvements of infrastructure for growing cities is vital
Processes affecting urban environment
Inward (or centriperipetal) movement caused by Rural-urban migration (in industrializing cities) Inner city gentrification and Re-urbanization, Urban renewal in postindustrial cities Outward (or centrifugal) movement caused by Suburbanization Counter-urbanization Urban sprawl
The urban ecological footprint
It is a measurement of the land area required to provide a population with the resources it needs and to dispose of all its waste. Resources people use for their daily needs (e.g. food, water and electricity) must be produced using raw natural resources The ecological footprint measures the amount of arable land and aquatic resources needed to sustain a population, based on consumption levels at a given point in time. It incorporates water and energy use, uses of land for infrastructure and different forms of agriculture, forests, and all other forms of energy and material "inputs". It also accounts for the land area required for waste assimilation.
Patterns Poor and deprivation city areas in MEDCs and LEDCs
LEDCs: slums and shanty townsthat exhibit the worst conditions. There live about 78 % of urban population in LICs (in whole world 32%) MEDCs/NICs: inner city areas or ghettos
physical factors affecting the pattern of urban economic activities :
Landforms such (e.g. mountain barriers) • Rivers and coastlines • Wind direction
Causes of green space depletion
Limited spacing • Some areas in the world are overpopulated and the land available is small. Thus, the supply of land is increased through centrifugal expansion of the urban areas. • Increased demand for housing • Due to the large population of some areas in the world and limited land (e.g. Bengaluru, Mumbai), the demand and price for housing is significant. This can cause the construction of more housing spaces in nearby Greenfield sites.
common features of informal economic activity.
Low wage • Don't need formal qualifications, though skills may be useful • No holiday or sick pay • Pay no taxes • Could be fired at any time • Can leave at any time • Long working hours (10-12 per day, or more) • Dependent on the employer • No legal protection • No pension or other social garantees Informal activity can refer to social issues which are not regulated. This is common with housing in poorer countries, where squatter settlements are a feature of many urban areas. The very poorest people in society are forced to construct their own housing, often on land that is undesirable.
stresses for cities
Major cities experience a number of stresses relating to population growth, resource use (water, energy, food), crime, waste disposal and natural hazards expecialy in developing countries where urban growth is fastest and financial resources scare • As such and in recent years, cities have had to come up with a plan to be more resilient in the face of adversity.
Importance of urban growth - impact on economic development (1) Towns and cities caused the development as provide:
Market and exchange centers • Stimulus for development - large town - large workforce (skilled and unskilled) Education and health • Focus on national feelings and allow integration of the diversity (ethnical, religious)
here are links between global population size as well as the rate of consumption and resources consumption:
More population - larger amounts of resources is needed. Higher consumption depletes the planets carrying, renewal and regeneration capacities. Resources consumption depends from development of the counties, economic activities in the countries (industrial, agricultural) which are one of the main factors leading to ecological footprint alongside population number and its consumption. Ecological footprint alo depend on environmental sustainability principals, applied in the countries and local environmental conditions. • Countries with higher economic development have larger footprints. • There are links, between countries energy usage and ecological footprint as well - most energy is derived from fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, the use of which inevitably raises a country's ecological footprint since an ecological footprint includes the area (land) required for absorbing waste - in this case carbon dioxide emissions; • However, increase usage of renewable energy decreases the footprint.
Kaip yra su megaciciu augimu?
Most of the growth is unplanned, arising from the rural-urban migration (mostly young, single, adventouts male or ddissposssesed farmers move to search work)
Polluters
Motor vehicles, industry (factories), burning biomass, wood and low quality coal for cooking and heating, burning rubbish, plastic
Natural increase and urbanization
Natural increase (NI꞊B-D). Birth rate is higher than the death rate in a country or place often occurs in cities because of its youthful age structure, as urban areas attract many young migrants. • In contrast, the rural areas leave behind develop more of an ageing population, causing rural birth rates are likely to decrease. • However, the social and cultural pressures on women to have children are less in urban areas than in more traditional rural areas. Thus, in some urban areas, despite the more youthful age structure, birth rates and fertility rates remain low (career choices of women, high cost of raising a child have influence on it).
