geo2200 final exam terms
When/where were some of the more recent deadly earthquakes?
- Port-au-Prince, Haiti (2010) - Sumatra, Indonesia (2004) - Eastern Sichuan, China (2008) - Pakistan (2005)
types of surface waves
- Rayleigh Waves (R-waves) - Love waves (L-waves)
What types of warnings are issued with respect to fires?
- Red Flag - Fire Watch
What types of landslides occur within the Slide category?
- Rotational Slump - Translational Slide
2014 Oso Landslide
- SECOND WORST national disaster in Washington state history (1st worst was Mt. St. Helens in 1980) - March 22, 2014 - Oso, Washington - type: Earth flow (mudflow) - 43 deaths - declared a federal disaster on March 24, 2014
Subsidence landslide examples
- SINKHOLES (collapse of underground chambers [Karst]) - natural compaction - drainage of organic soils - extraction/mining of underground material (e.g. water, oil, coal)
Creep landslide
- SLOW process of mass movement - observable mainly through impact on vegetation and structures
What happens as a tsunami approaches the shore?
- SPEED SLOWS DOWN - wave length DECREASES - wave height INCREASES (30 m)
2017 Central Mexico earthquake
- September 2017 - magnitude: 7.1 - epicenter: 34 miles south of Puebla - ~370 deaths - lead time: 20 seconds advance warning was given in Mexico City
What are some of the most destructive earthquakes?
- Shansi (China, 1556) - Kobe (Japan, 1995) - Tohuku (Japan, 2011)
Land Subsidence landslide
- VERTICAL GRAVITY movement - unrelated to slope - ground loses load bearing capacity (compression and lateral flow from too heavy of a load)
What other organizations assisted in recovery from 2014 Oso Landslide?
- Washington State Dept. of Natural Resources - Washington State Emergency Management Division - Washington State Dept. of Transportation ^primary state staff at site to help assess flood hazard and evaluate how river may rework landslide and debris dam - many other organizations are playing a supportive role and providing all hands on deck to assist
force
- a push or a pull expressed as amount of acceleration experienced by mass
What sources are used to monitor and update firefighters about forest fires?
- satellites - aircrafts - unmanned drones - weather stations
Rotational Slump landslide
- sliding along a curved surface - rotational movement creates a "scarp" - slower onset speed - usually moist material
Solifluction landslide
- special form of creep - occurs in tundra regions
What can tsunamis also be caused by?
- submarine volcano - submarine landslide - debris falling into water - extraterrestrial impact
What is the inundation area?
- the extent the tsunami wave pushes inland - horizontal distance a tsunami reaches landward from shoreline
Where on Earth is the thickest crust?
- thicker on continents than at the oceans. - thickest at mountain chains, specifically along west coasts of North America (Rocky Mountains) and South America (Andes), and in northern India and southern China (Himalaya).
What are other mitigations for earthquakes?
- tie superstructure to foundation - move building atop foundation
Crown Fires
- travel from tree top to tree top - dominated by flames - move rapidly - most dangerous type and most difficult to control (because they can surge, which means move at an unsteady rate) - intensity enables fire to produce its own wind gusts - types: • passive • active • Firestorm
What are surface waves?
- travel on Earth's surface - VERY DESTRUCTIVE
Firestorm
- type of crown fire - a mass fire AKA running crown fire, area fire, conflagration - characterized by destructively violent surface in-drafts near and beyond their perimeter
Causes for high property loss from 2011 Bastrop County Complex Fire
- unique climatological setup • gusty winds from outflow of Tropical Storm Lee • prolonged exceptional drought conditions in Southern U.S. - urban sprawl pushing into wildfire danger zones • Texas population increases by ~2 million residents every 5 years
Classic Interface
- urban or relatively high density - wildland vegetation on edge of urbanized developed area - satellite: a bunch of houses all together surrounded by a bunch of trees
Category 2 Hurricane
155-178 mph
Category 3 Hurricane
179-210 mph
Upper mantle
1800 degrees kelvin silicon and magnesium (Sima)
With the Moon in this position, which area or areas will experience high tide? Pick the most correct answer.
2 and 4
Sri Lanka, Thailand, and India run-up heights
2 m
On this map of southeastern Asia and adjacent areas, which site would have earthquakes along a continental collision?
2, in Tibet
What variables are used to understand the relationship?
20 variables based on assumptions about people and meteorological conditions
Category 4 Hurricane
211-250 mph
True
250 million years ago, the Atlantic Ocean did not even exist yet, because all of the Earth's continents were, at that time, assembled into one large landmass (the super-continent called Pangea).
It takes ___ days for the moon to orbit the Earth
29.5
In the diagram below, which layer(s) correspond to the mantle?
3 and 4
On this map of southeastern Asia and adjacent areas, which site would have earthquakes along a subduction zone?
3 and 4
Ozone consists of _______ molecules of oxygen, is found primarily in the ______ and protects us from ______.
3, stratosphere; ultraviolet rays
Tropical Storm
39-74 mph
How many different types of drought can be classified?
4
How old do we believe the Earth to be?
4.54 billions years old
What is the scientifically accepted age of the Earth?
4.6 billion years old
How many categories are included as part of the U.S. Drought Monitor map?
5
Moon is tilted ___ degrees on a plane, for half its cycle it is below the plane and the other half is spent above the plane
5 degrees
Outer core
5100km 5200 degrees kelvin iron/nickel
Inner Core
5500 degrees kelvin iron/nickel
What is the zenith angle at noon in Gainesville (rounded to 30°N) on the northern hemisphere summer solstice?
6.5°
The average residence time for water vapor in the atmosphere is which of the following?
7 days ~ one week
Lower mantle
700km 3600 degrees kelvin silicon and magnesium (Sima)
What percentage of earthquakes occurs along the Pacific "Ring of Fire"?
80%
Ice is ____of the density of water
90%
Tropical Depression
< 39 mph
Number of active volcanoes
<600
What does the numeric value system of the PDSI represent?
<=-4: Extreme Drought -3.00 to -3.99 : Severe Drought -2.00 to -2.99 : Moderate Drought -1.99 to 1.99: Normal Conditions +2.00 to 2.99: Moderately Moist +3.00 to 3.99: Very Moist >=+4.00: Extremely Moist
Category 5 Hurricane
> 250 mph
Need for international aid as a result of Sahel late 60s-early 80s droughts?
>750,000 totally dependent on food aid
Arctic/Antarctic Air Mass Label
A very cold, dry
westward moving winds weaken causing the mound of warm water in the western Pacific to move eastward.
A Kelvin wave develops when:
What holds the atmosphere together?
A balance of buoyancy and gravity
What is drought?
A deficiency in precipitation over an extended period of time.
What is the difference between a joint and a fault?
A fault displaces the rocks on one side relative to another.
How do you measure Volumes of Water?
Acre-foot: amount of water to cover one acre (nearly a football field) to a depth of 1 foot
How can Rossby waves cause low pressure?
Air is moving out of the trough and into another ridge and it speeds up and this causes low pressure at surface which causes air to rise
What causes air to move?
Air pressure and density of air
When/where was largest earthquake in U.S.?
Alaska; March 8, 1964
Factors that affect the appearance of a shoreline include
All of these
In 1999, heavy rains caused debris floods and flash floods that raced through the coastal cities. What should have warned the people of coastal northern Venezuela that they were in a hazardous zone?
All of these
Which, if any, of the following is probably NOT important in assessing an area's potential for slope failure?
All of these are important.
Some rocks and minerals are not stable at the surface because they
All of these.
What do the two stars near the center of this block represent?
All of these.
Which of the following can influence whether a coast gains or loses sand with time?
All of these.
Which of the following is a way that slopes fail?
All of these.
Water originates from another region, then flows over the the landscape... this generated what type of karst?
Allogenic Karst
Saltwater intrusion
Along coast, freshwater floats on salt water so draws in saltwater o Under ocean floor is salty water and had a boundary with the fresh water underneath land o Well are over pumped fresh and salt water boundary moves upwell near the coast will bring in salt water areas can drop tens of meters
polarity
An important property of water is its ability to act as a good solvent. This could best be explained by water's
What name is given to the layer of rock just below the crust which we believe to be partially melted and behave like a very viscous (sticky) liquid?
Asthenosphere
Where is air pressure the highest in the atmosphere?
At the bottom
Where is the Coriolis Effect strongest?
At the poles
D; 4°C
At what point on the graph does the density of water begin to decrease? ______ The temperature at this point is _______°C.
B
At what point on this water vapor saturation curve graph will water vapor be deposited on ice crystals while liquid water droplets will evaporate?
Haboob
Australia and Africa, not rotating, strong winds with dust (dust storm)
Water originates from precipitation directly over the landscape....this generates what type of karst?
Autogenic Karst
What scale is used to advise people about landslides?
Avalanche Danger Scale 1. Low 2. Moderate 3. Considerable 4. High 5. Extreme
Which of the water columns would experience the greatest temperature differences with depth?
B
Which of the water columns would experience the greatest temperature differences with depth?
B (calm)
Which of the following terms describes soil water in moderate quantities (moist) which is fairly strongly attracted to soil particles?
Capillary Rise
What kind of tectonic plate boundaries surround the Juan de Fuca plate?
Cascadia Subduction zone, San Andreas Fault, divergent on western boundary
What is a Heat Watch?
Conditions are favorable for heat to meet or exceed local warning criteria in next 12-24 hours
Different drought stages of U.S. Drought Monitor map?
D0: Abnormally Dry D1: Moderate Drought D2: Severe Drought D3: Extreme Drought D4: Exceptional Drought
Because of this physical property, oceanic lithosphere at a subduction zone is forced beneath continental lithosphere.
DENSITY
How can rainwater become acidic?
Dilute Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) Increase the quantity of CO2 in the atmosphere=acid rain
True/False: 5) Capillary water may decrease the friction coefficient, decreasing downlope forces and stabilizing the slope.
False
True/False: Hygroscopic water may add buoyancy to the soils, increasing the resistance and stabilizing the slope.
False
T/F: Most mountains on the seafloor reach or surpass sea level.
False - Most mountains on the sear floor do not make it past sea level
T/F: Transform faults are perpendicular to the direction in which two plates are spreading apart.
False - Transform faults ARE NOT perpendicular to the direction in which two plates are spreading apart.
Alfred Wegener
German geologist and meteorologist who proposed ideas of - continental drift in 1915 - Pangaea: large land mass that existed during Triassic Period (~225 million years ago)
Alfred Wagner
German physical geographer, first proposed continental drift in 1800s, evidence found in rocks and fossils, couldn't prove how/why continents move
B
Given the prevailing wind direction indicated by the arrow, where would you expect air to be cooling at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate?
D
Given the prevailing wind direction indicated by the arrow, where would you expect temperatures to be warmest and the humidity lowest?
Locations affected by 2007 Drought
Great Plains and Eastern U.S.
north; north
In the Northern Hemisphere cold currents tend to flow from the ____________. In the Southern Hemisphere warm currents tend to flow from the ________________:
3 and 4
In the diagram below, which layer(s) correspond to the mantle?
What other variables can contribute with a landslide?
Landslides occur when the driving force overtakes the resistive force on a slope. This can be caused by: - earthquakes - heavy precipitation - volcanic eruptions - loss of vegetation
Force > Resistance =
MOVEMENT
Who came up wit theory of the gravitaional pull of earth = tides?
Newton!
What are the main gases in the atmosphere?
Nitrogen and Oxygen
Is the solar constant the true amount of energy that every part of the earth gets?
No because... o Energy must spread over earth's spherical surface and atmosphere 🌍 o Energy intercepted is spread out bc earth is sphere o Divided bc 4 bc of the sphere shape o Scientists use 345 watts/sq m as the average insolation at the top of the atmosphere
Are Perihelion and Aphelion what cause seasons?
No!!!
What are the main resistances?
Normal Stress Friction Cohesion
What index is commonly used to measure and monitor the health of vegetation?
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Where was the largest U.S. volcanic eruption?
Novarupta (Katmai), AK
Because of very high values of this physical property, the inner core is solid.
PRESSURE
Which ocean seems to have more seafloor spreading?
Pacific Ocean
the warm air over the land rises, creating low pressure. Cool air over water sinks, creating high pressure. This creates an onshore breeze.
To create a sea breeze
Why do meteorologists look at dew point?
To see if there will be condensation and precipitation
What are layers of vegetation that water can get caught up in?
Top: Tree Canopy Middle: Shrubs & bushes Bottom: Grass
What are the two types of waves?
Translatory and oscillatory
What atmospheric layer is the home of weather, has the greatest density of gas molecules, and has a decrease in temperature with height?
Troposphere
What is the sphere where climate and weather occur?
Troposphere
Layers of the Atmosphere from bottom to top
Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere
True/False: 3) Free/gravitational water may decrease the cohesion and add weight to the slope, increasing the downslope forces and destabilizing the slope.
True
True/False: 4) Erosion by runnning water may undercut the mass, which would increase the slope, increasing the downslope forces and destabilizing the slope.
True
True/False: Capillary water may increase cohesion in the mass, increasing the resistance and stabilizing a slope.
True
True/False: Most of the rain/precipitation that occurs on Earth falls into the oceans.
True
True/False: Rainwater is naturally slightly acidic from the water dissolving the carbon dioxide in the atmostphere, and rain can become more acidic by an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide (e.g. human activities).
True
True/False: Since the water cycle is balanced, the average annual precipitation worldwide must equal the quantity of water evaporated.
True
T/F: Plate boundaries have tectonic activity because plates are moving relative to one another.
True - That is the whole point of tectonic activity!
Divergent Plate Boundry
Two plates spreading away from each other
syncline
U or V shape, hinge at bottom
What fire danger rating system is used within the WFAS?
U.S. Fire Danger Rating System
What cause changes in adiabatic temperatures on mountains?
UP: air rises at SLR over the mountain, it cools as it rises bc less pressure, as it cools it can reach saturation, form clouds then condensation occurs DOWN: condensation releases latent heat and becomes unsaturated as it moves down the mountain it warms at ULR
How are identified earthquake-prone areas used by planners and developers?
Uniform Building Code Zones
Convergent Plate Boundry
When two plate come together, colliding, many times creating an earthquake, tsunami, and volcano
just south-west of A
Which area(s) on this world map is likely to have volcanoes above sea level?
Coriolis deflection causes warmer surface waters to deflect to the northwest causing deeper, cooler waters to replace the dispersing surface water.
Which gives rise to equatorial upwelling?
A pyroclastic flow forms when the gas flux cannot support the column.
Which of the following are differences between an eruption column and pyroclastic flow?
Viscous magma prevents gas from escaping easily.
Which of the following are ways that viscosity affects gases in magma?
Cold dense air sinks at the poles, flows outward away from poles, and rises between 60 and 45 degrees latitude.
Which of the following best describes air circulation at high latitudes?
uplift due to mantle upwelling, then continental rifting, then seafloor spreading
Which of the following best represents the sequence by which a continent splits apart?
thick, well-developed soil
Which of the following is NOT evidence of recent activity at a volcano?
Tethys
Which of the following is NOT the name of a supercontinent?
Tectonics is an internal process and erosion is an external process.
Which of the following is true about internal and external processes?
reconstructions of seafloor spreading, rock types/structures, and magnetism stored in rocks.
Which of the following is used to match continents or track positions of the continents in the past?
D
Which of the following locations would be characterized by drier and warmer conditions during a La Niña?
A and B
Which of the following sites would most likely have composite volcanoes? A is on an island arc, B is in the Andes, C is near Hawaii, D is along a mid-ocean ridge.
as one moves up in the atmosphere, pressure decreases, as one moves closer to the earth's surface, pressure increases
Which of the following statements is true regarding the relationship between air pressure and altitude?
Earthquakes are more widespread than volcanoes or high mountains.
Which of the following statements is true?
1, 2, and 3
Which of the layers in the diagram below are solid or mostly solid?
atmospheric motion
Which phenomena involves the most equations in weather forecasting models?
What was an indirect hazard of the 2016 Southern Drought?
Wildfires (in AL, GA, and TN) • mitigation: backfires
Definition: The characteristic that tells how much ocean does wind have to transmit its energy over?
Wind Fetch
What 3 factors cause energy to change?
Wind Speed, Wind Fetch & Duration
increase; decrease
With height, wind speed in the atmosphere would _______________. With depth, the effect of wind on the water column would ________.
Is the Coriolis effect a geographical variable?
Yes
How do we define a wildfire?
a *combustion* marked by flames or intense heat, in natural settings, often ignited by lightning or human activities
Pahoehoe lava
a basaltic lava that develops a skin as it flows - hardens with a smooth, billowy, or ropy structure
Pillow lava
a basaltic lava that emerges from a sub-marine vent - hardens with a pillow-like appearance
A'a' lava
a basaltic lava that hardens with a rough and sharp texture
crater
a circular surface depression that usually forms at summit of volcano
What is a landslide?
a downslope movement of land and material under gravity
Where do volcanoes occur?
a function of plate tectonics which are dominant at: 1. Subduction zones (Mt. St. Helens) 2. Sea-floor spreading locations (mid-ocean ridges) 3. Hot spots (Yellowstone Park, Hawaii)
Wells
a hole drilled from the surface downward past the water table
How are tornadoes formed?
a horizontal vortex forms at the surface, wind speeds are high higher up bc of friction causes air to roll and updraft from super-cell storms pull it vertical
How were the Hawaiian Islands formed?
a hot spot occurring in the middle of the Pacific Plate.
