GEOL Test 2

relative humidity value

%

monotony of weather in ITCZ has given rise to the expression '______'

'down in the doldrums'

when food supplies diminished on ships sailing to America, horses were either eaten or thrown overboard, hence the term '_________'

'horse latitudes'

GCM contains several sub-model programs for: - atmosphere - ocean - land surface - ? - ?

- cryosphere - biosphere

cloud to rain is ____ calories released

-585

two principle deep water flows

-north atlantic deep water -antarctic bottom water (deepest)

aquifers can be (2):

1. confined 2. unconfined

data indicates there was a rise in global MSL of 4.5 cm (1.7 in) from 1993 - 2008. the rise is attributed to two factors:

1. thermal expansion of seawater due to higher temperatures 2. melting of glacial ice and ice sheets

scientists estimate that sea-level will rise ____ - _____ m by the end of this century

1.0 - 1.4 m

water to water releases / absorbs _____ calories

100

groundwater supplies up to ____% of freshwater in some rural areas

100%

warm fronts are ______km wide

1000

secondary H-L pressure areas are ______-______ meters high

100s to 1000s

normal sea-level pressure

1013.2 mb (29.92 in.)

earth today is close to equaling the highest average temperature of the past ________ years

125,000

__% of evaporation comes from earth's land

14%

evapotranspiration over land accounts for __% of the entire hydrologic cycle

14%

__% of land is evapotranspiration and ___% if runoff/groundwater = 22% total

14% 8%

velocities of ocean currents are typically 10 km/day but locally may attain ____km/day

160 km/day

high plans aquifer includes ______ wells irrigate, ~65,000 sq/km of land

170,000

the concentration of carbon dioxide has increased steadily since ____ with smaller, annual variations

1958

low cloud altitudes are surfaces up to ______ m

2,000

middle cloud altitudes are _______ - ______ m (preface alto-)

2,000 - 6,000

radiative forcing measurement for total anthropogenic forcing

2.30

freshwater is ___% of all earth's water

2.78%

radiative forcing measure for greenhouse gases

2.83

a typical raindrop is _______μm diameter

2000

volume of fresh water produced by desalination worldwide is expected to double between _____ - ______

2010 - 2020

__% of precipitation on earth comes over land

22%

___% of all precipitation on earth falls over land

22%

subtropical highs occur close to ____ degree N and S latitudes

30

a lightning stroke can heat air to ________ deg C

30,000

polar and subtropical jet streams circle the earth at midlatitudes (___ degrees to ____ degrees N and S) at elevations in upper troposphere where jets fly

30d to 60d N and S

cold fronts are _____km wide

400

average precipitation of US

4200 billions of gallons a day (BGD)

Water reaches its greatest density at

4°C (39°F)

water density decreases below _____

4°C (39°F)

temperatures have increased over the last ____ years

50

about ___% of US population derives a portion of its freshwater from groundwater sources

50%

porosity in most rocks is usually less than 20% but can be as high as ___%

50%

the effects of wind friction near the surface extends to a hight of about _____ m (1650 ft)

500m

latent heat of water vaporization is _____ calories (absorbed / released)

540

high cloud altitudes are above _____ m

6,000

about _____% of the volume loss in the Quadishaya Reservoir (Euphrates River in Middle East) is attributed to groundwater withdrawals in the region

60%

intense irrigation from the high plains aquifer depleted groundwater in many areas: ___% of total decline occurring in TX

62%

apprx ___% of earth's surface is covered by water

71%

of the average 4200 BGD (billions of gallons a day) precipitation received by the US, ____% ends up at ACTET with ___% is the surplus

71%; 29%

___% of precipitation on earth comes over ocean

78%

___% of precipitation over ocean and __% runoff/groundwater = 86% returned to ocean

78% 8%

runoff accounts for __% of the entire hydrologic cycle

8%

latent heat of melting ice is ____ calories (absorbed / released)