Reasons why inner city areas attracted poor people?
Old city centres have problem with motor vehicle transport/congestion problems, parking, air pollution • Inner city areas are unattractive for industry or commerce, because buildings require expensive up grounding, or perhaps in outer areas with more space, cheaper land and good communication become more attractive. • Low population growth rate caused the urban decay - lack of demand for inner city land, vacant blocks of land (MEDCs)
Reasons why some areas attracted poor people/why land value is low?
Old city centres have problem with motor vehicle transport/congestion problems, parking, • Air pollution, • Unattractive for industry or commerce, because buildings require expensive up grounding, or perhaps in outer areas with more space, cheaper land and good communication become more attractive. • Low population growth rate caused the urban decay - lack of demand for inner city land, vacant blocks of land. • Slums are typically located on land that planners do not want: steep slopes, floodplains, edge-of-town locations and/or close to major industrial complexes.
Centrifugal movement (traits):
Parts: Centre + suburbs Daily migration Improvement of ttransport infrastructure High density of population Often is characteristic of wealth cities
Ecological footprint patterns and trends
Patterns: • A ecological footprint varies across the earth, from more than 9 hectares per person for the biggest consumers, such as USA, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, to 0.5 hectare in such countries as Bangladesh, Haiti, Congo Democratic Republic, or Afghanistan. • The USA and China account more than 2/5 of the planet ecological footprint. • E.g. : The USA is the country with the largest per capita footprint in the world - 9.57 ha. If all countries live like American, current biocapacity of the planet would support only about 1.2 billion people. • However if everyone live like an average person in Bangladesh, where the footprint per capita is just 1.5 ha, the earth could support about 22 billion people Trends: The global ecological footprint grew from about 70% of the earth´s biological capacity in 1961 to about 120% in 1999. However the projections shows, that human´s footprint can increase to about 180 - 220% of the earth´s biological capacity by the 2050. If consumption rates which is highest in the rich countries will be adopted by the majority of humanity, we would need 4 or 5 planets more to sustain ourselves.
Consequences of traffic congestion (1):
People are subjected to unnecessary stress as a result of more time spent travelling, reduced mental and physical health. • Trafic jams • Delays and overcrowded public transport systems. • Delays of emergency vehicles • Often the extra time is wasted - los of productivity • Increasingly uncomfortable and unsafe travelling conditions. • Wasted fuel because vehicles are unable to operate at optimum speeds • Wear of vehicles, consequently causing higher levels of air pollution. • Diversion of traffic through residential and recreational areas due to spill-over of traffic from congested routes - it increase local noise, air pollution and risk of accidents.
In general factors causing site of settlement are conditions for different economic activities and housing
Physical - • Water availability, • Feedom from flooding • Timber for construction and fuel • Forurable climate (sunny slopes). Social and economic - Safety / defense • Potential for trade and commerce (roads, bridges, estuaries ...) (Paris, Cairo) • Access to resources (Gouteng, Johanesbourg)
Poverty indicators
Physical indicators (Quality housing, pollution. Vandalism) • Social indicators (Crime, fear, access to the health care, lone parents) • Economic indices (employment, level of income) • Political indices?(opportunities to vote, take part in community organization)
Urban place is characterized by:
Population size • Specifc features (such as a CBD and residential zones) • Predominant economic activities (manufacturing and services) • An administrative function
Assumptions (Causes)/ Pusch factors of suburbanization:
Rapid growth or urban population; • Demand of better housing and more space; • Rising incomes (enabled people meet costs associated with: new housing and transport of commuting to the city centre to work); • Can be influenced by family life cycle;
Re-urbanization/urban renewal
Re-urbanization is a revitalization of urban areas and a movement of people back into these areas. • Refers with rehabilitation of city areas that have fallen into decline (urban decay, related with deindustrialization). • E.g. Manhattan in New York, Barcelona and the use of the 1992 Olympic Games, Woodstock in Cape Tow Precess involve: Renewal of housing and the development of new business enterprises lead to movement peoples back into these areas - development of activities increase residential population densities these areas.