Caldera volcano
a large depression that forms collapsed land usually after a volcano erupts - often circular or elliptical
Calories
a measure of energy to increase the temp of 1g of liquid water by 1 degree Celcius
Conflagration
a popular term for a large, fast-moving wildfire exhibiting many or all of the features associated with extreme fire behavior
What is a tsunami?
a series of waves resulting from the displacement of water - Japanese term for "Harbor Wave" - usually caused by submarine earthquakes
Effusive volcanic eruption
an eruption with lava pouring onto the ground
What is a heat wave?
an extended period of *above normal* temperatures
What is intensity?
an index of shaking that is caused by the earthquake - varies by location and is largely dependent on soil and rock conditions (i.e. their ability to propagate waves)
The feature pictured below formed as
an island flanked by coral sank
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
analyzing spatial data brought in by layers and make maps Ex. Used for business site selection
Zenith Angle
angle made by drawing a line from the observer to the sun and the other line directly above observer's head
Plinian volcanic eruption
another explosive event that forms huge, dark columns of tephra and gas high into the stratosphere (>11 km)
Biscayne Aquifer
aquifer close to the surface in south FL o Draining the everglades reduced ground water table (made it lower) o Not as much freshwater to push back against salt water inland movement of the saltwater and freshwater interface (salt water intrusion) sea level rise will make this worse
Anticyclones
areas of high pressure with circulating winds o Sinking air o Sunny clear skies o Can trap moisture and pollution near ground fog or smog o High pressure is cause by having a cooler surface or below the trough of a Rossby wave
Aside from limestone, which other kinds of environments produce karst terrain?
areas underlain by salt or evaporate rocks, but not sandstone
How does increased atmospheric CO2 levels affect the pH-value of rain?
as CO2 levels increase, the amount of dissolved CO2 also increases, and the equation will be carried out from left to right. This increases H2CO3, which decreases pH. (more acidic)
How is soil grain sizes and rates of infiltration related?
as grain size increases, the infiltration rate increases
Which of the following is true regarding the relationship between molecular motion, wavelength, and temperature?
as temperature increases, molecular motion increases, wavelength decreases
Pressure
as we move inward more pressure on those areas from the layers above it, pressure makes it harder to change states
risk
assessment of whether the hazard may have some societal impact such as casualties, economic loss or damages
mantle convection
asthenosphere flowing, convection internal mixing, so hot material rises at mid ocean ridge and cools at surface and sinks back down into the asthenosphere as a subduction
Mantle upwelling
asthenosphere moves upward into the lithosphere and causes regional uplift, hot spots
The easily deformed or partially molten part of the mantle, below the lithosphere, is the _____________. Convectional flow throughout Earth's mantle results in _____________.
asthenosphere | plate movement
epicenter
at the surface above the hypocenter
Where is the smallest amount of water stored in earth?
atmosphere
clastic material smashing into one another creating more particulates
attrition
What is the importance of the Floridian aquifer for floridians?
availability of usable water, shallower, bigger, easier to tap
dynamism
average length of time that a drop of water remains in that store = the average residence time
Average residence time EQUATION
avg. residence time = volume of store / average flux
Shield volcano
broad gentle slopes, can be small or big, contain a crater and fissures along the summit, consist mostly of lava flows of basalt with smaller amounts of cinder and ash
Cumulus stage
build of heating over land causes an updraft producing a cloud this is when rain begins
How does the inner core of earth transfer energy?
by conduction (means of touching)
Cold Front
cold air moves and displaces warmer, moist air cold air lifts warm air forming cumuliform clouds leads to condensation and precipitation blue triangles w/ arrows pointing in direction of movement
3 weather systems that produce tornadoes
cold fronts tropical cyclones (weaker) single-cell thunderstorms
Air in the High Latitudes
cold temps=high pressure cold dense air sinks near the North Pole and flows outward subpolar lows polar cell polar easterlies
Cold Sector
coldest air, behind cold front
Where did most of earth's water come from?
comets and icy objects that collided into earth as it was formed
Squall lines
common around cold fronts, linear feature of multiple storms, help generate new storms
The most dangerous type of volcano is a
composite volcano
What is the most explosive volcano?
composite volcano
3 types of stress
compression, tension, and shear
volcanic neck
conduit that is left after the volcano erodes away
Effects of Overpumping Groundwater
cone of depression land subsidence saltwater intrusion fissures for contaminants
An artisan well is also another way of saying, the aquifer is ______
confined
The boreal forest biome is known for its
coniferous trees
The significance of any great circle is that it always
connects two points on the surface of a sphere with the shortest distance.
The solar constant is
consistent amount of energy received at the top of the atmosphere.
Unsaturated Lapse Rate
constant 10 degrees C/km
what are the two types of crusts?
continental and oceanic
cooler gases ________ and become _________ dense
contract more
Hadley Cells
conveyer belt of air 30 degrees north and south of the equator
Heaves: Collapse Causes
cooling (contraction), drying (water dries and sheets), thawing (ice melts and occupies a smaller volume)
Of the following choices, the environment with the highest net primary productivity is the
coral reef.
joint
crack where rock is pulled apart, most common
What is a transform boundary?
cracking of crust to accommodate stresses or strains of earth
Oceanic fracture zones
cracks in the oceanic crust, perpendicular to mid ocean ridge cracks
Layers of the earth
crust upper mantle lower mantle outer core inner core
Tectonic terrane
crust with an exotic origin, addition of a piece of exotic crust to a continent, can be from another continent or from oceanic plateaus thicker than normal crust means it's less likely to be subducted
What is divergence (divergent plat boundary)?
crustal thinning and faulting, resulting in the plates breaking apart
Name the 3 stages of a single-cell thunderstorm
cumulus stage mature stage dissipating
What is humidity like over the ocean?
doesn't exactly follow latitude but is affected by major currents Ex. warm Gulf Stream towards Europe creates higher humidity Ex. Humboldt current is cold and goes along the west coast of South America so less humidity
Closed System
doesn't exchange matter or even energy w surroundings
highly viscous liquid...
doesn't flow easily
driving force
drives motion of plate movement
What is classical heatstroke?
exposure to prolonged periods (days to weeks) of heat stress (often elderly people) • loss of ability to sweat is more common in this type of heatstroke
air pressure
expression of force exerted on an area in a gas it's related to frequency of collisions of molecules
One of the main roles of plants in biogeochemical cycles is to
extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
One of the main roles of plants in biogeochemical cycles is to:
extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Jet Stream
fast moving air at the top of the troposphere with ridges and troughs
Tsunami warning
highest level, tsunami is imminent or underway
Continental platform
horizontal sedimentary rocks deposited on top of older lower rocks
residence time
how long water stays in a store
Lapse Rate
how much air cools as it rises adiabatically
Relative Humidity
how much water vapor relative to maximum capacity that the air could hold o Term used by forecasters on the radio o 50% = observed/maximum, if it increases 50% it would start to saturate
What does the heat index measure/describe?
humidity and temperature
Scoria cone/ Cinder cone
hundreds of meters high and small cone, basalt (can't see minerals)
Where is most of earth's freshwater?
ice caps & glaciers
low pressure over urban areas with polluted air flowing aloft and then the polluted air sinking over the surrounding countryside.
Urban areas heat up more rapidly than surrounding countryside. This can result in
What was a key point demonstrated by photographs in the textbook from before and after hurricanes?
Waves and storm surge caused erosion of beaches and destruction of houses.
Which of the following is true about how coasts are affected from the water side?
Waves can erode, deposit, or simply transport sediment.
What is the main reason why the oceans are salty?
Weathering of rocks releases chemical elements that make the oceans salty.
All of these. ( the location of the earthquake the star at depth is the place where the earthquake is generated the star at depth is the hypocenter the star on the surface is the epicenter)
What do the two stars near the center of this block represent?
A fault displaces the rocks on one side relative to another.
What is the difference between a joint and a fault?
slip along a subduction zone (megathrust)
What is the tectonic setting of the large 2011 Tohuku earthquake in Japan?
displacement
What type of deformation is shown in this photograph?
Ideal Gas Law
if we increase a variable on one side of the equation then one or both of the variable on the other side of the equation have to change in the same direction governs the movement of atmospheric circulation Pressure= constant x density x temperature P=Rpt
Indirect impacts of drought
impacts that result from secondary outcomes • In developed countries, droughts cause only indirect effects while in many developing countries, droughts also claim thousands of lives due to starvation and hunger.
Cool Sector
in front of warm fronts
Chemical Composition
in layers cause variation of melting points, more dense chemicals in inner earth
Convection cells
in mantle and outer core
Pyroclastic Eruptions
includes ash and rock and other materials
An object emits a range of electromagnetic energy wave lengths because
not all molecules vibrate at the same speed.
Gentle ELR
not much cooling of temperature w/ height
Pressure is proportional to the
number of collisions of the molecules
Continent-Continent Convergence
o AKA Continental Collision o Two continents collide o Similar, so they build up and stop the subduction zone and create a mountain o Wide zone of deformation o Ex. Mount Everest or Himalayas o Mountains still rise per year
Oceanic Divergent Boundaries
o AKA spreading centers o Includes mid ocean ridges (seafloor spreading) o Narrow rift where spread occurs o Mantle rises to surface when plates spread apart ( pressure so it flows like a liquid) and becomes part of oceanic lithosphere o Asthenosphere rises and melts o Most under ocean o Forms new oceanic crust
Differences in ozone levels in the Arctic and Antarctic
o Antarctic has less ozone bc it's surrounded by oceans w/ circumpolar winds that don't allow import of ozone o Arctic is surrounded by continents and the alternating pattern of winds there allow for exchanging of gases (particularly ozone)
Coriollis Effect
o Apparent deflection of objects moving across the surface of the earth from their intended path o This is an apparent force NOT a true o Caused by rotation of earth on its axis and latitude
caldera
o Basin shaped volcanic depression surrounded by high wall o Formation: felsic magma accumulates below the surface erupts pyroclastic flows and eruption columnsmost of it falls back into the calderaland slides subsides
stresses that form joints
o Burial and tectonic forces (push, pull, shear) most common o Cooling and contraction- as rocks cool they contract o Unloading joints- fractures are caused by decreased pressure on rock during uplift, form parallel to surface and slice off as sheets
Contaminated Water
o Can't always tell when water is contaminated o Contaminated water flows with the flow of groundwater and the slope of the water table
hypocenter
or focus, place where earthquake generates, usually 100km below surface
Crust
outermost zone 10-50km 1200 degrees kelvin 255 degrees kelvin silicon and aluminum (Sial) ex. Granite
All of the following is true in regard to the earth's radiation balance EXCEPT.
outgoing longwave radiation increases poleward in regular increments, peaking at the poles.
How can wind speeds differ within a hurricane?
outside winds can either speed up or slow down the rotating winds of the storm
Where does more evaporation and precipitation occur?
over oceans
Confined aquifer
overlain by less permeable materials, separated from the surface
Latitude
parallels Runs East to West stays the same distance apart angles measured up and down Equator
Pre-1988 Yellowstone Fire
park managers attempt to extinguish every fire
What time of the day are hailstorms most common?
past noon bc warming on land during the morning causes instability which leads to rising air, thunderstorms, and hail
2 things that affect groundwater flow
permeability hydrologic gradient
Pressure Gradient
physical quantity that describes which direction and at which rate pressure changes the most rapidly around a particular location
slab pull
piece of oceanic lithosphere more dense than hot asthenosphere so it is pulled down into it
In general earthquakes and volcanos occur near plate boundaries and this helped to develop....
plate tectonic theory
Convergent plate boundaries
plates may collide as: - continent to continent - oceanic to oceanic - continental to oceanic
Passive Sensor
points at area of interest and records the light heat or other energy (Ex. infrared for vegetation)
The Coriolis Effect deflects objects in the Northern Hemisphere to the _________ and objects in the Southern Hemisphere to the ___________
right left
oscillatory waves tend to form at ____angles to wind direction
right angles
Structure of a Super-Cell Thunderstorm
rising rotating air anvil shape points in the direction of motion heavy rainfall, hail, thunder and lightning
strike slip faults
rocks along a fault moving parallel, offsets laterally
fault
rocks have slipped past one another
Which of the following processes is primarily responsible for the sky's blue color?
scattering
Tsunami watch
second highest, potential tsunami producing seismic activity, without confirmation of actual destructive tsunami
What instrumentation is used to measure earthquakes?
seismograph - invented by Zhang Heng in 132 A.D.
Clay minerals occur in ____
sheets
What volcanoes form from multiple eruptions that leave layers?
shield and composite volcanoes
Monsoons
shifts in prevailing winds ex. West African Monsoon and SW US
surface waves
similar to s waves but on surface
Dissipating
sinking air and rainfall cools conditions and the storm ends
3 types of driving forces
slab pull ridge push mantle convection
Compared to a gentle slope, a steep slope will have a
slower rate of soil formation and less soil.
Agricultural drought
soil moisture insufficient for crops and pastures
Reflection
some light bounces off object, reflectiveness continuum some objects reflect better than others, & we see color bc of this
Location of Hurricanes
start in the tropics and move west bc of the trade winds and they turn as they enter the zone of westerlies no storms along the equator bc of the coriolis effect
Tsunami bulletin
statement of tsunami potential following seismic event; typically issued when no damaging tsunami is likely
ELR of warm water
steep ELR so unstable conditions this is because of steep difference between air being heated right above the water and cooler air higher up
friction of circular motion with the sea bed, slows lower water layers, causing wave front to___
steepen
What does instability lead to?
storms and severe weather
tension
stress is directed outwards and rock is pulled in opposite direction
shear
stress on edges of rocks pushing it in opposite directions
compression
stress pushes a rock in
Fuel load
the amount of potentially combustible material found in an area • units: tons per acre
When there is a new moon, the sun and moon's gravitational pull is in ____direction
the same
What energy source drives the hydrological cycle?
the solar energy balance
The angle of repose is
the steepest angle at which loose material remains stable.
What is geomorphology?
the study of the shape of earths surface
Kindling/autoignition temperature
the temperature at which materials ignite and burst into flames, which is influenced by density, moisture, exposed surface, and chemical composition of the material
The annual cycle of seasons is primarily caused by __________________.
the tilt of Earth's axis relative to its orbit around the Sun
If two places have the same latitude but different longitudes,
the two places are directly east or west of each other.
If two places have the same latitude but different longitudes,:
the two places are directly east or west of each other.
potential evaporation (PE)
theoretical amount of water that can be evapotranspired from a wet surface over a given time o affected by temp and latitude o also affected by humidity, wind speed, and insolation
Gondwana
theoretical combo of southern continents
The effects of global climate change are magnified in mountainside environments because
there are such narrow belts of different ecosystems that would shift abruptly.
The hypothesis of continental drift was not widely accepted because
there was no mechanism to move continents through the oceanic crust.
How does the human body regulate heat?
thermal homeostasis
What is the common name assigned to thermal homeostasis?
thermoregulation
Which of the following is NOT evidence of recent activity at a volcano?
thick, well-developed soil
Continental Crust
thicker than oceanic crust
Oceanic Crust
thinner and more dense bc salt, below sea level regions
Direct impacts of drought
those impacts that are a direct outcome of the drought itself
4 sources of energy on the coasts
tides waves surges tsunamis
Sources of energy on coasts?
tides, waves, surges and tsunamis
On equinox.
tilt is neither inclined toward or away from the sun
Temporal Scale
time period of climate change
What is the purpose of the United States Drought Monitor map?
to assess the current state of drought in the United States
residence time formula
total volume of store/ avg. flux leaving it
What are body waves?
travel through and within the Earth
Which geophysical features are associated with a convergent plate boundary?
trenches, mountain ranges, island arcs
In the map below, lavender represents
tundra.