80

___% of earth's evaporation comes from the ocean

86%

runoff follows two basic pathways to the sea: - overland flow (___%) - subsurface flow as groundwater (___%)

95% 5%

___% of earth's water comes from the oceans

97.22%

in winter, two subpolar low-pressure cells dominate around 60 degree North latitude but weaken or disappear in the summer - Aleutian low in the _______ ocean - Icelandic low in the ________ ocean

Aleutian: Pacific Icelandic: Atlantic

climate models suggest that the smallest amount of warming corresponds to lowest ______ emissions

CO2

rising warm air creates an equatorial trough, low-pressure belt called the _____

Doldrums

_______ occurs when south-easterly winds blowing towards the northwest diminish

El Niño

trade winds in the southern hemisphere are important in affecting ______

El Niño

_____ calculate scenarios of future climate change based on input parameters and variables

GCMs (general circulation models)

ITCZ stands for

Intertropical Convergence Zone

environmental lapse rate is less than both the DAR and _____

MAR

desalination usage is important today in Australia, _____, coastal southern CA, and FL

Middle East

colder, denser AABW flows beneath _____

NADW

coriolis deflection of a flight path from the North Pole to ________, which is on the equator

Quito, Ecuador

______ waves: - bring tongues of cold air southward, with warmer tropical air moving northward - form distant cyclonic circulations aloft - support development of cyclonic storm systems at the surface

Rossby

_______ waves develop within the geostrophic (upper troposphere) circulation pattern in relation to polar jet-stream flow

Rossby

oceans _____ due to absorption of increasing amounts of atmospheric CO2

acidify

net outward movement of water molecules away from land and plants

actual evapotranspiration (ACET)

convergent uplifted air undergoes ______ cooling, cloud formation, and possibly precipitation

adiabatic

in orographic lifting, descending air mass on the leeward side undergoes _____ heating and becomes dryer

adiabatic

the warming and cooling rates for a parcel of expanding or compressing air are termed ________

adiabatic

latent heat of condensation in moist air is liberated as sensible heat, reducing the ....

adiabatic rate of cooling

Warm, moist air moves over cooler ocean currents, lake surfaces or snow masses for ______ fog

advection

________ fog forms when air in one place migrates to another place where conditions cause saturation

advection

for _______ fog, the air layer directly above the cooler surface is chilled to the dew point

advection

climate change results in monetary damage due to crop failures and diminishing water supplies: lives are changed or lost; poorer countries might not adapt successfully

aggregate impacts and damages

changes in soil moisture and weather as they affect crop yields is a ______ drought

agricultural

____ masses are generally classified according to the temperature and moisture characteristics of their source regions

air

an ____ mass reflects the characteristics of its source region

air

the pressure exerted by the weight of air above a given point, usually expressed in millibars (mb) or inches of mercury (in. Hg)

air pressure

cold air forces warm air ______

aloft

______ clouds are middle-level clouds that appear in patchy rows or wave patterns

altocumulus

_______ measures wind speed

anemometer

- small, sealed chamber partially emptied of air - chamber connected to a mechanism that is sensitive to changes in the chamber - as air pressure varies, mechanism moves needle on dial

aneroid barometer

arctic high is less pronounced than the _______ high

antarctic

temperature designated by latitude for air mass as arctic (A), polar (P), tropical (T), equatorial (E), or ______ (AA)

antarctic

cold surface water subsides off antartica to form ____

antarctic bottom water

north atlantic deep water reaches

antarctica

greenhouses gases are the largest contributors to ________ forcing

anthropogenic

diverging surface winds rotate clockwise around high pressure in northern hemisphere to form ______

anticyclone

rock layer (e.g. shale) does not transmit water in usable amounts

aquiclude

highly permeable rock such as sandstone or porous limestone within the zone of saturation

aquifer

as air masses migrate from their source regions, their temperature and moisture characteristics are modified by the _____ over which they pass