Reindustrialization
Reindustrialization is the growth of high-technology industries, small firms and services industries (tertiarization). • The highest rates of increase in small firms are found in the less industrialized, rural, peripheral areas rather than large urban areas with derelict sites
resilient cities, urban resilience
Resilient cities are economically productive, socially inclusive and environmentally friendly. • urban resilience is designed - as capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses within city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kind of chronic stresses or acute shocks they experience.
Physical factors - affect on pattern of residential areas
Rivers or canals, costal areas, wind direction: • pleasant views - recreational opportunities • cooling breezes (e.g. Yangoon, Mianmar) • risk of flooding • pollution from industrial areas Relief (high ground) • pleasant views - recreational opportunities • risk of mass movements (landslides) • Higher risk in case of earthquakes (informal housing, no land use planning
Rural vs urban
Rulral (no services provided other than dominatory function of providing acomodation for residents), agricultural. Urban (services, manufacturing, retail)
Consequences of high crime rate:
Segregation • Creating culture of fear • Deterring foreign investment and tourists flows • Restriction of movement
Consequences (of centrifugal movement):
Shift population and economic activities (manufacturing industries, retail activities) away from inner cities; Provision of employment outside-relocate services; • Decrease population density, abandoned buildings, graffiti, vandalism in inner areas; Some US western Europe cities run down; • Improvement of public transport, parking areas; • Construction roads, buildings, commuting (daily migration) increase air pollution and destroys open spaces;
characteristics of urban places:
Site; Function; Land use; Hierarchy of settlement (including megacities; Growth process (planned or spontaneous)
Causes of urban deindustrialization
The decline of certain industries or areas is due to many factors, including: • the decline (exhaustion) or increasing cost of raw materials • mechanization and new technology • increased overseas competition from NICs • falling demand ● rise in costs of production, decreasing productivity ● rationalization ● the removal of a subsidy ● lack of capital outsourcing activities
The highest land values those near the city centre as they have:
The greatest accessibility by public transport (known as Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI), which is always located in Central Business Center (CBD)). 2. Smal amount of land avialable Land prices usually fall away quite sharply from PLVI (principle of distance-decay).
Patterns of air pollution
The greatest concentration of environmental problems occurs in cities expending rapid growth (rapidly industrializing , i.e. Mexico, Calcutta, Beijing, Bangkok (worst traffic jams in the world (Thailand) , Shanghai, Delhi) Why? even Los Angeles; Within cities - in slums - As countries seek to develop economically, manufacturing industry expands and motor vehicle traffic increases. This has an enormous environmental impact on world's cities.