What is convergence?
two plates forced together
Divergent boundary
two plates move apart, magma fills the space in between Ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge
Transform boundary
two plates move horizontally past one another
Convergent boundary
two plates move toward each other, one will be subducted under the other, mostly oceanic crust moving under continental crust Ex. West Coast of South America Oceanic Trench
Mid-Latitude Cyclone
type of systems around a low-pressure area
eruption column
volcanic ash and pumice are formed by magma blown apart by gases, fall back to earth as solidified rock and finer particles drift away
Continental hot spots
volcano active areas away from plate boundaries, have high elevation and rifts o Ex. Afar region in east African and Yellowstone National Park
What else can cause seismic waves?
volcanoes landslides mine blasts nuclear tests deep well injection/fracking
Warm Front
warm air moves into and displaces colder air warm air rides over cold air forming stratiform clouds and precipitation red semicircles pointing in direction of the movement
Warm Sector
warmest air, behind warm front
Red Flag
warning issued when conditions (temp., humidity, wind speed, moisture) are ideal for wildfire ignition and propagation and are expected to be met within next 24 hours
High and low tides are caused by
water being pulled by the gravity of the Moon.
global runoff
water flowing from continents into the ocean via rivers [7%]
groundwater recharge
water replenishes that water lost by wells and springs
Infiltration
water seeps into the ground, some will rise back up to surface, happens in lakes/streams
Socioeconomical drought
water shortages impact society (people, businesses, and activities that rely on precipitation)
Transpiration
water taken up by the roots of plants and through the leaves plants emit this water to evaporate
Surface Runoff
water that moves across surface from rainfall/snowmelt, joins streams, lakes, oceans, or seeps into ground
Saturated
water vapor begins to form droplets (condensation) or ice crystals (deposition- gas to solid)
Subduction zones
we get thicker crust from magma additions
Ferrel Cell
weak or total absence of a circulation cell in the mid latitudes
What are the main forces?
weight and slope [& velocity]
Where do the most earthquakes occur in the U.S.?
west coast
Central Belt Winds
westerlies (causes most of our weather fronts to move from east to west) move away from the subtropics and toward poles strong in the Southern Hemisphere because less mass therefore less friction
groundwater divide
when groundwater flows in different directions
What is erosion?
when rocks and sediments are picked up and moved to another place by ice, water, wind or gravity.
How does the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommend declaring a heat wave?
when the daily maximum temperatures exceeds the average maximum temperatures by nine degrees Fahrenheit and lasts for a period of at least five days
Continental Shelf
where continents stretch outward from the shoreline under shallow water for hundreds of km
Springs
where groundwater flows to the surface usually where water table intersects surface
conduits
where magma erupts from, works like a pipe, forms the volcanic neck,
Store
where water is being held, measured in km3
Prevailing Winds
which way the wind is coming from and going ex. westerly wind blows from the west to the east
Dust Devil (whirlwind)
wind and dust, rotates (dust storm)
what causes wave energy to change?
wind speed, wind fetch, duration wind blows in one direction
How are air masses labeled?
with a lower case letter to represent moisture and upper case letter to represent temperature
How does strength of rocks vary?
with depth bc of temp and pressure gradient
How much does a particular process complete it shaping the earth?
work completed = magnitude of process (how much material was moved) * frequency of process
Number of volcanic cones
~1300+ worldwide
How many of these earthquakes cause widespread damage?
~20
How many earthquakes occur worldwide each year?
~500,000
Number of volcanic eruptions each year
~60
Basic types of heatstroke
• "Classical heatstroke" • "Exertional heatstroke"
Impacts throughout California during 2015 Drought
• 100% of state in drought from January-April • 75% of state in severe or extreme drought • Warmer ocean temperatures caused less storms for California • Only 5% snowpack (lowest in decades) • Water shortages at all-time high (water limits set for everyone, including agricultural and recreational sectors; this created lack of food)
Direct Sahel Drought impacts
• 100,000-200,000 deaths • Loss of livestock
Impacted areas of 1988-89 Drought
• Approximately 36% of United States (West Coast, Great Plains) • Affected Canada as well
Earth's Four Spheres
• Atmosphere- nitrogen & oxygen • Biosphere- life and land • Hydrosphere- water in all forms • Lithosphere- solid part of the earth, crust & upper mantle
2003 European Heat Wave
• August 2003 (warmest August ever recorded in Northern Hemisphere) • Temps.: soared to 104° F • Deaths: ~35,000 • Cost: estimated €13 billion in losses
2016 Southern Drought
• August-December 2016 (still ongoing in some parts of southern U.S.) • People affected: 36.1 million • 46 counties in AL had to declare state of emergency • Streams were at record or near-record lows • Ponds dried up • Farmers had to use extra resources • Georgia and Alabama broke records with dry streaks
Basic components of heatstroke
• Body unable to prevent substantial rise in core temperature • Prolonged loss of consciousness associated with confusion, convulsions, and a fast heart rate • Condition is "life threatening"
Standard rain gauge
• Consists of a metal cylinder with a funnel on top. • Inside is a smaller cylinder that collects the rainfall.
Lessons learned from February 2009 Australian Bushfires
• Continued development in Wildland/Urban Interface contributes to increasing losses • Fuel and vegetation management essential at all levels • Fire policy not suited for every type of wildfire (e.g. fast moving) • More lead time needed when issuing wildfire warnings • Firefighting resources are limited and prioritization of response is necessary
Direct impact examples
• Crop losses • Decreased forest productivity • Higher mortality rates for livestock and wildlife
What impacts are commonly associated with droughts?
• Crop losses • Decreased forest productivity • Increased fire hazard • Damage to wildlife and fish habitats • Higher mortality rates for livestock and wildlife • Reduced agribusiness • Unemployment • Costs for relief programs • Burn bans & water use restrictions
Understand the facts and problems associated with heat waves.
• Deadliest form of weather • Excessive heat kills on average between 200 and 1,500 people per year in the United States alone. Problem: Mortality rates are highly variable since it is difficult to distinguish natural deaths from deaths that occurred due to heat exhaustion.
What major heat wave events are highlighted in this lecture?
• Detroit (July 1936) • Los Angeles (August-September 1955) • NYC (July 1972) • Chicago (July 1995) • Southern India (May-June 2003) • Europe (August 2003)
What types of tools are used to monitor drought?
• Drought Indices • Temperature and Precipitation Charts • Computer Models (e.g., soil moisture) • Stream Flow Data • Satellite Imagery
What other hazards can be attributed as a result of a drought?
• Dust Storms • Wildfires • Heat Waves
Understand how to read and interpret each map type (Temperature Outlook and Precipitation Outlook).
• EC = equal chances for A, N, B • A = above • N = normal • B = below
Generally speaking, the rate of solution ___________ as temperature increases. Therefore, chemical erosion will be most rapid and widespread in ____________ climates.
increases | warm, wet
As the zenith angle _____ the amount of energy reaching the surface _____.
increases, decreases
the density of water _______ as temperature_________
increases, decreases
As one approaches the equator, the angle of incidence ____ and the atmosphere attenuation ______.
increases; decreases
laccolith
injects as sill but inflates with gas forms a bulge
What two factors, both resulting from the earth's tilt, are most important in contributing to the seasons? Together, these two factors determine the total amount of solar radiation incident on the top of Earth's atmosphere. Please choose TWO correct answers.
length of day, sun angle
Moderate ELR
less cooling of temperature w/ height
decrease in insolation relationship with temperature, pressure, and density
less insolation causes a decrease in temp (kinetic energy) = decrease in volume= increase in pressure (bc more collisions) causes this more dense air to sink
Saturated adiabatic lapse rates
less than unsaturated plot lines and rate of change are less than ULR of 10 C/km plot lines are steeper on graph (longer)
Isobars
lines across a map that connect locations with equal air pressure
Which internal zone of the Earth is responsible for the generation of the Earth's magnetic field?
liquid metal outer core
viscosity
liquids resistance to flow
Geographic factors are important when considering environmental issues or when evaluating potential sites for a new agricultural area or business because
location and spatial distributions often affect environmental, social, or economic behavior.
Focus
location of quake
Counter-Radiation
longwave radiation that is emitted downwards and keeps earth at a suitable temperature
Cyclone
low pressure and inward deflection North Counterclockwise
storm surge
low pressure and wind form mound of water that is pushed on shore, worse with high tide, floods areas
magic magma
low silica, no chains, formed by basalt (gabbro) darker color rocks
Polar Region Winds
low solar heating causes high pressure and it moves away from the poles with cold air called polar easterlies
Creep/Heave has___magnitude and ___frequency
low, high
____________ pressure = stronger storm
lower
Western U.S. has a ________ dew point and it is _____ ________
lower not humid
Land heats and cools more rapidly than the ocean because of its
lower specific heat when compared to the ocean.
Maritime Polar
mP cool, moist
Maritime Tropical
mT warm, moist
Volcanic dome
made of solidified lava, magma can't flow, piles up wothon the vent, dome can form within any crater
basaltic magma
mafic-low silica, low viscosity
Seamonts
mountains on the seafloor, don't reach sea level, can form seamount chains or island chains o Ex. Hawaii Island chains
The Earth's magnetic field is generated by
movement of iron and electrical currents within Earth's outer core.
Flux
movement of water from one place to another, measured in volume per unit
Where do most mountains occur?
near convergent plate boundaries
Adiabatic
no energy exchange with surroundings, internal bubble of air w/ no mixing
Heaves
non-cancelling vertical movements: uplift (perpendicular to slope), collapse (vertically under the influence of gravity)=Resultant Vector (downslope movement)
At night how much insolation does a place get?
none
Economic and social effects of Dust Bowl
• Exodus from TX, OK, and Great Plains to California • Agricultural losses contributed to Great Depression • Lead to unprecedented government relief efforts • Estimated losses: > $1 billion (today ~$15 billion)
Contributing factors to late 60s-early 80s Sahel droughts
• Global dimming, warmer than average ocean temperatures • Climate (highly variable rainfall) • Land use (e.g. overgrazing, deforestation) • Economy (subsistence farming)
Standard snow gauge
• Has a trumpeted end to account for wind effects on blowing snow • Snow is melted and precipitation is measured as a water equivalent
Know the different types of advisory products that can be issued from heat.
• Heat Warning • Heat Advisory • Heat Watch
wavelength
distance between adjacent troughs or peaks
shelf cloud
distinctive clouds that form before a tornado
highly viscous volcanoes have _______________ eruptions
explosive
A diagram that shows the forces vs. resistances and how its relevant to movement
Hjustroms diagram
What is the main type of geophysical feature in the Yellowstone Area?
Hot Spot
What is the main type of geophysical feature in the Hawaii Area?
Hot spot
centimeters per year
How fast do plates move relative to one another?
What can cause a wildfire?
Human carelessness
A; C
In regard to the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is air mainly descending at ____, and rising at ___.
Where does most of the precipitation fall?
In regions of lower-level convergence
LITHOSPHERE
Rigid outermost layer of rocky planets (such as Earth); Includes the crust and upper mantle
What are the types of mass movement?
Slides, Flows, Heaves
Most impacted areas of 2016 Great Smoky Mountain Wildfires
- Pigeon Forge, TN - Gatlinburg, TN - Smoky Mountain National Park
negative wildfire impacts on human health
- increase of smoke-induced respiratory diseases - loss of human life
What are the natural causes of wildfire ignitions?
- Lightning strike (5-10% of all fires) - Volcanic eruption - Sparks from rockfalls - Spontaneous combustion
1991 Mt. Pinatubo volcano
- Luzon, Philippines (62 miles NW of Manila) - June 15, 1991 - STRATOVOLCANO - eruption: 10x larger than Mt. St. Helens - elevation change: lost 300 m
1988-89 Drought
*COSTLIEST DROUGHT IN U.S. HISTORY* • Cost: $40 billion ($78.5 billion in 2016 US Dollars) • Deaths: 5,000-10,000 heat-related (NOT direct consequence of drought conditions) • Associated hazards: numerous forest fires, several heat waves
Prince William Sound, Alaska Earthquake
- March 1964 - SECOND LARGEST worldwide - magnitude: 9.2 - 128 deaths - $311 million in damages
secondary waves
- s waves, shear rocks side to side or up and down, slower than p waves, can't travel through liquid
Cultural/economic effects of Sahel Droughts
- Nomadic herding in North - Some cultivation in South - Natural economic relationship
1989 World Series earthquake
- Oakland Athletics vs. San Fran. Giants - Game 3 - Candlestick Park - concrete fell from Upper Deck, power knocked out
Loma Prieta, CA Earthquake
- October 1989 - SECOND LARGEST earthquake along San Andreas fault - Magnitude: 6.9 - Intensity: IX - 62 deaths, 3,757 injuries - costed $6-7 billion - focus: 12 miles - epicenter: located in relatively sparse populated area
types of body waves
- P-waves: primary/compression waves - S-waves: secondary waves
Who led on the recovery from 2014 Oso Landslide?
Snohomish County was lead responding agency
1994 Northridge, CA Earthquake
- January 1994 - magnitude: 6.7 - intensity: IX - 60 deaths - >7,000 injuries - $30 billion in damages - >40,000 buildings damaged
February 2009 Australian Bushfires
"Black Saturday" (*Australia's Deadliest Wildfire*) - 173 deaths - >500 injuries - >1 million acres, 3,500 structures burned - area affected: State of Victoria (southeast) - >400 total fires - ideal conditions: • high winds • drought conditions • low humidity • record-breaking heat wave
N
"N" on the globe represents the northern hemisphere; "S" on the globe represents the southern hemisphere; ITC stands for the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Where will the ITC shift in July?
Albedo
% of insolation reflected from an object
In talking about clastic erosion, what is the dominant resistance(s) for (1) large particles and (2) small particles opposing the velocity of water (force)?
(1 Large) Mass (2 Small) Cohesion
What factors makes a slope at risk for failure?
(landslide) 1. change in groundwater pressure 2. loss of vertical vegetative structure 3. erosion 4. earthquakes 5. volcanic eruptions
Fire weather watch
(yellow) indicates that fire conditions are expected within 24-72 hours
Which of the layers in the diagram below are solid or mostly solid?
*All of them*
2003 Cedar Creek Wildfire
- *second* largest fire in California history (acreage burned) - destroyed 280,000 acres and 2,232 homes - 15 fatalities - cause: HUMAN -typical conditions for California: • Santa Ana winds • drought conditions • Chaparral biome
Lessons learned from 1991 Mt. Pinatubo volcano
- 1 million people evacuated - ~$500 million in damage - MOST SUCCESSFUL VOLCANIC HAZARDS MITIGATION IN HISTORY
1960 Chile tsunami
- 1,260 deaths - magnitude: 9.5
2005 La Conchita Landslide
- 10 fatalities - 14 injuries - 36 houses destroyed - assumed to be triggered by rising ground water and heavy rainfall in months prior
Major wildfires discussed in this lecture
- 1871 Great Peshtigo Fire - 1988 Yellowstone National Park Fire - 1991 Oakland Hills Fire - 2003 Cedar Wildfire - 2011 Bastrop County Complex Wildfire - 2009 Black Saturday Bushfire - 2016 Great Smoky Mountains Wildfires
1991 Oakland Firestorm
- 25 deaths, 150 injuries - destroyed 1,520 acres and > 3,500 homes - $3.9 billion in damages - source: grass fire in Berkeley Hills - example of Wildland-Urban-Interface problem
1896 Sanriku, Japan
- 28,000 deaths - magnitude: 7.6
1883 Krakatau, Indonesia
- 40,000 deaths - volcanic
1755 Lisbon, Portugal
- 60,000-100,000 deaths - MMXI
passive crown fires
- AKA dependent - rely on heat transfer from surface fire
active crown fires
- AKA independent - do not require any heat transfer from below - tend to occur with greater tree density and dryer conditions
San Francisco, CA Earthquake
- April 1906 - DEADLIEST EARTHQUAKE in U.S. history - magnitude: 7.8 - >3,000 deaths - $524 million in property loss - 28,000 buildings destroyed - 225,000 people homeless - vast majority of deaths and damage caused by ensuing fire - realization that intensity of shaking depends on soil type - largest earthquake to occur along San Andreas fault
What are the most common human causes of wildfire ignitions?
- Arson (up to 1/3 of all fires) - Discarded cigarettes - Sparks from equipment - Power lines
Why do wildfires occur in these particular regions?
- Available fuel load (e.g., type of vegetation, chemical makeup of vegetation, moisture of vegetation, amount of litter and debris) - Topography (e.g. slope, elevation) - Meteorological conditions (e.g., amount of rainfall, temperature and relative humidity, winds)
Extinction/Burnout Stage
- Burning of the fire (including smoldering) is stopped - Usually the result of a lack of fuel/heat to keep ignition process going
Fire Environment: what other natural variables can start a fire?
- Convection - Pyrocumulus clouds
What types of landslides occur within the Flow category?
- Debris flow - Earthflow - Creep - Solifluction - Avalanche
2004 Indonesian (AKA Indian Ocean) Tsunami
- December 26, 2004 - WORST TSUNAMI IN RECORDED HISTORY - epicenter: west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia - >230,000 deaths - magnitude: 9.1 - strong aftershocks, one measuring at a magnitude of 8.7 - no tsunami warning system existed prior to this - 11 countries reported fatalities - waves reported as high as 100 ft (30 m) - Indonesia run-up height: 3 m
How do scientists identify earthquake-prone areas?
- Fault zones - Areas subject to liquefaction - Geologic and geomorphic features that amplify effects - Historic landslide locations • Retrofitting of buildings (especially old brick buildings) • Insurance • Enforcement of strict building code
Types of combustion during Combustion/Burning Stage
- Flaming combustion (dominates during early stages of wildfire) - Glowing/smoldering combustion (decomposition through pyrolysis)
Basic wildfire vocabulary
- Fuel Load - Kindling (AKA Autoignition) Temperature - Pyrolysis - Conflagration
What factors/variables can influence wildfires?