areas

______ deserts: - dominated by subtropical high pressure - tropical and subtropical regions hot - mid-latitudes are cold

arid

stream is site of groundwater recharge

arid

______ system occurs where groundwater under pressure rises above the level of an aquifer

artesian

in ________ wells, water rises on its own without pumping

artesian

two conditions are necessary for a ________ system: 1. aquifer is inclined with one end receiving water (recharge area) 2. aquifer is confined with aquicludes above and below

artesian

two types of _______ wells: - nonflowing occurs when pressure surface is below ground and water does not reach surface - pressure surface above ground creates a flowing artesian well

artesian

______ air parcel cools by expansion in response to reduced pressure at higher altitudes

ascending

pressure gradient alone shows low pressure as _____, ______

ascending, converging

the bermuda high steers the paths of ______ hurricanes

atlantic

ACTET involves many types of vegetation, all water as ACTET is returned to the ______

atmosphere

both moist and dry parcels remain cooler than the surrounding _______ and are forced to settle back in original positions

atmosphere

over half of precipitation on earth is returned to the _______ via evapotranspiration - the remainder flows to the sea as runoff

atmosphere

the surface ocean layer is in direct contact with the _____ and warmed by the sun's energy

atmosphere

all the precipitation received is eventually returned to the ______ and ______

atmosphere and ocean

basic cause of the two jet streams is the rapid change in ______ in the middle latitudes

atmospheric temperature

anticyclonic surface winds move ____ from the northern polar region

away

during an eastward flight, in the same direction as earth's rotation, the centrifugal force acting on the plane in flight increases to counter the gravitational force pulling towards earth's _______, so the planes path is deflected toward the equation *wind and ocean currents experience the same deflection

axis

smaller variations of carbon dioxide can be explained by the seasonal changes in the _______

biosphere

water held in soil by surface tension and hydrogen bonding and is generally accessible to plant roots

capillary water

______ accounts for the greatest amount of radiative forcing by greenhouse gases

carbon dioxide

ocean ______ is driven by contrasts in temperature, composition, and density of ocean waters

circulation

wispy clouds

cirroform

_______ clouds followed by stratus clouds are commonly associated with an approaching warm front

cirrus

clouds often associated with an approaching storm

cirrus

sandstones are typically more permeable than _____

clays

________ is weather over time

climate

factors of POTET include vegetation and

climate

study of climate

climatology

bermuda high occurs in a ______ rotation

clockwise

a ______ is an aggregation of moisture droplets and ice crystals suspended in air

cloud

three basic forms of _______ 1. stratiform 2. cumuliform 3. cirroform

clouds

as a hurricane surge approaches the ______, the shallowing sea floor aids in piling up the wind-driven ocean

coast

winds blowing over the sierra nevada mountains then flow downslope to lower elevations towards the ______ *santa ana winds*

coast

_____, canadian air mass

cold

polar high is where ____ air sinks

cold

polar front is where warm air rises over _____

cold air

water vapor is _____ gas

compressible

a ______ forms when the rate of water withdrawal exceeds the rate of local groundwater flow

cone of depression

bound above and below by aquicludes

confined

arctic high tends to form over ______ areas in winter - Canadian and Siberian highs

continental

moisture for air masses is designated as maritime (m) wetter or ______ (c) dryer

continental

mid-latitude cold steppe climate is generally controlled by

continental air masses

ocean pathways are influenced by - earth's spin and - positions of ______

continents

________ lifting is when air lifting is stimulated by the local surface heating

convectional

the land mass of Florida is warmer than the surrounding Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean... making it prime for ______ activity

convectional

_________ is caused by relatively cooler air mass moving over warmer land

convectional lifting

in ________, heating from the warmer land causes lifting and convection in air mass

convectional lifting

cold fronts have ______ activity (thunderstorms)

convective

_____ lifting is when air flows toward an area of low pressure

convergent

examples of _______ lifting include the trade winds along the intertropical convergent zone

convergent

_____ water of la niña condition

cool

a parcel ______ than the surrounding air is denser, becomes compressed, and warms as it sinks