Two main factors affected climate of an urban area (urban microclimate):
The structure of the air above the urban area (e.g. dusts); The structure of the urban surface (e.g. more heat absorbing)
Urban sprawl -
The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the surrounding countryside. It is closely linked to the process of suburbanization
FAKTAI APIE AIR POLUTION HIC IR LIC
Urbanization is changing the face of our earth at an unprecedented rate. • This grows poses significant challengers tor the residents, of large cities. • These challengers on directly impact on the quality of life of residents, affecting their housing, movement, services, and environmental quality. • Cities in bough HICs / MCs/NICs and LICs have experienced urban sprawl and rising air pollution. • Moreover the growth rates in LICs/NICs continue to be very rapid - the speed with which cities in developing countries are growing today is even more rapid then the growth of cities in the industrialised world a century ago. • Air pollution is one major type of pollution in the developing world's cities
Apie pollution ir management
The worse situation in cities in countries with high population density, low regulations, luck of capital for technologies to takle with air pollution, using chep and inefficient energy, poor quality of vehicals resources) • Environmental / pollution problems in urban areas vary over time as economic development progress (i.e. it is not static and changes over time) Management:burning less fossil fuel (in general, reducing fossil fuel emissions will be cheaper and more effective than trying to clean up the pollution after it has happened) • using more energy-effcient technologies (i.e. hybrid/electric cars) • using public transport rather than private cars • using a car pooling scheme, for example liftshare.com • cycling or walking • road pricing, bypasses • using catalytic convertors to reduce emissions of NOx • increasing enforcement of emissions standards (i.e. Zero Emissions network in east London) • Planting - creatring green spaces (Green - Parkland in the London Olympic Park https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9sEccTHlMk), creating living roofs...
Economic, social and demographic consequences of urban deindustrialization
There has been a long-term decline in manufacturing employment, especially in the industrialized countries since the 1950s. • In contrast, there have been gains in the service sector, especially in banking, finance and insurance. • Gains in the service failed to compensate for the manufacturing losses and many of the new jobs are flled by commuters from outside the city areas. • Many of the new jobs in services were taken by women, and many of these were part-time and low paid. • Inner cities h
Industry in concentrated in large cities befcause cities are:
Thet have the large markets. • Port cities have excellent access to international markets. • Cities are the centres of innovation, ideas and fashion. • In cities the skilled and unskilled labour is available, (workers, decision-makers and innovators)
The bigest megalopolies- where cities sprawl and merge into one
Tokaid, China's Pearl River Delta, Bosneywash
The importance of improvement of the infrastructure:
Transport is vital to the wellfunctioning of economic activities; • It ensures everyday mobility of people and is crucial to the production and distribution of goods. • For many rapidly growing cities, trafic jams, air pollution, unclean water and inadequate telecommunications reflect a failure to match population growth with infrastructure growth.
Resilient city design, CITY RESILIENCE INDEX
Urban planners and government administrations face challenge to cope with chronic stresses weaken cities on daily or cyclical basic (unemployment, inefficient public transport, inadequate waste disposal high rates of violence, shortage of food or water) and acute (sudden) shocks - sudden events that threaten the city (terrorism attacks, earthquakes, floods, outbreak of the diseases) • To address to chronic stresses and acute shocks, the urban resilience become very important The concept of urban resilience has been developer through the 100 Resilient Cities project supported by different donors to help to 100 cities become more resilient. The project developed City resilience index (CRI) to help countries to measure and monitor factors that contribute cities resilience. Cty planners used CRI to access changes over time. Cities that are a part of 100 Resilience Cities network, receive the financial and intellectual support to boost resilience, however the most of the world cities are not a members
Keli faktai
Urbanisation is happening faster than at any time in human history. • Asia accounts for over half of today's megacities. But it's in Africa where some of the most rapid urbanisation will take place in the future.
Trends and patterns of traffic congestion A city's travel is more congested on:
Weekdays, especially during the peak fow times in the morning (7.00-9.00) and evening (17.00-19.00) - obvious morning and evening peaks. • The most congested morning is Monday and the most congested evening - Friday. • Beginning of the new school year, festivals and national holidays By contrast, during the summer vacation, urban congestion is less of an issue. • On weekends the TPI pattern curve has smaller but more prolonged peaks, with the morning (7.00 and 1.00) and an evening (14.15 and 19.45).