- Fuel Load and Ecosystem - Topography - Weather
Combustion/Burning Stage
- Fuel along forest floor is ignited - Ignition can occur from lightning, volcanic activity, sparks from rock falls, or human negligence
What caused Oso Landslide?
- area is prone to landslide; this one occurred in an area of known landslide activity, but this time the slide was much larger, traveled much further, and had greater destructive force than previously experienced - ACTUAL CAUSE: precipitation in area in Feb. & March was 150-200% greater than long-term avg., likely contributing to landslide initiation. - seismograph readings show NO INDICATION that an earthquake triggered this landslide.
What are techniques used for mitigating buildings for earthquakes?
- build light, simple, and symmetric - lateral bracing - anchoring - retrofitting - maintenance
What is the Torres Mayor?
- building in Mexico City - tallest building in Latin America - completed in 2003 - 740 feet high, 55 stories tall - designed to withstand 8.5 magnitude earthquakes - shock-absorbing dampers
Earthquake origins: what are the sources of stress accumulation?
- continental drift and plate tectonics - post-glacial rebound in shields away from faults - heat flow from atmosphere - human-induced earthquakes associated with: • large reservoirs • underground explosions • large amounts of water released into abandoned mines
Earthquake impact
- damage to homes and infrastructure - fire - flooding - tsunamis - mass movement/landslides
1871 Great Peshtigo Wildfire (Wisconsin)
- deadliest conflagration in U.S. history -worst wildfire of all time ("The Forgotten Fire") - damage: • 1,200-2,400 fatalities • 17 towns incinerated • 1 million acres lost • $200 million (>$5 billion in 2009)
pyroclastic flow
- deadly, ash moves down the side of the volcano 200km/hr really hot
What are response problems?
- delayed response - resources directed to Chicago and not Peshtigo
1991 Oakland Firestorm operational problems
- dense black smoke made fire reconnaissance difficult - citizens wetting roofs, etc. led to water shortage and loss in water pressure - power failures prohibited refilling of tanks and reservoirs
Richter Scale
- developed by Charles Richter in 1935 - records amplitude of seismic waves - logarithmic scale - does not differentiate well among quakes of high intensity
What are Mid-Ocean Ridges?
- drive theory of seafloor spreading proposed by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz in early 1960s • result: continental movement
Tsunami mitigation
- early detection and warning systems (ex. DART) - education and outreach - structural controls - land-use practices - development of run-up maps
Traditional U.S. leaving policy when a wildfire is in the area
- evacuate -problems: • firefighting resources get quickly strained • low population areas not a priority
Divergent plate boundaries
- ex: mid-ocean ridges
San Andreas Fault
- example of strike-slip (transform) fault - great source of earthquakes in southern California
Surface Fires
- extend up into surface brush (bushes and grasses) - dominated by smoldering but with evident flames
How do we limit or slow down a forest fire?
- fast response time - lookout towers (fire triangulation) - smoke jumpers - aerial releases of fire retardant chemicals - fire breaks - fuel breaks - back fires
Community fire management
- fire fighting - coordination - debris thinning (prescribed burns)
To which other natural hazards are landslides linked?
- flooding - wildfire - drought - volcanoes - earthquakes - tsunami
What are the impacts associated with tsunamis?
- flooding (coastal erosion, shortening of coast) - fires - contaminated water supplies and disease - salt water intrusion - destruction of buildings - human casualties
Debris flow landslide
- flow containing large boulders and debris - slow to rapid movement of loose, unconsolidated material - caused primarily by heavy precipitation or snowmelt - debris avalanche (extremely rapid debris flow)
anticline
- formed in shape of an A, oldest rocks in center of the fold, hinge
Rock Fall landslide
- free fall of earth material usually off a free-face cliff - forms a talus slope at base - fast-moving - dry material
Impacts of 1991 Mt. Pinatubo volcano
- global cooling (~0.5° C) - ash deposits - crop losses - buildings collapsed - ~800 deaths
1980 Mt. St. Helens volcano
- had been dormant since 1857 - May 18, 1980 - produced one of the GREATEST LANDSLIDES in history - landslide surged at speeds up to 250 km/hr - STRATOVOLCANO - top was literally blown off of M.S.H.
Earth Flow landslide
- has distinct HOURGLASS shape - occurs from heavy precipitation - most common in fine-grained soils like clay - typical in arid/semiarid environments - high moisture content (up to 50%) - rapid movement on moderate to steep slopes
Communication and warning
- hazard mapping system fire and smoke product - Wildland Fire Assessment System
Lessons learned from 2003 Cedar Creek Wildfire
- highlighted lack of coordinated response, evacuation plans, and education - improvements needed in building and fire codes for developments in the Wildland/Urban Interface - need for aggressive vegetation and management program - community education - contingency planning for evacuations - improve emergency communication
Waterspout
- horizontal rolling picked up, weaker, forms over water
Monitoring and detection
- hotspot detection with remote sensing - remote automated weather stations
Moment-Magnitude Scale
- in use since 1993 - more accurate than Richter scale for large quakes
How can wildfires be beneficial to forest/wildlife areas?
- increase soil's nutrient content - reduce insect infestations on trees (e.g. Mountain Pine Beetle0 - reduce amount of fuel on surface (causes certain trees and plants to propagate through the releasing of seeds, e.g. Black Spruce)
What ways can we mitigate/reduce the likelihood of landslide?
- installing slope drains - grading a slope (material from slope top moved to slope base) - slope supports • securing hazardous rock units • infusing chemicals to consolidate material • building retaining and diversion walls - protective gallery tunnels - warning systems - eductation
What is the Wildland Fire Assess System?
- internet-based info. system - takes lightning ignition efficiency into consideration - Haines Index (potential for wildfire growth depending on atmospheric moisture content and stability, temp., dew point, etc.)
What are hazards associated with volcanoes?
- lava flows - debris avalanches - explosive blasts - noxious gas emissions - airborne ash - flooding
Mixed Interface
- less dense development scattered through wildland area (intermixed) - satellite: a few houses with a bunch of trees scattered throughout and around
Transform plate boundaries
- lithospheric plates move laterally and scrape alongside each other - NO convergence or divergence
negative wildfire impacts on economy
- loss in trade of forest products - loss of government revenue - cancellation of flights/ships - loss of income from tourism
negative wildfire impacts on land
- loss of agricultural/plantation crops - destruction of forest land - loss of grazing land - loss of soil properties
Oceanic crust
- made up of mostly basalt - contains high amounts of silica and magnesium (AKA SIMA) - ~3 miles thick on avg. - much NEWER than continental crust (~70-100 million years old) - has HIGHER DENSITY than continental crust (3.0 g/cm³)
Continental crust
- made up of mostly granite - contains high amounts of silica and aluminum (AKA SIAL) - upper level part of Earth's crust - ~19 miles thick on avg. - MUCH OLDER than oceanic crust (~3 billion years old) - LOWER DENSITY than oceanic crust (2.7 g/cm³)
Mitigation/Response to 2016 Great Smoky Mountain Wildfires
- mandatory evacuation - helicopters dumping water
Translational Slide landslide
- material moves along a slip plane (like the layers of caramel shortbread slipping over one another in the hot sun, in a translational landslide the mass moves along a roughly planar, flat surface with little rotation or backward tilting)
2011 Bastrop County Complex Fire
- most destructive wildfire in Texas history - Labor Day weekend (Sept. 4-Oct. 10, 2011) - cause: *electrical spark* - 1,645 homes destroyed - 34,000 acres burned - ~>$100 million damage - part of worst wildfire season in Texas history • between Nov. 2010 and Oct. 27, 2011, 27,866 total fires occurred - nearly 4 million acres burned - 2,860 homes and 2,700 other structures destroyed - 4 fatalities (including 2 firefighters)
Ground Fires
- move along surface of ground - burn material at ground or along forest floor - typically not associated with flames (smoldering)
1996 Yosemite Rock Fall
- occurred in Yosemite National Park on July 10, 1996 - moved approx. 200 tons of rock - flattened 2,000 trees - 1 death - 14 injuries
primary waves
- p waves, compression rock in same direction
Occluded Interface
- patch of wildland vegetation surrounded by urban or high development environment - satellite: a bunch of houses with trees scattered throughout and around
negative wildfire impacts on air
- pollution due to haze/smog -loss of visibility - generation of greenhouse gas
negative wildfire impacts on water
- pollution of surface water - pollution of underground water
three most important wildfire weather variables
- precipitation - humidity - wind direction
Recovery from 2016 Great Smoky Mountain Wildfires
- precipitation - rebuilding - Tennessee Emergency Management Agency (TEMA)
Traditional Australian leaving policy when a wildfire is in the area
- prepare, defend, or leave early • adopted after 1983 Ash Wednesday wildfires • relies upon defensible space and trained homeowners with fire plan
Pyrocumulus clouds
- produced by fires themselves - results of intense heating of air at surface, which then rises into atmosphere
pyroclastics/tephra
- pulverized rocks and clastic materials of various sizes - usually made up of volcanic ash, obsidian, and pumice
How are landslides monitored?
- rain gauges - groundwater from pressure sensors - displacement sensors - ground vibration from geophones
negative wildfire impacts on biodiversity
- reduction of sunlight - loss of medicinal plants - loss of endangered species
Household fire management
- remove vegetation and debris from around home - remove wood piles, ladder fuels - flame resistant siding and shingles - correct chimney height
Post-1988 Yellowstone Fire
- research changed park management and provided opportunities for research that resulted in change in attitudes about fire • large fires common to National Park (every 250-400 years) • park species like Lodgepole Pine and Aspen adapted to fire • lightning causes avg. of 22 fires/year • suppressing fire reduces variety of plant and animal species
1988 Yellowstone Fire
- resulted from prolonged drought conditions - cause: natural lightning strike and human - largest fire-fighting effort in U.S. history - cost: $120 million - 25,000 people (including 9,000 firefighters) participated - damaged ~36% (800,000 acres) of the park - 3,000 mammals (mostly elk) perished
Impacts of 1980 Mt. St. Helens volcano
- volcanic explosivity index (VEI): 5 - fast eruption: people caught off guard - 57 deaths - destruction: • all buildings within vicinity of Spirit Lake buried by debris and ash • thousands of acres of forest destroyed • >185 miles of highways/roads destroyed - ecological damage: wildlife and fisheries suffered massive fatalities - total estimated damage: ~$1.1 billion
How do alert levels vary based on geography?
- volcanoes in different regions behave differently - people face various volcanic hazards depending on where they live - volcanoes are not all monitored with the same intensity
Physical causes of 2016 Great Smoky Mountain Wildfires
- weather - vegetation - topography - high winds
What conditions are favorable for wildfires (exacerbate local fire risk)?
- weather: widespread, prolonged drought - slash and burn (farming technique) - lumber industry - railroad construction
What weather variables influence wildfires?
- wildfire risks are HIGHEST when location suffers from drought conditions - fires burn better in LOW HUMIDITY conditions - wind direction
Convection
- wildfires produce tremendous amount of heat, which becomes less dense than air around it, so heat begins to rise - as heat rises, fire draws in air from all directions - this produces convective mechanism that allows fire to sustain itself
How do slope and elevation (topography) impact a wildfire?
- wildfires travel FASTER upslope than downslope - south-facing slopes are DRIER than north-facing slopes - higher elevations are generally DRIER - valley breeze: in mountainous areas, wind direction changes depending on radiation (i.e. winds circulate up canyons during daytime) - mountainous breeze: in mountainous areas, wind direction changes depending on radiation (i.e. winds circulate down canyons at night)
Where are thunderstorms more common?
-- on land -- on coastlines w/ warmer water and instability -- near mountains -- warmer areas like the tropics
Without greenhouse gases, earth's temperature would be
-18°C.
What types of ignition sources are responsible for wildfires?
-Natural - Human
2016 Great Smokey Mountains Wildfires
-Nov. 28-Dec. 9, 2016 - 14 deaths, 134 injuries - ~2,400 acres of properties damages -17,904 acres burned - cause: arson • area was in exceptional drought at start of fire • deadliest eastern U.S. wildfire since Great Fires of 1947
What are the conditions necessary for karst formation?
-limestone formation: must contain at least 80% of CaCO3 -rock structure: presence of joints, cracks, and pipes to allow water to flow and form substance drainage channels. -precipitation: source of acid solution to erode limestone -vegetation: it supplies organic acids that enhance solution process.
What are the types of karst landforms reviewed in class?
-sinkholes -stalactites and stalagmites columns -karst towers -caverns or caves
In the last 200 years, sea level has risen approximately
0.2 m
What is the approximate height at which waves break?
0.8*water depth
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the hydrograph curve after urbanization (compared to natural land cover)? Statements: 1) During non-storm time, there is more discharge in the river channel. 2) The discharge peak is higher after the rain storm. 3) There is a longer lag time (the time between normal baseflow and discharge peak) after the rain storm. 4) The flow decreases more sharply after the rain storm. 5) The total volume of runoff increases after the rain storm.
1) During non-storm time, there is more discharge in the river channel. 3) There is a longer lag time (the time between normal baseflow and discharge peak) after the rain storm.
Who is vulnerable during a heat wave?
1. Age • elderly • young children 2. Poverty 3. Urban Populations • low wind speeds • UHI effect 4. Being outdoors • workers • homeless 5. Physical characteristics • impairment • overweight • health history (e.g. stroke) 6. Lack of knowledge/experience
What meteorological variables impact or influence your body's temperature?
1. Air temperature 2. Humidity 3. Air motion 4. Solar radiant heat energy
During the northern hemisphere's summer, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the _____ Circle or _____ °N on at least one full day per year (hence the name "Land of the Midnight Sun").
1. Arctic 2. 66.5
Personal mitigation measures that can be taken to protect yourself and others during a heat wave
1. Avoid heat when possible - Stay indoors - Access air conditioned buildings and public spaces 2. Avoid strenuous activity/exercise during mid-day 3. Stay hydrated 4. Check on vulnerable populations 5. Know symptoms of heat exhaustion, etc.
What two control systems regulate your body's temperature?
1. Behavioral 2. Physiological
2 types of seismic waves
1. Body Waves 2. Surface Waves
Lessons learned from 2014 Oso Landslide
1. Building regulations - Temporary ban placed in the landslide zone of Oso until Washington legislator changes the zoning laws. 2. Buyouts - County officials submitted a request for federal money to help buy out private property in the slide area and preserve it as open space. - Buying of 135 private parcels in the slide zone 3. Improve hazard mapping and emergency response for the state - the state would pay for the mapping of more dangerous slopes using the aerial scanning technique known as LIDAR, which uses laser to pierce ground cover and show the underlying conditions with remarkable clarity.
Lessons learned from 2015 California Drought
1. California needs a more robust drought plan for extended droughts 2. Educate the public about the water crisis 3. Action Plan needs to be created for water crisis
Types of wildland/urban interfaces
1. Classic 2. Mixed 3. Occluded
Pre-disaster conditions of Sahel
1. Colonial independence after World War II 2.Better than average rainfall in mid-1960s 3. Overgrazing from increased livestock 4. Wells/water storage tanks allowed more livestock than land could support 5. Excessive deforestation 6. Population growth 7. Rainfall decline in 1968 (people braced for drought)
What are the tree types of convergence?
1. Continental vs. Oceanic 2. Oceanic vs. Oceanic 3. Continental vs. Continental
4 mechanisms for forcing air to rise
1. Convergence of low level air masses 2. Caused by piling up of air due to friction with land 3. Air is forced to rise over a mountain (orographic effect) 4. Daytime heating leading to wind convergence near mountain top
What are the 5 layers inside the Earth?
1. Crust 2. Upper Mantle 3. Mantle 4. Outer Core 5. Inner Core
4 things that can happen to insolation
1. Earth absorbs energy at short waves but re-emits it as longwave bc these objects are cooler 2. Molecules absorb energy which increases their temp and sensible heat which warms atmosphere 3. Also energy can be converted to latent heat when states of matter change 4. Materials absorb shortwave radiation and emit energy at longwave
What happens when an earthquake triggers a tsunami?
1. Earthquake occurs along the seafloor. 2. Shift in seafloor displaces ocean water. 3. Displacement causes a series of waves to propagate concentrically outwards from the epicenter. 4. Waves can travel up to 400 mph. 5. Waves are small until they reach the shore.
Lessons learned from 1906 San Francisco earthquake
1. Education and research on earthquakes 2. Researchers compiled a final report in 1908 ("Lawson Report") which is still used today 3. Theory of elastic rebound (introduced by Prof. H.F. Reid of Johns Hopkins University)
What are the different types of landslides?
1. Falls 2. Slides 3. Flows
What are the 5 key points of the National Fire Plan?