cooler

in winter, land is ______ than ocean high pressure over land causes air to sink, surface winds blow away from land towards the ocean, leaving the land dry *monsoonal winds*

cooler

warm, humid maritime air mass passes into ______ areas

cooler, continental

negative radiative forcing indicates

cooling

surface friction adds a counterforce to________, producing winds that spiral out of a high-pressure area and into a low-pressure area - air flows into low-pressure cyclones and turns to the left, bc of the deflection to the right

coriolis

direction of ocean currents is influenced by the

coriolis effect

ekman spiral is a consequence of the

coriolis effect

the pattern of deflection taken by objects not firmly connected to the ground as they travel long distances around Earth

coriolis effect

while resultant flooding can be destructive, monsoons are important for _____

crops

puffy and globular clouds

cumuliform

_______ clouds are commonly associated with cold fronts

cumulonimbus

__________ development: - larger raindrops and ice crystals descend in downdrafts - heavy precipitation, lightening, thunder, hail, strong winds, and possibly tornadoes - raindrops and ice crystals form aloft and grow while suspended by updrafts - violent updrafts pull surrounding air into the system

cumulonimbus

clouds associated with strong storms, thunder, and lightning

cumulonimbus

hail generally forms within a __________ cloud

cumulonimbus

high-altitude winds may shear the top of ________ clouds in the characteristic anvil shape

cumulonimbus

towering giant, vertical clouds often called thunderheads

cumulonimbus

_____ clouds are associated with fair weather

cumulus

______ are low-level puffy clouds composed of water droplets

cumulus

because earth is a sphere and rotates on its axis, air moving across the surface appears to ______

curve

cold and warm air masses converge and are drawn into conflict during what stage of the midlatitude cyclone life cycle?

cyclogenesis

the rotation of the earth and the jet stream aloft induce spinning (vorticity) along the stationary front

cyclogenesis

converging surface winds rotate counterclockwise around low pressure areas in northern hemisphere to form a _______

cyclone

_____ motion begins with slow-moving easterly wave of low pressure in the trade wind belt and sea-surface temperatures greater than 26 deg C (79 deg F)

cyclonic

the time water takes to move through the ground from recharge to discharge depends on: - permeability of material - travel distance - path of flow can range from ______ (time period)

days to thousands of years

relative humidity ______ at higher temperatures

decreases

_____ water is cold and relatively uniform in temperature

deep

dew point value

degrees C or F

wet bulb/dry bulb value

degrees C or F

poleward moving air radiates energy into outer space, cools, and becomes more _____, causing it to sink in regions known as highs

dense

higher water ______ is caused by: - colder temperature - higher salinity

density

______ form when strong downbursts in a thunderstorm system blast strong winds outward - linear paths fan out along curved-wind fronts over a wide area of land

derechos

_______ are capable of overturning boats, hurling flying objects, and breaking tree limbs

derechos

strong linear winds in excess of 26 m/s (58 mph) associated with thunderstorms and bands of showers

derechos

_______ of seawater can augment diminishing groundwater supplies

desalination

an important supplement to water supplies in regions with large variations in rainfall throughout the year and declining groundwater reserves

desalination

a parcel of lower density air will rise (more buoyant) while denser air with _____ (less buoyant)

descend

_______ air heats by compression due to increasing pressure at lower altitudes

descending

pressure gradient alone shows high pressure as _____, ______

descending, diverging

downwelling air is dry because sinking air heats up during descent: causing worlds largest _____ to occur in subtropical highs

deserts

rising air parcel cools to _____ point

dew

temperature at which water vapor begins to condense

dew point

groundwater then flows to __________ areas

discharge

lifting mechanism of cyclone results in continuous layer of cooler air beneath warmer air occurs during what stage of the midlatitude cyclone life cycle?