Contested land use changes (1)
When land uses change, an array of interests groups become involved: land- owners, builders, subcontractors, architects, marketing agents, speculators, developers, legal and financial consultants all paly a part in obtaining approval from government authorities • In most cities in the world, many of the decisions made to develop land are based on profit motive i.e a land owner or developer may see the opportunity to make money from renovating old properties or initiating the process of gentrification • Speculative activity often lead to displacement of communities as people living in low value properties find they can no longer to afford to stay living in area. • Forced relocations also occur when cities take lager scale reconstruction projects, such as hosting an international sporting events, such as Olympic Games. • A speculator who intends to buy residential has to negotiate with land-owners who may reluctant to sell. Sometimes it lead to "hold out" , hoping to receive higher price of their property. It can cause the increase the costs of redevelopment or perhaps undesirable mix of incompatible land uses In some cases , residents of the city become frustrated at proposed land-use changes or the luck of progress in addressing their problems that they turn to radical solutions - political dissent and protests - as they are threated with to loss their homes or jobs.
Radiation and sunshine
a. ↑ scattering of shorter-wave radiation, ↑ absorption of longer waves radiation by surfaces and CO2; screening by tall buildings in shaded narrow streets.; b. ↓ visibility because industrial haze);
The calculation takes into account the following resources:
arable land: the amount of land required for growing crops; pasture land: resources required for growing animals for meat, milk, etc.; forest: for fuel, furniture, housing... Also providing many ecosystem service like climate stability and erosion prevention; ocean: for fish and other marine products; infrastructure: transportation, factories and housing, etc. based on the built-up land used for these needs; energy costs: the land required for absorption CO2 emissions and other energy wastes. Species extinction and toxic pollution of air, water and land are not taken into account in calculating ecological footprints.
Geopolitical risks
• Around much of the world, there has been rising nationalism, anti-globalisation sentiment, terrorist attacks and antigovernment protests • Many of these are expressed in urban areas, where there are significant concentrations of people • Geopolitical risks such as inter-state warfare, terrorist attacks and state collapse or crises are among the most likely risks to occur • An examples of the geopolitical risks faced by cities are: Recent events in Sevastopol (Crimea), terrorist attacks in Paris, Brussels, Manchester and London and political change in the USA (linked to riots in Miami, Philadelphia and Atlanta) • Interstate conflict is no longer physical but uses economic means and cyber warfare to attack people's privacy as well as national interests, many of which may be based in urban areas (e.g. alleged hacking of the USA by Russia during the 2016 presidential election)
Counter-urbanization
• Counter-urbanization - a process involving the movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller urban areas, new towns, new estates, commuter towns or villages on the edge or just beyond the city limits/the rural- urban fringe. It often follows on from suburbanization and is characteristic of wealthy cities in MEDCs. Caunter urbanization, like suburbanization - is response to growth of metropolitan, population, increasing stress, overcrowding, congestion, pollution, lack community and declining service
The main causes of traffic congestion in cities are:
• Increased number of motor vehicles - particularly growing middle classes car ownership in LECDs- India, China , Brazil (there are more than a billion cars in the world today) • Increase of dependency on cars • Inadequate provision of roads and parking; • Poor development of public transport; • Rapid cities growth, resulting enormous urban sprawl and longer journeys; • Frequent road works in MEDCs cities; • Major concentration of economic activities in CBD - increasing traffic in urban areas; • Relocation of the economic activities to the suburb - development of put-of town retail and employment, leading to cross-city commuting; • Poor maintained of cars with high pollution, particularly in LEDCs cities
Functions of a settlements:
• Industrial role: manufacturing and/or hightech industry • Trade and communication • Service role: health care, education, retail, leisure, entertainment, local government • Residential role Particular functions: fishing settlements, mining settlements, tourist settlements, planned political settlements
Dar future projections
• It is expected that rural populations will have reached their absolute high in 2022 with approximately 3.38 billion people (1950s only 1.78 billion people lived in the countryside). • The current long-term projections see this number going slightly down to 3.2 billion people by 2050. • While the rural population has become a minority globally (at approximately 46%), the majority of those are increasingly concentrated in the poorer parts of the world. • 69% of people in the least developed countries live in rural areas, while this number is at only 20% in higher-income countries.