1. Firefighting: continue to fight fires and be adequately prepared for next year 2. Rehabilitation: restore landscapes and rebuilt communities 3. Hazardous fuel reduction: invest to reduce fire risk 4. Community assistance: work directly with communities to ensure adequate protection 5. Accountability: establish oversight, coordination, program development, be accountable, and monitor performance
Types of wildfires
1. Ground Fires 2. Surface Fires 3. Crown Fires
Lessons learned from 1989 World Series earthquake
1. Improvements in monitoring and automated network of instruments 2. Improvements in seismicity technology 3. Establishment of data archives - Northern California Earthquake Data Center 4. Improvements in earthquake readiness 5. Strengthening of infrastructure 6. Comprehensive research program sponsored by National Science Foundation (NEHRP) 7. Investment in earthquake mitigation pays off
Parallels between Chicago Heat Wave and Hurricane Katrina
1. Large proportion of highly vulnerable and low income residents 2. Failure of state and local governments to prepare and respond 3. Societal "disaster" conditions acknowledged in aftermath 4. Surrounding areas experienced similar physical phenomena, but were not as impacted
In what forms can an avalanche occur?
1. Loose snow (AKA powder) 2. Ground 3. Slab
Fire Danger Rating System
1. Low (L) (dark green): little danger of spotting. 2. Moderate (M) (light green or blue): short-distance spotting may occur, but is not persistent. Fire not likely to become serious, control is relatively easy. 3. High (H) (yellow): fires may become serious, control is difficult unless attacked successfully while small. 4. Very High (VH) (orange): spot fires are a constant danger. Fires burning in light fuel may quickly develop high intensity characteristics like long-distance spotting and fire whirlwinds when they burn into heavier fuels. 5. Extreme (E) (red): fires start quickly, spread furiously, and burn intensely.
What controls the level of shaking?
1. Magnitude - more energy released 2. Distance - shaking decays with distance 3. Local soils - amplifies shaking
Geography of drought-related deaths
1. Mexico, Central & South America, Southern Africa 2. Southern Africa and Southeastern Asia (India, China, Indonesia, etc.) 3. Central and Southern Africa
Lessons learned from Sahel droughts
1. Move away from monocropping to diversification 2. Use sustainable land use management practices (e.g. avoid deep ploughing, overgrazing) 3. International aid does not solve problems (only reacts) 4. Be proactive rather than reactive - Public awareness and education programs - Water conservation and land management programs - Cross-country/state water management programs - Disaster planning - Increase vegetation cover - Early warning systems and monitoring programs
Lessons learned from 2003 European Heat Wave
1. Need for heat health warning 2. Need for surge capacity of power grid 3. Importance of built environment and access to air-conditioned space (e.g. public transportation, public buildings) 4. Need for public education and awareness
Why such high mortality for 1995 Chicago Heat Wave?
1. No warnings until July 15 (near end of heat wave) Chicago also suffers from an everyday "emergency in slow motion" that its leaders refuse to acknowledge. ~ Interview with Eric Klinenberg 2. Urban setting contributes and aggravates problem 3. Power failures - Stressed power grid led to outages and therefore placed more people at risk 4. Opening of hydrants caused water pressure to drop 5. Lack of resources - Not enough ambulances, hospital beds 6. Lack of social networks
What stages does a wildfire go through during a normal cycle?
1. Pre-Ignition Stage 2. Combustion or Burning Stage 3. Extinction or Burn-Out Stage
Lessons learned from Dust Bowl
1. Reservoirs were built/enlarged and domestic water systems improved with public funds. 2. Farm policies were changed drastically. 3. New insurance and aid programs emerged. • 4. Some of the most sensitive agricultural lands were taken out of production. 5. Changed farming techniques which include: - Crop rotation - Contoured row crops - Terracing - Tillage practices
Why are droughts different from other natural hazards?
1. Slow rate of onset 2. Broad impacts 3. Expansive 4. Expensive but mostly indirect 5. Imprecise definition leads to underestimates of severity
Lessons learned from Prince William Sound earthquake
1. USGS began engineering geological studies of all Alaska's coastal communities 2. Importance of observing potential areas for future earthquakes in Alaska - Network of seismographs installed 3. Adoption of Uniform Building Code 4. Led to the formation of: - Alaska Division of Emergency Services (DES) - National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) (formally known as West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (1967))
Lessons learned from 1994 Northridge, CA Earthquake
1. Unknown thrust fault discovered 2. Epicenter was directly under a densely populated area of Los Angeles 3. Quick government response - Immediate start of debris removal - Incentive-based contracts led to quick clean up 4. Creation of California Earthquake Authority (CEA) - Insurance coverage
What forces influence/cause landslides?
1. a driving force (gravity) 2. a resistive force (friction)
Lessons learned from 2015 India Heat Wave
1.All states in India should have an action plan which would include heat wave advisories and warnings. 2. Advisories should come out before/during onset. 3. Outside workers should go inside before 11:00am on advisory days. 4. Late arrival of Indian Monsoon contributed to the heat wave duration.
How many of these earthquakes cause significant damage?
100-150
Category 1 Hurricane
119-154 mph
A population of cows is in steady state. The birth rate is 3 calves per year, the death rate is 3 cows per year, and the average residence time for cows on the farm is 4 years. How large is the herd?
12
denser air flows in to replace the rising air
A parcel of air at the surface is heated which expands the air and increases the parcel's volume. If the same number of air molecules occupy the greater volume, density decreases. The increase in volume results in lower pressure. What will happen to the air surrounding this parcel?
Which of the following are differences between an eruption column and pyroclastic flow?
A pyroclastic flow forms when the gas flux cannot support the column
clockwise; south and southeast.
A tropical cyclone in the southern hemisphere rotates __________ and has a storm track turning ____________
a path over warm water.
A tropical cyclone will be strengthened by
when it makes land fall.
A tropical cyclone will be weakened by
North Pole is over ocean, South Pole is over land.
A true difference between north and south polar areas is.
Understand what the values of the NDVI actually mean (i.e. health of vegetation).
A zero means no vegetation and close to +1 (0.8 - 0.9) indicates the highest possible density of green leaves.
Assume you are in the Northern hemisphere, and match the dates with the correct solar positions:
A)Winter solstice (B)Vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall) equinoxes (C)Summer
Stratovolcano volcano
AKA composite volcano; a conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash - characterized by steep profile, periodic explosive, and effusive eruptions
Strike-slip (transform) fault
AKA lateral or transcurrent fault -lateral movement
Normal fault
AKA normal dip-slip fault -landmasses are pulled apart
Reverse (thrust) fault
AKA reverse dip-slip or compressional fault -land masses are pushed together
What is the hydrological cycle?
AKA water cycle the constant exchange of water with the Earth's Hydrosphere (i.e., the part of the Earth that contains water)
Highly viscous layer of the upper mantle, over which the tectonic plates float or move; Displays mechanical properties that are neither entirely like a solid or a liquid, something more like a "slurpy."
ASTHENOSPHERE
In which regions/areas are landslides most likely to occur in the U.S.?
Appalachian and Rocky mountains, along west coast, and some parts of Alaska and Hawaii
On June 21st which location will be receiving 24 hrs of daylight?
Arctic Circle
During the northern hemisphere's summer, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the _________ Circle or ________ °N on at least one full day per year (hence the name "Land of the Midnight Sun").
Arctic, 66.5
What type of rock underlies most of the world's oceans?
Basalt
Why do hill slopes move at some points, but are stable at others?
Bc of forces and resistances!
Why do lapse rates differ for saturated air?
Because cooling causes condensation which releases latent heat that warms the air as it rises
DENSITY
Because of this physical property, oceanic lithosphere at a subduction zone is forced beneath continental lithosphere.
When comparing the northern and southern hemisphere, why are the peak maximum and minimum values of insolation at different times of the year? Specifically, why is the peak max of incoming solar radiation in June for the northern hemisphere, but in December for the southern hemisphere? Pick the best, most complete answer.
Because of variations in the incident angle of solar radiation and the length of day, due to the tilt of Earth's axis, the northern hemisphere receives more direct solar radiation and has longer daylight hours in June while the southern hemisphere receives less direct solar radiation and shorter daylight hours. The reverse is true in December.
PRESSURE
Because of very high values of this physical property, the inner core is solid.
Why does air move from high to low pressure?
Because the molecules at high pressure are packed close together and move towards low pressure where molecules are more spread apart
What is the only sphere that interacts with all the other spheres?
Biosphere
How do you determine stability of air masses?
By comparing ELR with ULR and SLR
How can the health of vegetation (i.e. Vegetation Index) tell us about drought?
By monitoring changes in this index, meaning the concentration of green leaf vegetation, scientists can track where plants are thriving or are under stress as, for example, during drought conditions due to the lack of water.
Which of the letters represents the summer solstice for the Northern Hemisphere?
C
Which of the letters represents the summer solstice for the Northern Hemisphere?
C (when just north america is illuminated)
Free/Gravitational Water
COMPLETELY SATURATED SOIL
This physical property distinguishes the crust, mantle, and core.
COMPOSITION
1983 Thistle Landslide
COSTLIEST U.S. LANDSLIDE - start: April 1983 - cause: record-breaking *rainfall* with deep winter *snow pack* and unseasonably *warm weather* led to slide -Dammed Spanish Fork River -Flooded Thistle
Least dense, mostly basalt, aluminum, and silicate rock; Solid and brittle (like an egg shell)
CRUST
Calcium Carbonate+Carbonic Acid=
Calcium Ions+ Hydrocarbonate Ions
The removal of earths materials at the molecular level
Chemical Erosion
What determines whether the part of earth is solid or liquid?
Chemical composition Temperature Pressure
When/where was largest earthquake in world?
Chile; May 22, 1960
Erosion by means of running water over the surface of broken pieces of earth
Clastic Erosion
Areas of Gainesville lying between about 100 and 150 feet above sea level are particularly rich in clay, which can pose a problem for the structural integrity of houses built in the area. Why?
Clays expand when wet and contract when dry
What is the number one factor in limiting a wildfire?
FAST RESPONSE
Lysimeter
Consists of a subterranean scale that sits under a block of land. The block of land is fitted over the scale with a similar soil profile, so that the top is flush with the ground surface. As water is put into the system, the block of land gets heavier and its change in weight is recorded. As water is evaporated and/or transpired out of the system, the block gets lighter and the change in weight is again recorded.
air moving from a large body of land to a large body of water.
Convergence resulting in rising atmospheric motion at the surface can occur in all of the following settings EXCEPT
What type of plate boundary is depicted on the western coast of South America?
Convergent
What is the main type of geophysical feature in the Bering Sea Area?
Convergent Plate Boundary
What is the Normal Stress equation?
Cos ( Slope )
Which location is found at the highest latitude? Base on the following climographs and insolation graphs. Letters represent a location where the climograph and insolation graph were recorded
D (insolation and temp are both low)
What is the main type of geophysical feature in the East African Rift?
Divergent boundary
New oceanic lithosphere forms at which type(s) of geophysical boundary?
Divergent plate boundary
Pump and Treat process
Drill wells to intercept plume, pump and treat water o To remediate contaminated water it is pumped from a well, treated, and pumped back into aquifer using a new well
B
During a La Niña phase, excess warm water accumulates in
Which of the following statements about the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon on the tides in the Earth's ocean waters is true?
During the course of about a month, the Sun and Moon both pull together and oppose one another on two occasions.
equator in the eastern Pacific
During the warm phase of ENSO, a belt of much warmer than normal water appears along the_____.
equator in the eastern Pacific, west of South America.
During the warm phase of ENSO, warmest waters are found along the
Equatorial
E very warm, moist
Conditionally Unstable
ELR is between ULR and SLR If air is saturated it will be warmer and rise If air is unsaturated it will be cooler and stop rising
Stable Conditions
ELR is gentle/moderate and greater than SLR this means the adiabatic air is cooler than the environment which means it is denser and it sinks
Unstable Conditions
ELR is steeper than ULR This means adiabatic air is warmer than the surrounding air and it will rise. This rising air will cause the growth of clouds, precipitation, and severe weather.
What is folding?
Earthquake release of accumulated stress/strain as BENDS
What is a fault?
Earthquake release of accumulated stress/strain as FRACTURES of rock formation
What direction (in relation to the continental South American plate) is the oceanic plate (Nazca plate) moving?
East
Geography of Wildfire Risks
Eastern U.S.
0° of latitude is found at the ______ and the 90° of latitude is found at the _____.
Equator; North Pole
What is the water cycle?
Evaporation Condensation Precipitation Sublimation infiltration groundwater flow transpiration surface runoff gains/losses
What evidence did Alfred Lothar Wegener originally use to support the concept of plate tectonics?
Fit of geologic materials between continents, Global distribution of plants and animals, Jig-saw puzzle fit of the continents
Which way does air move in the atmosphere?
From high to low pressure
What part of the storm is the most intense?
Front right quadrant
An location example of Allogenic Karst is.....
Gainesville
The most important greenhouse gas for retaining a variety of outgoing longwave radiation is
H2O
The most important greenhouse gas for retaining a variety of outgoing longwave radiation is
H2O.
wave height
H=0.8*depth
What is a Heat Advisory?
Hazardous conditions have begun, or will begin within 36 hours, and conditions may become life-threatening
What is a Heat Warning?
Heat values are forecasted to meet or exceed warning criteria for at least 2 days (Heat Index > 105° F)
Sinkholes can form during which times?
Heavy rains and droughts
What happens to SLR at high temperatures?
Higher temp stores more water vapor and rising air loses energy as it cool but when it condenses energy is released doesn't cool down as quickly! not as steep (when you move along x axis)
When a river is consistently changing: getting wider/narrower, speeding up/slowing down, and getting deeper or shallower
Hydraulic Geometry
Very dense and solid due to high pressure, mostly iron and nickel
INNER CORE
What shifts thunderstorm occurrence seasonally?
ITCZ because it's a belt of low pressure
less; be packed into a smaller volume
If a gas cools under constant pressure, the molecules within it have ______ kinetic energy (motions) and can therefore _______________.
30 km
If the Atlantic Ocean is widening at a rate of 3 cm per year, how far (in kilometers) will it spread in a million years? Remember to convert your answer from centimeters to kilometers (1 km = 1000 m and 1 m = 100 cm.) NOTE that this is a realistic spreading rate, something on the order of the rate that fingernails grow!
air is more tightly packed in high pressure zones and moves toward low pressure zones.
In accordance with the pressure gradient
Why is the water balance equation important to drought?
In order for us to fully understand what drought is, it is important that we have an understanding of the components that control it. By measuring the components of the water balance, we can estimate if a system is rich in water supply and vice versa.
ice formation in polar zones increases salinity and density
In regard to ocean salinity, temperature, and density:
increase in insolation relationship with temperature, pressure, and density
Insolation (from sun) causes increase in temp (kinetic energy) = increase in volume= decrease in pressure (bc less collision) causes this heated less dense air to rise
How does development of land affect ELR?
It increases heat in air close to the ground which causes a steeper (more unstable) ELR which can lead to severe weather
Is the hydrologic cycle closed?
It is mainly closed system (can gain with meteorites and lose when water vapor escapes the thermosphere)
How does insolation vary during the year due to the elliptical orbit of the earth?
It varies based on how close the earth is to the sun o Perihelion- earth is closet to sun during January o Aphelion- earth is furthest from the sun in July
What are the 4 Gaseous Giants?
Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune an Uranus
The only temperature scale that relates changes in internal energy to the absolute amount of heat gained or lost by a system is the
Kelvin scale.
Rigid outermost layer of rocky planets (such as Earth); Includes the crust and upper mantle
LITHOSPHERE
Explain the process of a sea breeze
Land heats up more than water causing low pressure The air over water is a hot so it's high pressure High to low pressure over ocean sea breeze
The bedrock in Florida is relatively young and developed in a range of ony a few thousand to a few million years ago. What types of rocks are these?
Limestone
Hydroscopic water
Little droplets of water attached/caught in between the material in the ground
Streamflow map (Be able to read and interpret a streamflow map and what the values actually mean with respect to drought.)
Low streamflow conditions are usually a sign that a location (or locations upstream of low flow locations) may be in a state of drought, more specifically, in a hydrological drought.
Factors contributing to 2003 European Heat Wave
Many Europeans do not have air conditioning in their homes and can only regulate room temperature by means of opening windows or using fans and mobile A/C units. Paris was in the bull's eye of this heat wave due to the heat island effect. Western and Central Europe especially experienced higher temps. than usual.
Where is the largest worldwide active volcano?
Mauna Loa, HI
Below, you are given the mean monthly temperatures for Memphis, San Francisco, Irkutsk (Russia) and Santos (Brazil). The annual ranges of temperature in Memphis and San Francisco are quite different (calculate them to see the magnitude). Which of the following BEST explains the difference in these ranges? You can refer to a map if you are unfamiliar where any of cities are located.
Memphis is located in the interior of the continent and therefore more influenced by the seasonal range in solar radiation, while San Francisco is located on the coast of an ocean and more modulated by ocean temperatures.
What are the 4 small rocky planets?
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
Longitude
Meridians Runs North to South gets closer toward the poles angles measured side to side Prime Meridian
Which of the following is true of meridians?
Meridians always follow great circles.
How does the amount of insolation change with latitude?
More direct sunlight at the equator o Direct sun = less interaction w/ atmosphere vs. Low sun (low angle of incidence) = more layers to pass through
What are the 4 internal forces that shape earth?