dissolving stage

________ are over oceans, winds are light in ITCZ

doldrums

layers of air at the surface of a highland or plateau cools, becoming denser and flowing _____ *katabatic wind*

down-slope

mountain air cools rapidly at night, causing cooler air to _____ into the valley

down-slope

in summer, land is warmer than the ocean rising air over land draws warm, moist surface winds inland from the ocean, so land is _____ *monsoonal winds*

drenched in rain

- gravity - pressure gradient force - coriolis force - friction force

driving forces within the atmosphere

when not enough water is available to meet demand, a ______ occurs

drought

______ adiabatic rate 10 C°/1000 m 5.5 F°/1000 ft

dry

in the polar high all seasons are ____

dry

______ (DAR) is the rate at which 'dry' air cools by expansion or heats by compression

dry adiabatic rate

_______ temperature (Tdb) can be measured using a normal thermometer freely exposed to the air

dry-bulb

Antarctic Sound and West Greenland are examples of

earth's ice sheet

cyclone forms on _____ side of migrating trough of low pressure

eastern

______ - Southern Oscillation: - peruvian and southern equatorial currents are part of CCW circulation of winds and ocean currents around a sub-tropical high-pressure cell in the southern pacific

el niño

climate effects of _____ in north america - western US is stormy - southern US is wet - northern US / midwest is often milder conditions

el niño

actual lapse rate for air at a particular place and time: - Can be lower or higher than the normal lapse rate depending on conditions

environmental lapse rate

formation of deep water occurs near the _____, where heat input in the ocean warmers deeper, cold water

equator

________ fog forms when water molecules evaporate from the water surface into cold, overlying air

evaporation

net movement of water molecules away from a wet surface into air that is less saturated

evaporation

Also known as steam fog or sea smoke

evaporation fog

potential evaporation is easily measured using an _______, as evaporation occurs, water measured amounts is replaced in the pan so no shortage occurs

evaporation pan

combination of evaporation and transpiration

evapotranspiration

water not collected or retained in a lysimeter is credited to ________

evapotranspiration

in some areas like New England, water supply far ______ usage

exceeds

Verkhoyansk, Russia is an example of a

extreme subarctic cold winter climate

strong winds spiral upward in ____ wall in a hurricane

eye

the lowest pressure within a hurricane is in the _____ where sinking air produces calm conditions

eye

during droughts, the water table _____, reducing stream flow and drying up some wells

falls

at night, land cools _____ than water

faster

during the day, land heats up ______ than water

faster

_____ occurs after excess gravitational water drains from the soil, leaving the remaining water available for plants (capillary h2o)

field capacity

maximum amount of water that can be retained in pore spaces for plants

field capacity

cloud layer on the ground that restricts visibility to less than 1km

fog

the longer trend shows increasing carbon dioxide concentrations are likely due to burning of ________

fossil fuels

contaminated wastewater from _____ operations

fracking

near the surface, ______ disrupts equilibrium between pressure gradient and coriolis forces (anticyclone, cyclone)

friction

_______ lifting is when air is lifted along the leading edges of contrasting air masses

frontal

specific humidity value

g/kg

category 4 hurricane that struck land september 8, 1900 with wind speeds over 120 mph, over 6,000 people killed

galveston hurricane of 1900

hurricane-force waves and storm surge pushed a wall of debris, reaching 15 feet in height, inland over several blocks in hurricane of _______

galveston, 1900

water vapor is in the _____ phase - each molecule moves independently

gas

a _________ model consists of a grid of boxes, each representing a different location on earth; each box consists of multiple layers and interacts with adjoining boxes

general circulation

scientists developed a complex computer climate model known as a ________ (GCM)

general circulation model

subtropical highs see very ____ winds - ships sailing to america often languished due to this

gentle / lack of

______ winds are characteristic of upper tropospheric circulation

geostrophic

light winds have ______ pressure gradient

gradual

excess water that percolates downward from the shallower capillary zone to the deeper groundwater zone

gravitational water

dry, cold continental air masses pass from polar regions and move south and east over the _____