High level of segregation of ethnic comunities occur due to:
• Late arrival • Inability to speak English • Common origin - segregation brought security • Poverty
CHALLENGES FUTURE
• Migration into cities is one major reason for declining rural populations. • Natural population growth keeps rural regions growing in absolute terms. • China's active intervention through residence registration system and the one-child policy influenced making its developments differ from other countries in the region. • Declining rural populations in already very urbanized countries (mostly in the wealthier parts of the world, especially in Europe) have become a complex governance issue - requires rethinking rural development to ensure a balanced economic development between the growing urban and shrinking rural regions.
Rural-urban migration
• Rural-urban migration - movement of people away from the countryside to towns and cities. • Particularly important in LICs and NICs. • Occurs because people believe they will be better off in urban areas than in the rural areas, caused by push and pull factors: • Push factors - negative features that cause a person to move away from a place (e.g. unemployment, low wages, natural hazards). • Pull factors are the attractions (whether real or imagined) that exist at another place (e.g. better wages, more jobs, good schools).
daugiau apie smart city
• Smart Cities - the convergence of smart information and communication technologies to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of urban systems and services. • They have long been promised great things: more energy efficient power grids, an end to traffic jams and even rubbish bins that let you know when they are full. • Socio-technical systems where citizens, institutions, private actors .... to solve everyday problems by making reliable solutions
Suburbanization
• Suburbanization - the outward expansion of towns and cities, mainly in Europe, North America and Australia, largely thanks to improvements in transport systems . • Suburb - A residential area within or just outside the boundaries of a city It started Europe, even in developing cities, where increasing affluence has allowed urban residents to relocate
The diferences in heat island efect
• The contrast between urban and rural areas is greatest under calm, high-pressure conditions (anticyclone) • Small scale variations within the urban heat island occur with the distribution of industries, open spaces, rivers, canals and so on. Wind velocities tend to eliminate heat island effect. The larger the city, the stronger the winds are necessary to dissipate heat island effect. Yet strong winds are hard to come by in the cities as tall buildings act as wind breaks. • Urban areas may also develop a pollution dome under which pollutants may be trapped. • Cooler air above the dome prevents the pollutants from dispersing. These pollutants may prevent some incoming radiation from passing through, thereby ↓ the impact of the heat island. • By night, the pollutants may prevent some long-wave radiation from escaping, thereby keeping urban areas warmer than surrounding rural areas.
Urban sprawl
• Urban sprawl - uncontrolled growth of urban areas at their edges, suggests that urban areas grow in an unchecked fashion. • Many of the world's largest cities, such as Tokyo, Seoul and Mexico City, have been characterized by urban sprawl. • The existence of green belts prevents urban sprawl because there are limits on how far the urban area can grow. Challenger for planners: • focused on revival the urban core • restriction new construction in surrounding areas • better usage of existing urban infrastructure
VISOKIE FAKTAI
↓ Wind speeds due to the height of buildings and urban surface roughness causes the ↓ of heat diffusion. Buildings may cause funnelling (canyon) effects; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_canyon • Urban pollution and photochemical smog trap outgoing radiant energy; • Changed composition of the atmosphere causes the blanketing effect of smog, smoke or haze; • Burning of fossil fuels for domestic and commercial use can exceed energy inputs from the sun. Level of heat, produced by human activity can be up to 50 % of incoming energy in winter; • Buildings have a higher capacity to retain and conduct heat (6x greater in comparison to agricultural land) and a lower albedo; • ↓ in thermal energy required for evaporation and evapotranspiration due to the surface character, rapid drainage and generally lower wind speeds.
Factors inflence the development of a crime hotspots (high rate of crime):
● the presence of crime targets ● site features e.g. easy access and lack of security (poor urban planning) ● higher number of offenders and suficient incentive and ability to commit crime ● a high level of residential land use ● a lack of health centres, schools and recreational areas ● lack of a police station