Mountain building, volcanoes, earthquakes, subduction
Where was the most destructive U.S. volcanic eruption?
Mt. St. Helens, WA
Equation used to express/calculate NDVI
NDVI = (NIR — VIS)/(NIR + VIS) range of values between -1 and +1
Trade Winds (central region)
NE deflected right and SE deflected left and they meet at the equator and form the intertropical convergent zone
Do we have a universal or operational way to define a heat wave?
NO
Is there insurance for landslides?
NO
Resistance > Force =
NO MOVEMENT ; STABLE
Very dense, mostly iron and nickel; Convection in this layer generates Earth's magnetic field.
OUTER CORE
Partial melting and the production of magma takes place at ________ .
Ocean-ocean convergent plate boundaries, Ocean-continent convergent plate boundaries, Divergent plate boundaries
Where do U.S. hurricanes form?
Off the coast of Africa where easterly waves have convergence and cloud cover to the east of the axis and divergence to the west
2, in Tibet
On this map of southeastern Asia and adjacent areas, which site would have earthquakes along a continental collision?
???
On this map of southeastern Asia and adjacent areas, which site would have earthquakes along a subduction zone?
Seafloor is added to both sides during seafloor spreading.
On this map of the south Atlantic, why is the mid-ocean ridge in the center of the ocean?
Blue lines with blue triangles
On weather maps, cold fronts are depicted by_____.
What are the relative movement directions of the plates in the East African Rift?
Ones moving West, the other is moving East - Divergent Plate Boundary
An location example of Autogenic Karst is ....
Orlando
Waves in deeper waters that make particles more up and down - there is merely a transfer of potential energy
Oscillatory Waves
Of all the special properties of water, the most important for landscape modification by chemical erosion is its _____.
Polarity, which allows the water molecule to become attracted to many other different types of molecules and to dissolve them.
Which variable(s) is/are considered to be input(s) in the water balance equation?
Precipitation (P)
Simplified water balance equation
Precipitation (P) - Evapotranspiration (E)
Water balance equation
Precipitation (P) = Runoff (Q) + Evapotranspiration (E) + Change in Storage (ΔS)
What important factors play a role with causing drought to occur?
Precipitation and Temperature • Changes in the general circulation over an area • Semi-permanent high pressure patterns
Why is drought so difficult to define? What other factors may control a drought?
Precipitation varies spatially as do many of the other factors that control drought: • Temperature • Evaporation • Soil type • Vegetation type • Percent vegetative cover • Antecedent soil moisture conditions
EMR Spectrum
Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Wavelength Visible Spectrum UV Rays X Rays Gamma Rays
Along with land subsidence, overpumping of groundwater can lead to:
Reduction in aquifer size & saltwater intrusion.
air pressure is high over oceans at 30° because descending air warms less over the cool oceans.
Regarding pressure, latitude, and water vs land.
What types of landslides occur within the Fall category?
Rock Fall
wind moving in OPPOSITION to fire
SLOWS forward progression
What can we conclude about the benefits of wildfires?
SMALL fires are beneficial to reduce risk of large fires (controlled/prescribed burns)
This physical property distinguishes the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
STATE (solid vs. liquid)
Rates of Relative Plate Movement
Same as fingernail growth (1-15 cm per year)
at the subtropics because descending air promotes clear skies.
Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) are warmest
Why do we have seasons?
Seasons occur bc earth's tilted axis as it orbits the sun December and June Solstices March and September Equinoxes
How do we define what drought is?
Simply put, drought occurs when a location is in an extended state of water deficit.
Which of the following statements about the hydrologic conditions favorable for sinkhole formation in Florida is true?
Sinkholes are most likely in both floods and droughts
What happens when the budget of the simplified water balance equation is negative?
Soil begins to lose water until all water is utilized. • This is referred to as soil moisture utilization. • The soil is in a water deficit situation. If water is not restored to the system, plants may begin to wilt and will eventually die.
What happens when the budget of the simplified water balance equation is positive?
Soil begins to store water until it is at full capacity. • This is referred to as *soil moisture recharge*. Once the soil is at full capacity, or saturated, excess water goes into runoff or percolates down to groundwater.
What is the primary energy source for the Hydrologic Cycle?
Solar energy
Gainesville's Water
Somewhat flowing in the direction of the cabot-kopper site
Relative to the Yellowstone Caldera, what is the movement direction of this plate?
Southwest
What is the sphere that has temperature inversion?
Stratosphere
What does stream flow equal?
Stream flow = overland + through + groundwater
Losing Stream
Stream higher than water table so it loses water
Gaining stream
Stream lower than water table so it gains water
What is another name for an Oceanic vs. Oceanic Plate convergence?
Subduction
high evaporation, low precipitation.
Subtropical waters are typically more saline than equatorial waters because of
What is heat syncope?
Sudden, short loss of consciousness by persons not acclimated to hot weather
What is Run Off?
Sum of water in the following way: overland flow (rapid) through flow groundwater flow (slow)
What are the 8 external forces that shape earth? (sally is really really wild when she goes)
Sun, Wind, Snow, Ice, Rain, Rivers, Waves,Glaciers
What makes the difference between the fire tetrahedron and the fire triangle?
Sustained chemical reaction (combustion)
What is karst?
Terrain with distinctive landforms and hydrology created from the dissolution of soluble rocks (often limestone)
Which of the following is NOT the name of a supercontinent?
Tethys
the rotation of the earth.
The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection in the path of a moving object due to
movement of iron and electrical currents within Earth's outer core.
The Earth's magnetic field is generated by
???
The East African Rift and its neighboring plates are pictured below. What are the relative movement directions of plates A and B in this figure?
low pressure, rising air over the equator; high pressure, sinking air at 30°N and 30°S.
The Hadley cell is characterized by.
Where is the highest insolation reaching the surface of the earth?
The Subtropics
ASTHENOSPHERE
The area of mantle that is solid, but hotter than the rock above it, and can flow under pressure.
Northeast to southwest
The below figure shows the dates in megaannum (Ma), or millions of years before present, of a series of volcanic rock in the Yellowstone area. Relative to the Yellowstone Caldera, what is the movement direction of this plate?
Hotspot
The below figure shows the dates in megaannum (Ma), or millions of years before present, of a series of volcanic rock in the Yellowstone area. What is the main type of geophysical feature?
Basic components that move water through the hydrological cycle
The cycle includes the movement of water from the atmosphere to the surface (precipitation), from the surface to the atmosphere (evaporation and transpiration from plants) as well as the movement of water within the atmosphere (horizontal transport of water vapor) and underneath and on top of the Earth's surface (infiltration of water into the surface, percolation of water through the surface into groundwater and runoff of water through the surface).
Why do we see 'red' (shallow) earthquakes towards the center of the continent, and 'purple'/'blue' (deep) along the coast?
The denser oceanic crust is subducting under the less dense continental crust. At the boundary, the earthquakes are shallow (purple/blue), but as the oceanic plate is pushed deeper and away from the boundary, we see deeper earthquake epicenters (red/orange).
the supply of solar insolation.
The dominant control in global sea surface temperature is
huge landslide caused a lateral blast that knocked down trees and buildings.
The eruption that occurred on Mount St. Helens was triggered by a
there was no mechanism to move continents through the oceanic crust.
The hypothesis of continental drift was not widely accepted because
What happens to the land surface when large ice sheets melt away?
The land flexes upward due to isostatic rebound.
False
The less mass an object has, the stronger the Coriolis effect will be for that object.
CRUST
The outermost layer of the solid Earth, consisting of continental and oceanic crust.
Evaporation pan
The pan is fitted with a needle mechanism that is used to read the water level. As water evaporates, the water level gets lower. The needle is then calibrated to the new water level and the amount of evaporation can be read off the needle mechanism tool.
What is weathering?
The process by which rocks are broken down into small grains and soil. Weathering can happen through rainfall, ice formation, or the action of living things, such as algae and plant roots. It is part of the geological cycle.
In comparing two cross-sections of a river, we can talk about their discharge (Q) as being the product of their depth (D), width (W) and velocity (V). Q = D * W * V. If at the second cross-section, the depth of the river is much deeper, what must also change to keep the discharges equal (by conservation of mass)?
The river must get narrower and/or the velocity must be reduced (slower) to compensate.
Water use in the U.S. in order of highest to lowest
Thermoelectric (steam to run turbines and cool components) Irrigation (farmers use streams, groundwater, etc) Public and Domestic use (homes, businesses) Industrial use (to make plastic, steel, concrete) Aquaculture (fish farming) Mining Livestock (not including water to grow the grain)
What do the island chains of Hawaii, Tahiti, and Tristan da Cunha have in common?
They formed from hot spots.
How can Temperature and Precipitation Outlooks help us predict possible upcoming droughts?
They indicate a prediction of above or below normal temperature and precipitation for the United States.
How were the Alaskan islands formed?
They were formed by the subduction of the Pacific plate under the North American plate. This results in volcanoes which created the islands.
cyclone, southern hemisphere.
This diagram features a
This photograph from the 1964 Alaskan earthquake shows a white area of seafloor that was uplifted during the event. What does this observation specifically suggest about how the earthquake might cause damage?
This earthquake could have caused a tsunami because it offset the seafloor.
COMPOSITION
This physical property distinguishes the crust, mantle, and core.
STATE (solid vs. liquid)
This physical property distinguishes the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
TEMPERATURE
This physical property increases with depth toward the interior of the Earth because of 1) residual internal energy from the formation of the Earth and 2) energy released by radioactive decay.
TEMPERATURE
This physical property increases with depth toward the interior of the Earth.
What is Urban Heat Island (UHI)?
Urban setting creates greater impacts (diverse population) • Result of radiation from concrete, rooftops, etc. • Particularly pronounced in afternoon and on calm, clear days • Asphalt and concrete store heat longer and gradually release heat at night, which produces higher nighttime temperatures as the above graphic clearly shows.
The denser oceanic crust is subducting under the less dense continental crust. At the boundary, the earthquakes are shallow (purple/blue), but as the oceanic plate is pushed deeper and away from the boundary, we see deeper earthquake epicenters (red/orange).
Using the IRIS Earthquake Browser (http://www.iris.washington.edu/servlet/eventserver/map.do (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.) we've captured a picture of earthquakes in central South America: Quiz3_IRIS_ReferenceAnswer_v2.png Notice the pattern of earthquakes. Use the legend key and your knowledge of plate tectonics to figure out what this means. Why do we see 'red' earthquakes towards the center of the continent, and 'purple'/'blue' along the coast? Please read your choices carefully! Hint: Use the legend key to figure out what 'red' versus 'purple' earthquakes. Also, determine which type of plate boundary is here.
low pressure, high pressure, low pressure, high pressure
Using the insolation diagram, name the correct sequence of surface pressure zones associated with latitude zones. Start from the equator and move toward the poles.
Drought indices
Usually based on meteorological and hydrological variables
What does a hydrograph display?
Variations in river discharge over time
INNER CORE
Very dense and solid due to high pressure, mostly iron and nickel
OUTER CORE
Very dense, mostly iron and nickel; Convection in this layer generates Earth's magnetic field.
How was Payne's Praire formed?
Via underground dissolution of limestone and settling of the overlying surface as a massive sinkhole
Which of the following are ways that viscosity affects gases in magma?
Viscous magma prevents gas from escaping easily
large amounts of rain and snowmelt mix with loose ash on steep slopes.
Volcanic mudflows (lahars) are common on composite volcanoes because
rising, unstable air where much latent heat is released.
Warm oceanic pools form in areas of
Phreatic volcanic eruption
a steam-driven explosion - requires existence of water beneath ground or on surface that is heated by magma, lava, hot rock, or new volcanic deposits. intense heat of this volcanic material generates explosion of steam, water, ash, blocks, and bombs.
Cinder cone volcano
a steep conical hill made up of loose pyroclastic fragments that have been built around a volcanic vent - commonly found along the flanks of shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and calderas - most cinder cones have a "bowl-shaped" crater at summit
What is an earthquake?
a sudden slipping or movement of a portion of the Earth's crust, accompanied and followed by a series of vibrations - release mechanism when too much stress accumulates in Earth's crust
What is a prescribed burn?
a technique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration ,or greenhouse gas abatement
Vulcanian volcanic eruption
a type of explosive eruption that ejects new lava fragments that do not take on a rounded shape during their flight through the air; generally of moderate size and eject a large proportion of volcanic ash along with bombs and blocks
Shield volcano
a type of volcano usually built entirety of fluid lava flows - named for its large size and low sloping profile
What is a volcano?
a vent in the surface of the Earth that rises from the asthenosphere and upper mantle and from which magma, gases, and ash erupt, which then take on a mountainous form
What is a community fireguard?
a way to reduce/limit fire breaks (barriers to fire spread built by clearly or significantly thinning fuels on a strip of strategically located land) and fuel breaks (trenches dug down to mineral soil that stop surface fire spread); it's all about taking control of your own bushfire safety practical program designed to help you: 1. Plan for a range of scenarios 2. Make informed decisions when it counts 3. Maintain a fire smart house and garden 4. Work together with your community to reduce everyone's bushfire risk
Artesian wells
a well in a confined aquifer, confining layer produces enough pressure to push water up through the well without a pump
What two processes does the Pre-Ignition Stage involve?
a. Preheating (fuel loses water content and/or other volatile compounds) b. Pyrolysis (typically first chemical reaction that occurs in organic fuels; when exposed to high temps., organic fuels such as wood will release gases; carbon residue is left behind.)
Permeability
ability of surface to transport water, most important o Ex. Limestone has high permeability vs. granite with low permeability
Horse Winds
about 30 degrees north and south where there are weak or no winds
Where is the OLDEST oceanic crust under the Atlantic Ocean likely to be found?
abyssal plain next to the continents
What is Normal Stress?
acceleration by gravity, actually holding down hillside in place
cone of depression
after pumping it forms when water table drops and flow is directed towards larger well
Unsaturated
air can hold more water vapor o weather is nice, not raining or snowing
How can Rossby waves cause high pressure?
air comes over a ridge in the jet stream and air piles up in trough this causes the air to sink down and creates a high pressure area
Convergence
air currents come together compressing more air into a small space causing higher pressure
Divergence
air currents move apart causing low pressure
Subpolar Lows
air is warmed and rises around 60 to 45 degrees latitude
Environmental Lapse Rates (ELR)
air near the bubble of rising air can have a different lapse rate
Flows
all of the displacement occurs throughout the moving body
Atmosphere
all the gases that surround earth o shields from harmful energy rays o source of weather & climate🌦 o contains oxygen/water vapor
Slides
all the vertical displacement occurs along a single plane, the "shear plane"
Open System
allows matter and energy to move in and out of it
Conditions pre- and post-fire?
ambient temperature so high that people and property burst into flames, houses explode
Vapor Pressure
amount of pressure contributed by the water vapor in that air (measured in millibars)
Humidity
amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
Rip currents form because
backwash occurs in a narrow zone.
ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
band of low pressure bc excess insolation at equator Area with lots a rainfall
Linear Velocity
based on the circumference of the earth at that point and how many km that must rotate
Meteorological drought
below normal precipitation
Tectonic Plates
belts of tectonic activity divide lithosphere into tectonic plates
Fold
bending of rock formation
Rossby Waves
bends in the polar jet stream front
Air in the MidLatitudes
between the tropics and the arctic circle Driven by pressure circulation in the adjacent tropics and polar regions Surface winds blow west to east Top of this region subpolar lows Southern part has the edge of the Hadley cell
Steep ELR
big decrease in temperature w/ height
The "sphere" that intersects with all of the other spheres is the
biosphere.
normal faults
block above moves down, pressure spreads the rock, pulling rocks apart, one piece moves downward
Dynamic Equilibrium
both positive and negative feedbacks occur at the same time causing the system to be pulled in opposite directions
Elevation affects the distribution of terrestrial biomes through its effect on
both temperature and precipitation
Stationary Front
boundary between warm and cold air but not moving for hours or days warm air overlies cold air forming clouds and precipitation line of semi circles and triangles pointing in opposite directions causes lots of rain in an area
Front
boundary of two air masses w/ different temperatures and humidities common lifting mechanism
Water table
boundary, not a flat surface, upper limit of saturated material o Slopes from high to lower areas o Groundwater flows down the water table
Continental Polar
cP cold, dry
Collision of what two air masses causes lots of severe weather for the U.S.?
cP and mT
Continental Tropical
cT warm, dry
Thermosphere
can be very hot bc gas particles intercept sun's energy (aurora borealis aka the northern lights happen here) 🔥
Sand and other sediment
can move laterally along the coast if waves approach the beach at an angle.
Groundwater
can move through sub surface very slowly, can flow back to the surface at lakes and streams, can sustain water bodies during dry periods
2 ways that divergence can occur
can occur when two air masses are moving in opposite directions or when two air masses are heading in same direction but one is moving faster than the other leaving a gap of low pressure
Translatory wave
carries energy across and into the beach
wind moving PERPENDICULAR to fire
causes fire to spread to a wider domain
How fast do plates move relative to one another?
centimeters per year
Where there are abrupt changes in elevation, climate patterns
change over short distances especially over land.