great lakes

the ________ effect: - shortwave radiation enters atmosphere - some of this energy heats the earth's surface - surface heat is then reradiated outward at longer wavelengths (infrared) - greenhouse gases in atmosphere absorb and re-emit some of this long wavelength energy, trapping heat in lower atmosphere

greenhouse

Water is transferred from one reservoir to another through: - evaporation - precipitation - ? - ? - transpiration

ground infiltration and surface runoff

______ can be contaminated by: - drainage from septic tanks, broken sewers, and barnyards - agricultural posions - highway salts - buried hazardous wastes - invading seawater along coastal areas

groundwater

_______ percolates through soil, regolith, and rock through open pore spaces or fractures

groundwater

largest reservoir of fresh water that is readily available to humans

groundwater

water found in the pores of soil and sediment, plus narrow fractures in bedrock

groundwater

the _______: - intersects the land surface at lakes, marshes, springs, and streams - somewhat imitates the overlying land surface - may drop during dry seasons - rises after heavy rainfalls

groundwater table

precipitation is so high around the gulf of mexico because of

gulf moisture

warm, shallow ____ flows towards north atlantic and cools

gulf stream

some ocean currents are continually deflected towards the right in the northern hemisphere and left in southern hemisphere

gyres

formation of _______: - circulation above and below freeze level adds layers of ice to hailstones until updrafts can no longer support weight - for larger hail, frozen pellets must stay aloft longer - raindrops circulate repeatedly above and below the freezing level in the cloud - violent updrafts pull surrounding air into the cumulonimbus system

hail

for phase changes, _____ energy must be added or released

heat

ocean currents distribute ______ and _____ in the oceans

heat and nutrients

air parcel ______ internally as it is compressed by higher air pressure

heats

air aloft converges and sinks in ____-pressure areas

high

cirrus are ______ altitude clouds composed of ice crystals

high

cold and dry air have _____ densities

high

fronts are boundaries between _____ pressure air masses with differing properties

high

surface winds diverge (move away) from ____-pressure area

high

______ aquifer is located in a region with modest amounts of precipitation, but high evaporation rates: - little rain water is available to recharge the aquifer

high plains aquifer

both moist and dry air parcels have adiabatic rates ______ than the environmental lapse rater

higher

cold water has _____ density than warm water

higher

the ______ the temperature, the greater the saturation vapor pressure

higher

westerlies occur at ______ latitudes than the trade winds

higher

ocean water sinks near the poles because of its

higher density

what accounts for higher POTET and ACTET in summer vs winter?

higher temperatures and greater plant activity in the summer

surface layer is moved ________ by wind and wave action

horizontally

stream is site of groundwater discharge

humid

__________ climate: - hot to warm summers, cold winters - maritime tropical air masses influence both humid continental moist-all-year and winter-dry climates - in North America, conflict between maritime tropical and continental polar in winter

humid continental

________ climate: - hot summers, mild winters - maritime tropical air masses produce convectional showers over land during summer - frontal activity with polar air masses in winter produce cyclonic storm tracks

humid subtropical

Columbia, South Carolina is an example of a

humid subtropical hot-summer climate, rainy all year

Chengdu, China is an example of a

humid subtropical winter-dry climate

Dalian, China is an example of

humid-continental hot-summer climate

New York, New York is an example of

humid-continental hot-summer climate

Moscow, Russia is an example of a

humid-continental mild-summer climate

hair hygrometer and sling psychrometer

humidity instruments

out at sea, strong winds pile up a wall of water near a _______ center

hurricane

unusually large category 2 hurricane in 2008

hurricane ike

- reached category 5 status in Gulf of Mexico - made landfall on Louisiana coast August 25, 2005 as category 3 - most destructive storm in terms of economic loss (estimated up to $125 billion)

hurricane katrina (2005)

latent hear of condensation from rising humid air into clouds leads to ________

hurricanes

warm ocean water (more than 80 degree F) provides energy for ______ and causes more evaporation making humid air and clouds