Temperature
changes in different layers, different chemicals have different melting points
What volcanoes form from a single eruption?
cinder cones and domes
Hydrologic cycle
circulation of water from one part of the water system to the another, driven by the sun
The Sun's gravitational pull on Earth is weaker than the Moon's because of____
distance
Composite volcano
dangerous, symmetrical mountains, very high, steep slopes, crater, andesite (extrusive igneous rock), dangerous, most explosive
Ocean trenches
deepest parts of the ocean, some follow edges of continents and some are isolates, most in the Pacific
brittle
deformation by breaking and fracturing low depth, more pressure o Shallow levels
ductile
deformation in a more fluid way (flow) deeper, hotter o Deeper where pressure and temp is greater
Which of the following involves the release of latent heat back into the environment?
deposition
lava flow
determined by viscosity of the magma
National Fire Plan
developed after landmark fire season in 2000
What is the heat index?
developed to describe how the body "feels" (perceives) heat
Hydrologic Gradient
difference in high and low water table, moves down
Conduction
direct contact with molecules most efficient in solids & least efficient in gases 🍳
wind speed
direct linkage between waves as agents of erosion and "external" energy
Coriolis Effect influences wind ___________ and Friction influences wind __________
direction speed
Active Sensor
directs a beam of energy towards area of interest
Scattering
disperses energy in various directions Ex. Gases in the atmosphere scatter blue light which spreads out in all directions causing the sky to appear blue
Mass Movement: Heave
displacement by means of non-canceling vertical movement of material (up and down) *happens daily
Perihelion
earth is closet to sun during January
Aphelion
earth is furthest from the sun in July
There are more _____________ than other tectonic activities
earthquake
Tectonic Activity
earthquakes, volcanism, mountain building
Where are the greatest volcano hazards in the U.S.?
east coast
costal plain
edge where the elevation slowly decreases towards the coast intol it flattens out
2nd law of thermodynamics
energy and matter tend to be dispersed into a more uniform distribution
Solar Radiation or Insolation
energy coming from the sun to earth ☀▶🌎
longshore current
energy from breaking waves + energy from oscillatory to translatory wave conversion
Latent Heat
energy required to change state (phase)
Potential Energy
energy tied up with molecular matter and is release when molecules recombine or change state
Geomagnetic polarity time scale
estimate age of rocks based on magnetic variation, look at ridge with magma flowing, recorded in mineral magnetite, alternating magnetic stripes on the sea floor
evapotranspiration
evaporation + transpiration
How does the ecosystem impact a wildfire?
ex.: Chaparral/woodlands wildfires occur every 20-60 years, while Western hardwoods wildfires occur every 100-400 years
Absolute humidity
exact measure of how much water vapor is in a parcel of air
Strombolian volcanic eruption
exhibits intermittent explosions or fountaining of basaltic lava from a single vent or crater. with each explosion, volcanic gases are released. lava fragments generally consist of partially molten volcanic bombs that become rounded as they fly through the air
hazard
existence of a potentially dangerous event o Cinder falling o Ash breathing problems o Gases- hydrogen sulfide (paralysis)
hot gases ___________ and become ___________ dense
expand less
Distribution of thunderstorms across the U.S.
fewest along west coast bc cold water and no mid-latitude cyclones most along gulf coast bc closer to warm water and the moist air flows north
What is the goal of the National Fire Plan?
fire resource management
This diagram shows magnetic stripes on either side of the mid-ocean ridge. How many times did the magnetic field change polarity to form all of the stripes shown here?
five times
liquids with a low viscosity
flow easily
stress
force per area (S=F/A) o Rocks have it from pressure and heating o Can cause deformation
seismic waves
form of energy in which energy is released into Earth's crust
Define cumulus and nimbus
formed by heating rain producing
Describe the characteristics of karst topography and what features might indicate that karst is present.
formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, underground drainage systems with sinkholes, dolines, and caves
Fault
fracture in rock formation
All of the following involve the input of energy EXCEPT:
freezing
resisting force
friction
waves are generates by____
friction of winds passing over the water
Hail
frozen ice from cumulonimbus clouds
fissures
gap, pore space left after subsidence, can be huge, allow easy access for contaminants
lava fountains
gases carry bits of lava into the air which cool and fall around the vent
ELR of cold water
gentle ELR so more stable this is because there is not as much change in temp as you rise in the atmosphere bc air is being cooled by the cool water
Land subsidence
gradual settling or sudden sinking of earth's surface because of subsurface movement of earth materials
What is the main force involved in the stability of slopes?
gravity
Subtropical High
greatest insolation in the tropics causes air to expand becoming less dense creating low pressure and this air rises until it cools and reaches the surface and creates an area of high pressure
Heaves: Uplift Causes
heating (expansion), wetting (clays expand when wet), freezing (soil water freezes and expands)
All of the following is true regarding shortwave radiation that reaches the earth's surface EXCEPT.
heating of the atmosphere by insolation is more effective than heating of the atmosphere by land and water.
Negative ELR
heating w/ height, temperature inversion Occurs in the stratosphere
Specific Humidity is ________ in the tropics and _________ at high latitudes
high low
Continental collision
high elevation, more crust thickening
Anticyclone
high pressure and outward deflection North Clockwise
high pressure= ridges/troughs low pressure= ridges/troughs
high pressure=ridges low pressure=troughs
Summer temperatures are high in arid climates because
high sun angle and low relative humidity.
Flow/slide has a ____magnitude and _____frequency
high, low
Eastern U.S. has a _________ dew point and it is _________
higher humid
Describe a cross section of the earth, naming every section of its interior and their properties
inner core- solid iron outer core-liquid iron-nickel alloy lower mantle- D" layer, silicates transition zone- between upper and lower upper mantle-lithosphere and asthenosphere crust- oceanic crust (thin), continental crust (thick)
dike
intrusion vertically (light color that cuts through granite)
sills
intrusions parallel to rock layers (dark colored sills)
Boyle's Law
inversely proportional relationship between pressure and volume with a constant temp
Electromagnetic Radiation.
is composed of interacting electrical and magnetic fields.
Angular Velocity
is consistant; speed that the earth is rotating 15 degrees/ hr
Tsunami advisory
issued to areas in same ocean outside of watch and warning areas
If there is a small difference when comparing dew point and average temperature it means that...
it's easier to form clouds not much cooling needed to reach saturation
If there is a large difference when comparing dew point and average temperature it means that...
it's harder to form clouds or rain more cooling needed to reach saturation
2 types of fractures
joint and fault
Which area(s) on this world map is likely to have volcanoes above sea level?
just south-west of A
Land heats and cools more rapidly than oceans because of
lack of mixing in soil or rock layers.
Explain the process of a land breeze
land cools more quickly than water and creates high pressure area high heat capacity of water creates a low pressure area high to low causes land breeze
What is karst landform?
landscapes shaped by the dissolution of limestone bedrock with a distinctive surface of grooves and cavities. Ground water flowing through the saturated zone also dissolves limestone below surface, producing underground caverns.
Volcanic mudflows (lahars) are common on composite volcanoes because
large amounts of rain and snowmelt mix with loose ash on steep slopes.
Aquifers
large body of water of permeable saturated material through which groundwater can flow enough to yield significant volumes
When did severe droughts and food shortages occur in Sahel?
late 60s to early 80s
Troposphere
layer we interact with, temp varies from warmer at bottom and cooler at top (on earth) climate and weather occur here, 70% of mass is stored here (earth), lowest 10km 🌦☀🌨🌫⚡
dome
layers are uplifted in a circular or elliptical shape and dip in all direction, older rocks in center that are exposed w weathering
basin
layers dip toward center, youngest on top center
Transmission
mostly transparent object, energy flows thru it, light comes down Ex. Atmosphere is mostly transparent and allows light to illuminate earth
Paleomagnetism
magnetism in rocks and how they differ over time o Magnetic direction affected by rocks o Metallic iron core and liquid outer core flows (like an electrical generator creating magnetic field around earth) o Inner core transfers heat and less dense material to outer core causes outer core to rise forms convection cells o movement of molten iron is affected by earth's rotation creates movement + electrical current = magnetic field
wind moving PARALLEL to fire
makes fire move FASTER, pushes heat in advance of fire to preheat unburned fuels, causes embers to fly ahead of fire front and initiate burning in advance of fire
1st law of thermodynamics
matter can't be created nor destroyed
A dynamic system refers to a system in which
matter, energy, or both, are constantly changing their position, amounts, or form.
Mature stage
mature cumulonimbus cloud with both up and down drafts which causes circulation within the cloud bringing precipitation
Temperature
measure of an objects internal kinetic energy or the movement of molecules within an object
Heat
measure of thermal energy being passed from one object to another 🔥
What is magnitude?
measured value of an earthquake's released energy - is the same regardless of location and amount of shaking involved
Which of the following involves energy storage in the water molecule in the form of latent heat?
melting, evaporation, sublimation
oscillatory waves
merely a transfer of potential energy (up and down), impacts felt progressively less with depth
Multi-Cell Thunderstorms or Super-Cell Thunderstorms
merging of adjacent single cell storms because downdraft from one storm can become and updraft in another
How fast does water table flow?
meter/day or slower
Ozone thinning is.
more pronounced in Antarctica than the Arctic.
Capillary Water
more water attracted to the material, but not completely saturated
Oblique-slip fault
most complex since it combines BOTH dip-slip and strike-slip faults
The earth's radiation balance involves.
most energy leaving the earth in the form of longwave radiation.
From this graph, one should conclude that
most of the energy input into the system goes toward changing state, not to change temperature.
Occluded Front
o Cold front catches up with warm front as it rotates around low, traps warm air over cold, the warm moist air pushed up creates condensation and precipitation o strongest part of the storm and end of the storm o Begins after a mid-latitude cyclone has been around for a while o Magenta line with purple triangle and semicircle o Moves from W to E
Greenhouse Gases
o Counter-radiation o Warming influence o Ex. Water vapor o Absorption of EMR (not really absorbing in visible spectrum)
3 responses to stress
o Displacement- movement to another place, ridged or change shape (ductile) o Rotation- tilt rock or spin it, o Strain- deformed internally changes size and shape
earthquake
o Energy stored in rocks is suddenly released o Occurs when stress builds up along a fault and causes fault to slip
Ozone
o Essential gas to life on earth o less than .001% of atmosphere o O3 = 3 oxygen atoms o Most in stratosphere where the ozone layer is in the middle of it o Extremely efficient at absorbing UV light
Florida Water Management Districts
o FL divided into 5 management districts o Scientists monitor water quality, give well permits, monitor flow of rivers o Governing board- appointed by governor o Funded by property taxes (causes disparity in high population areas versus low population areas)
monocline
o Flat layers that bend down in one direction then flatten out again
How are volcanic domes formed?
o Grow from inside as magma is injected into interior of the dome o Expands upward and outward
Ocean Plateau
o High areas of sea floor o Plume at hot spot, submarine flood basalts pours onto sea floor, plateau forms over millions of years
folds
o In rock layers o Different shapes o Horizontal layer originally bc gravity (because of geological principle of horizantality)
Dominant state of each layer of earth
o Inner core solid because pressure and denser material even with hot temp o Outer Core liquid bc temperature declines only slightly and pressure declines which allows change in state, thick slow moving liquid o Lower Mantle solid bc Sima and decrease in temp, it's really close to its melting point o Crust solid bc lower temp
3 ways mid-latitude cyclones can form
o Leeward side of mountain air diverges and spreads out and causes low pressure o Offshore of cold land and warmer air over water the warm air rises and creates low pressure over ocean o Rossby waves forms as air speeds up through troughs and creates low pressure at surface o Low pressure creates mid-latitude cyclones
Magnetic reversal
o Magnetic field has reversed polarity (N would be S etc)
Latent Heat Flux
o Melting aka latent heat of fusion [80 cals/grams for water] o Evaporation aka latent heat of vaporization [540 cals/gram for water] Input requires energy Other way releases energy Ex. Hurricanes powered on this evaporation energy Ex. Farmers use sprinklers before a frost bc the freezing water releases energy (80 cals/gram) which allows tree to stay alive and not freeze
Why is more viscous lava more explosive?
o More viscous = difficult to flow and traps gas and explosive volcanos
Continental Divergent Boundaries
o Most common under ocean but can occur with continents o This creates continental drift o Can create new oceans & continental shift o Uplift from rising mantle stretching and rift forms melting forms magma can lead to seafloor spreading or new oceans o Ex. Red sea (East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula)
Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundary
o Oceanic plate (more dense) subducted beneath continental plate o Compression from the plates pushing together thickens crust uplift that produces volcanos and mts o Ex. Andes Mts o Releases hot water volcanos on continent
Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundary
o One plate moves under the other (subduction) and the zone around the downward moving plate is the subduction zone o Forms mts, oceanic trenches, and island arcs o Dangerous earthquakes and volcanos o As plate subducts temp and releases water/minerals from the plate forms magma that rises can erupt initially or become a volcano or solidify o Island arcs (magma solidifies) thicker crust
Name 3 Greenhouse Gases
o Oxygen- absorbs high amounts of UV, o Water vapor- most important, absorbs longwave radiation and creates counter radiation to stabilize temp o CO2 and Methane- naturally in atmosphere and humans introduce them too o N2O- byproduct of fertilizer and made by humans absorbs infrared
What regions have a high risk for volcanic activity?
o Pacific Ring of Fire- largest concentration of composite volcanoes o Seafloor- basalt eruptions o Iceland- basalt o Calderas mostly subduction related or in the middle of continents over hot spots or rifts such as East African rift o Shield volcanos- along lines or clumps of islands such as Hawaii o Some prediction success stories by volcanologists by studying small earthquakes
Transform Boundary
o Plates move horizontally past one another on transform boundaries o Transform link other types of plate boundaries o Transform boundaries associated with mid ocean ridges o Causes zig zag pattern on sea floor o Faults move parallel to spreading o Ex. Pacific and north America plates San Andres fault
What factors do you use to access risk of a volcano?
o Proximity o Valley- lava and pyroclastic flows o Wind direction o History o Other
Stefan-Boltzmann law
o Relates object temp to amount of EMR o Higher temp = more energy emitted o Exponential not linear relationship
How does a Tsunami form?
o Seafloor is uplifted and the plate flexes which lifts water up from ocean bottom this forms ridge of high water and becomes a massive wave o Ex. Tohuku (Japan) earthquake and tsunami
What factors do you use to access danger of a volcano?
o Shape- symmetrical means more dangerous o Volcanic material- rock types, if it is solidified pyroclastic flow then it is dangerous, but basalt isn't o Age (active vs. dormant) o History o Other data
Contaminants at Cabot-Koppers
o Site has been used as a wood treatment facility o 6000 gallons/day of crude wood oil into holding ponds o Some of wood treatment chemicals have been found in soil at the site o These chemicals include: benzene, oils, phenols, metals, arsenic, chromium and recently found DNAPL's
partial liquid
o Some chemicals may reach their melting point while others do not
How can water become contaminated?
o Some pollutants can form naturally (ex. Arscenic) o Mining and naturally mineralized rock- moves rocks and spread contamination o Fuel storage tanks- leaks are the worst o Factory wells, spills, emissions- use chemincal to make items, ex.plasitic, chemicals can escape, fumes from smokestacks, improperly lined ponds for storage o Landfill- hazardous substances, not always properly sealed and can cause major pollution o Farms- chemical fertilizers and pesticides can runoff, algae outbreaks, deadzones, decreased oxygen contents, animal waste, hormones o Septic tank- spills from waste water treatment plants, spills from septic tanks, bring them up to code o Leaking tank in gas station- stored underground and can link o Truck fuel spill- leaks when transporting o Households o Brought by outside area by groundwater o Brought by river
contaminatio n plume
o Spreads out due to diffusion and mixing forming
How do sun spots and solar flares affect the amount of insolation?
o Sun spots- places with slightly cooler temps on the sun's surface o Solar flares- bursts of intense energy and matter from sun's surface
Superfund Site
o Superfund Program is run by the EPA and local govt o Potential sites are reported by many different parties including citizens and site agencies o Once the report comes in the EPA enters the site into their inventory and begins evaluating the site for cleanup
testing age of plate tectonics
o Tested by drilling (expensive) o Sediment thickens away from ridge (older) compared to volcanic rocks near the ridge o More sediment = older
What happens if same amount of pressure is applied to two wooden pillars?
o Thinner pillar has same amount of force but more stress bc less area
Where do tornadoes occur in the U.S.?
o Tornado alley in central U.S. bc of mid-latitude cyclones and less mountains o Along Gulf Coast and inland (Dixie Alley)
Features of volcanoes
o Vent- opening connected to the magma chamber via a piep Secondary vents o Opening at summit of a volcano o Crater- steep walled depression at the summit, less than 1 km in diameter
Ring of Fire
o Volcanoes around the Pacific ocean o Spreading in east pacific rise subduction on both east and west o Subduction on continents on both sides o In Japan (subduction beneath oceanic plates form island arcs) and Andes (subduction beneath continental plates form mt belts w volcanos)
What strengthens/weakens a tropical storm?
o Warm water strengthens (cold water weakens) o Moist air strengthens (dry air weakens) o Land weakens, especially mountains o Wind shear weakens, breaks up storm structure (spreads out latent heat)
Wiens Law
o Wavelength of peak emission o Shows wavelengths at which a majority of emissions occur
How are volcanic domes destroyed?
o When steep sides collapse causing small pyroclastic flows OR when there is an eruption when magma traps gas and builds up pressure until it explodes o Ex. Mount Unzen in Japan many pyroclastic flows
Specific Heat Capacity
o amount of energy need to increase a kilogram of mass of substance by 1 Kelvin o Comparing 2 different materials Ex. Water has a higher specific heat than land therefore it takes more energy to heat the water than to heat the land
Water Vapor Capacity
o amount of water vapor that air can hold o Varies by temperature o Exponential increase with temperature o So warmer air can hold more water vapor
Angle of incidence
o angle between the direction of energy (light) and the surface o smaller angle = spreading out of energy so it's less intense
What is energy?
o capability to do work o motion of atoms and molecules
Friction
o causes air near earth's surface to be more complicated and curved (more turbulent) o lowest 1km of atmosphere o doesn't change the direction of wind only changes wind speed
Sensible Heat
o changes the temp of two objects through exchange of energy o Ex. Hot mug of tea conducting energy to your hand ☕ o Drives many process earth-ocean atmosphere
Advection
o energy transfer through horizontal movement o Ex. Fog along coast is caused by warm air flowing and mixing w cooler air and then condensing
Radiation
o energy transferred by means of electrical and magnetic fields o Ex. Campfire and marshmallows and can operate in a vacuum 🔥
Heat Flux (3 types)
o ground, sensible, latent (3 types) o Water can store an abundant amount of energy as latent heat (changes state of water) o Ground Heat Flux- heats water or land and changes temp o Sensible Heat Flux- heating air above water or land and changes temp o Latent Heat Flux- changes state of water, usually evaporation, NOT temperature change, less common than other two, more above oceans
Heat Capacity
o how much energy is needed to heat up an object and how much heat the object can retain o How much heat is required to change a volumes temperature by one degree Kelvin Determined by material and size of object
Structure of a tropical cyclone
o huge, circulating masses of rain, strong winds, warm moist air, and low pressure o really intense low pressure system o warm moist air provides fuel for the hurricane o pilling up forms this 3-D structure of eye and eyewall of the storm o rising moist air condenses to rain and latent heat warms the air o dry sinking air form the eye o rotates from the Coriolis effect
Unconfined aquifer
open to earth's surface and to infiltration, no impermeable rock overlaying it, rain or surface water can seep into
Average Evapotranspiration (ET) across the world
o low in desert bc not much water or vegetation o high in topics bc high temps, water, and plants o low in polar areas bc limited sun and low temps o high in eastern U.S. bc of high temps and lots of vegetation o low in mountains bc high altitude, colder, less plants
How do gases affect magma?
o magma contains dissolved gases [H2O, CO2, SO2] and determine what kind of eruption o decrease in pressure allows bubbles form in gas in magma and push it up to surface
Specific Humidity
o mass of water vapor/ mass of air, grams to kilograms comparison o Not affect by changes in temperature o Mass to mass ratio o Compare amount of moisture at different elevations and regions o Only changes when water vapor is added or subtracted through
Areas where PE>P:
o not enough water to be evaporated o soil-water use- soil water will be evaporated ,only soil water that remains is what is strongly bonded to sediment and can't be taken up by plantsplants reach wilting pointwater deficit
Convection
o warmer, less dense, mixing, warm water rises and cool water descends, best with liquids o Ex. Lava lamps and rain storms in the summer (caused by heating ground and rising molecules which condense into clouds and then rain)
Absorption
objects retain energy that strikes them and when the radiated energy is released (via heat) it is called emission
Oceanic plateaus
occur on continents and in the oceans
reverse fault or thrust fault
occurs because of compression, pressure coming in on one side, causes one block to move upward mts, thrust faults are more gentle, curved, less steep
Heat Flux/Heat Flow
occurs when adjacent objects have different temperatures
Abyssal Plains
ocean floor is moderately deep and has a fairly smooth surface
10 major stores of water on earth
oceans rivers & streams lakes swamps & other wetlands atmosphere groundwater glaciers deep interior water soil water
3 major stores
oceans [97%], continents [3%], atmosphere [.001%]
Continental shield
old metamorphic and igneous (volcanic) rocks, represent rocks that underlie most of the continent o Ex. Canadian shield
Rain Shadow
on mountains where there is rain on one side and a dry area on the other side
depth of oscillatory motion=
one half of the wavelength
Floridan Aquifers
one of most productive in the world bc limestone allows water to move through pretty easily, 100,000 mi2, where water comes to the surface
Frontal Boundary
one of the clashing air masses will force the other one aloft Cool air is more dense than warm air, so a moving mass of cold air can lift a mass of warm air ,when warm air rises condensation can occur and possibly rain biggest in producing weather
How many of these earthquakes are felt on Earth's surface?
only a few thousand
How often do earthquakes that cause complete damage occur?
only once every few years
The difference between open and closed systems is that
open systems can acquire matter and energy, but closed systems cannot.
The difference between open and closed systems is that:
open systems can acquire matter and energy, but closed systems cannot.
What is the purpose of the Soil Moisture tool?
provide a strong indication of how wet or dry the soil is • therefore useful for drought monitoring because an area that has not received much precipitation over a given time period may not be in a state of drought if the soil was amply moist at the start of the dry period
felsic magma
quartz and feldsbar, high silca forms in long chains, this makes it viscous, from crustal rocks o more chainsmore viscous build up of gas/pressuremore explosive
Avalanche landslide
rapid flow of snow down a slope
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
rate at which air is cooling/heating as it rises/falls
Slip rate
rate of movement
Which of the following is used to match continents or track positions of the continents in the past?
reconstructions of seafloor spreading, rock types/structures, and magnetism stored in rocks.
Land use changes and exotic species introductions tend to have the impact of
reducing biodiversity
What is the Pacific Ring of Fire?
region where earthquakes and volcanic activity are very common. In fact, about 8 of 10 earthquakes on earth occur in the Pacific Ring of Fire. The ring itself is the result of plate tectonics (see earlier slide on Mid-Ocean Ridges). Along the rim, subduction zones, resulting from the collision on continental and oceanic plates lead to the high number of earthquakes in this region. They also lead to the formation of violent volcanic eruptions.
Solar Constant
relatively consistent amount of energy coming from sun (1366 watts/sq m) 🔅🔆
What is exertional heatstroke?
relatively healthy individuals exerting themselves in hot environment (often younger people)
The environmental boundaries between biomes, called ecotones, are:
represent a gradual shift in biotic features
Positive Feedback
response to change in a system that reinforces/amplifies the same type of change Ex. more energy or heat melts ice which in turn exposes dark water and the dark water absorbs the heat therefore increasing the overall heat
Negative Feedback
response to change that diminishes more of the same type of change Ex. warming water increases evaporation which leads to more clouds the clouds intercept more sunlight and this dampens the warming
ridge push
ridges are higher so gravity pushes the plate away from the ridge, outward movement
How is hail formed?
strong updraft keeps water up in the atmosphere where it's colder in higher parts of the storm hail rises and falls multiple times forming rings of freezing
Strongest and Weakest layers
strongest- continental crust and upper most mantle (lithosphere) weakest- asthenosphere can flow like a liquid
Polar Cell
subpolar lows reach their max height and turn back to the north completing the circulation
Hurricane season
summer to fall in each hemisphere
Caldera
summit depression
Hydrological drought
surface and subsurface water supplies (groundwater) fall below normal water levels
Epicenter
surface location of quake
Tornado
swirling vortex of very strong winds generated from thunderstorms around fronts comma shaped on a radar
Mid-ocean ridge
symmetrical ridge that crosses an ocean basin o Ex. Mid Atlantic ridge
Dew Point Temperature
temp at which air is going to become saturated when air cools down or amount of humidity increases it begins to saturate
Wavelength is a function of ____________________
temperature
Charles' Law
temperature and volume are directly related and proportional in pressure is held constant
Stratosphere
temperature inversion, cold at bottom and warmer at top, positive relationship with altitude and temperature, begins about 10km above sea level, planes fly here ✈
What other name is used by National Weather Service to refer to the heat index?
the "apparent temperature" scale
What is a tsunami run-up?
the MAXIMUM height of the water observed above a reference sea level
What biological processes does your body perform to gain and lose heat?
the body varies (a) the rate and depth of blood circulation, (b) the amount of water released through the skin and sweat glands, and (c) the amount of panting. • The hotter the body gets, the more blood the heart pumps and the more blood vessels get dilated. Blood is particularly pumped into the capillaries in the upper layers of skin, i.e. closest to the skin surface, to release heat into the surrounding environment by one or a combination of four ways: radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation.
Solar Cycle
the cycle of number of sun spots occurs about every 11 years
Pyrolysis
the exposure of flammable material to high temperature leading to combustion and decomposition
Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
the full assemblage of energy of all possible wavelengths resulting from electrical and magnetic fields
wind fetch
the greater the fetch, then the more distance over which there is to exchange energy between the atmosphere and the ocean surface.
Why are some regions high in elevation?
the internal structure of earth shapes the features on earth's surface o Crust is less dense than mantle so it floats on top o Thickness of the crust- thicker crust means higher elevation and thinner means lower
What is the water table?
the level below which the ground is saturated with water.
When there is a half moon, the sun and moon's gravitational pull is in ____direction
the opposite
What factors lead to the Vajont (Vaiont in textbook) Dam landslide disaster? For a look at old (1960s) TV footage of the disaster, you can check out the video here:
the rock sedimentary layers were folded at the bottom of a syncline valley, and dipped downslope toward the reservoir
When there is a full moon, the sun and moon's gravitational pull is in ____direction
the same
Perched aquifer
underlain by low-permeability unit, isolated aquifers when discontinuous layer of impermeable rock blocks and collects water that is infiltrating to the ground, best site to drill wells
Seamounts
underwater mostly volcanic mountains, occur in lines o Most lines of seamounts are islands formed where a plate moves over a hot spot o Active when over hot spot and inactive as they move away o Ex. Hawaii
What happens when Mountains erode?
uplift and sinking with erosion and isostatic rebound erosion and uplift bring deep rocks to surface
Areas where P>PE:
urface water can be taken up by plants, saturating the soil, surplus and runoff o soil-water recharge- water seeped into ground, stays in part of subsurface where much of the pore space is filled with air o unsaturated zone- pore spaces filled with air o saturated zone- pore spaces filled with water, becomes groundwater here o water table- top of saturated zone, below this groundwater may flow
General Circulation Models (GCM) differ from Weather Forecasting Models (WFM) in all of the following ways EXCEPT GCM'S
use spatial analysis techniques that interpolate the data to a three-dimensional grid.
What is the water balance equation?
used as a reference to describe the balance of water inputs and water outputs from a defined region or system (i.e., a farm field, grassland, forest)
In regard to the shortwave energy entering the earth's atmosphere, most is.
used to heat either the atmosphere or the ground surface.
Wind Shear
variation in wind velocity occurring along a direction at right angles to the wind's direction and exerting a turning force
Köppen's intent in developing his climatic classification system was to correlate temperature and precipitation with
vegetation.
Volcanoes
vent where magma and other volcanic erupt onto the surface
Mass movement : Slide
vertical displacement of material along a single plane Ex. mudslide/landslide
Mass Movement: Flow
vertical displacement that occurs throughout moving material = a mixing of mud and grass
Mesosphere
very cold at the top, coldest place in earth's system (shooting stars) 🌠
Microbursts
very strong winds that move straight down
Asthenosphere
very thin layer between the crust and the mantle partially melted, molten materials
Why are Temperature and Precipitation Charts important for forecasting and monitoring droughts?
very useful for providing scientists with a quick glance at what is going on in terms of water balance at a specific location
seismic waves
vibrations transmitted through rocks, spread in all directions o Recorded at seismic station
What variables are measured to calculate the NDVI?
visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) light values
Tsunami safety tips
• If you are near the coast and feel an earthquake, move inland and to higher ground. • Do not ignore Tsunami warnings or sirens. • A receding ocean is a sign that a tsunami wave is approaching. • Stay away from the beach. • Have a disaster plan in place and store disaster supplies.
Indirect impact examples
• Increase fire hazard • Damage to wildlife and fish habitats • Reduced agribusiness • Unemployment • Costs for relief programs • Burn bans & water use restrictions
2015 California Drought
• January-May • Cost: $2.7 billion • Jobs lost: 18,000 • Agricultural acres lost: 564,000 • California has been in a 4-year drought (2015 being worst ever recorded)
What is heat exhaustion?
• Loss of bodily fluids • Blood flow to skin rather than vital organs • Mild shock
1995 Chicago Heat Wave
• Max. temp: 106° F • Heat index: approached 120° F • Deaths: 739 victims measured in "excess mortality" • Low Latino mortality • UHI effect
What are the different types of drought?
• Meteorological • Agricultural • Hydrological • Socioeconomical
What are heat cramps?
• Muscular pains and spasms • Symptom of too much exertion in high heat • First sign of heat-related health problems
Lessons learned from Indian Ocean tsunami
• Need for tsunami warning system along with communication system to warn general public • Educate people to understand environment clues (e.g., retreat from water prior to tsunami) • Need to strengthen disaster preparedness in developing countries • Unexpected challenges and lack of experience/ preparedness in the management of large or global scale disasters.
What primary ingredients are necessary to start and maintain a fire (fire triangle)?
• Oxygen • Heat • Fuel
Indirect Sahel Drought impacts
• Population migration • Political upheaval (Ethiopian emperor) • Desertification
Factors contributing to 2015 India Heat Wave
• Pre-monsoon rains did not occur until later in June, causing an extended dry season • Some states in India do not have an action plan - 2 States (Andhra Pradesh and Telangana) reported 3/4 of the overall deaths. - Other states with action plans reported less deaths. - States with action plans set up shelters • No advisory or warning caused many outside workers to keep working - Many got sick and some died within hours after exposure to heat. • It was so hot that roads melted in Delhi, India!
Which variables are excluded from the simplified version of the water balance equation?
• Runoff (Q) • Change in Storage (ΔS)
Which variable(s) is/are considered to be output(s) in the water balance equation?
• Runoff (Q) • Evapotranspiration (E) • Change in Storage (ΔS)
Sahel Droughts
• Semi-arid belt of land from Cape Verde (west) to Horn of Africa (east) • "Transition" zone • Unstable climate - Little/intermittent rainfall (4-8 inches per year) - Sparse vegetation - Dependence on northward penetration of monsoon
Rain gauge tipping bucket
• Small bucket mechanism fills with water and then tips over. • Each tip sends an electronic signal.
1930s Dust Bowl
• Widespread drought conditions • Several drought periods occurred in succession • Sequence of droughts precluded people from being able to recover • The semi-constant state of drought loosened soils and allowed wind to carry topsoil away, leading to the occurrence of many dust storms. Hence the term "dust bowl." • Natural conditions were coupled with extensive farming, poor land management practices, and the aftermath of the Great Depression.
1972 Sahel Drought Disaster
• drought disaster recognized • international aid shipments • death toll climbs
Most vulnerable populations during 1995 Chicago Heat Wave?
• elderly • male • poor people • black people (ratio of 1.5:1 vs. white people)
What instrument is used to measure evaporation?
• evaporation pan
What side effects or disorders can occur to the human body as a result of heat?
• heat cramps • heat syncope • heat exhaustion • heatstroke
2015 India Heat Wave
• late May-early June • Deaths: over 2,300 • Temps. soared to 118° F (highest recorded temp. since 1995); occurred during climatological dry season
What instrument is used to measure evapotranspiration?
• lysimeter
What is the purpose of the Palmer Drought Severity Index?
• most common drought index used in the U.S. • based on meteorological observations and the concept of the water balance equation • quite useful for monitoring the impacts that drought has on agriculture. • specifically designed for assessing long-term meteorological drought conditions, and is therefore not practical for assessing drought in its early stages.
What is the purpose of the Crop Moisture Index?
• specifically designed to assess short-term drought conditions (one should not use the CMI for assessing long-term drought) • can also be used to measure the status of dryness or wetness affecting warm season crops and field activities.
What instruments are used to measure rainfall?
• standard rain gauge • tipping bucket rain gauge
What instruments are used to measure precipitation?
• standard rain gauge • tipping bucket rain gauge • standard snow gauge • evaporation pan
What instrument is used to measure snowfall?
• standard snow gauge
What caused 2016 Southern Drought?
•Bermuda high over the south • Jetstream shift north • Large high-pressure systems over southern U.S.
2007 Drought
•Severe to extreme drought periods throughout entire year • Major crop losses • Record-setting heat wave • Wildfires • Estimated cost: > $5 billion in damages