hurricanes

reservoir levels drop, stream flow decreases, and groundwater mining increases is ______ drought

hydrologic

the cyclical movement of water through the various reservoirs is represented by the ______ cycle

hydrologic

_______ pressure is the weight that an overlying column of water would exert at a particular depth

hydrostatic

thin molecule layer of water tightly bound to soil particles but not available for moisture demands

hygroscopic water

formation of sea ____ excludes salt, so surrounding water increases in salinity and thus density

ice

surface water mainly comes from

ice and glaciers

without carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor, the earth would be a

ice ball, 35 degrees C colder

earth's _______ are perpetually frozen and all months below freezing

ice sheets

as more water vapor enters the atmosphere, the amount of pressure exerted by that water vapor ________

increases

maximum specific humidity ______ with temperature

increases

relative humidity ______ at lower temperatures

increases

incoming moist air from _____ ocean brings in torrential rains (up to 400 inches every summer)

indian

_____ actions are created to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide

individual

in arid regions, recharge occurs beneath an _____

influent stream

________ water is a mixing zone between surface and deep water where temperature may decrease significantly with depth

intermediate

coastal ________ caused by a one meter rise in sea level, is predicate to occur by the next century

inundation

______ surfaces are planes that connect points of equal atmospheric pressure

isobaric

lines of equal pressure

isobars

cyclonic storms and associated air masses move across the US along storm tracks guided by the ...

jet stream

region or band of high winds

jet stream

_____ winds are stronger and occur on a larger scale than mountain-valley breezes

katabatic

examples of _____ winds: - ferocious winds blowing off ice sheets of antarctica and greenland - santa ana winds of california

katabatic

- pacific trade winds are stronger than usual, pushing warm surface water further west - results in increasing upwelling of cold water along eastern pacific coastlines (eg west coast of S Am) - equatorial waters become cooler than normal

la niña

_____ results when normal conditions along equatorial pacific intensify

la niña

in _______ breezes, warm, less dense air rises next to cool denser air, which sinks

land-sea

if two nearby regions on the earth's surface are heated differently, the result is a temperature (density) difference in the atmosphere causing winds to result what local wind is this?

land-sea breezes

- pressure surfaces puff-up over land - during the day, warm-air rises over land, drawing in cool air from water - resulting in surface breeze blowing _______

landward

storm tracks shift in _______ with the seasons

latitude

temperatures of surface waters vary with _______ and ________

latitude and seasons

in the southern hemisphere, air curvature is to the ______

left

MAR is _____ than DAR

less

solid ice is _______ dense than liquid water (ice floats)

less

warmed deep water becomes _____ dense and rises towards the surface

less

______ outside of the hurricane steer it and let it grow

light winds

______ stroke causes rapid expansion of air and formation of a compression wave that is heard as thunder

lightening

precipitation formation and turbulence within cumulonimbus cloud causes positive and negative charges to develop on different-size water droplets and/or ice crystals

lightening formation

- lighter positive charges rise while heavier negative charges sink within the cloud - negative charges at base of cloud repel negative charges on the ground surface, leaving a net positive charge on ground - charge difference is then neutralized by a ___________

lightning bolt

water is the ______ phase

liquid

- land-sea breezes - mountain-valley breezes - katabatic winds - monsoonal winds

local winds

air aloft rises and diverges in ____-pressure areas

low

cold fronts are cold dense air pushing _____ density warmer air

low

in convergent lifting, air flows from different directions into the same _____ pressure area

low

rising air generates a band of ____ pressure in the ITCZ

low

surface winds converge towards ____-pressure area

low

warm and moist air have _____ densities

low

stratus clouds are usually ____ to ____ altitude

low to middle

metamorphic rock has _____ porosity and _____ permeability

low, very low

rising warm air over cold air creates ______

low-pressure cells

downslope-flowing winds are heated at ____ elevations by atmospheric compression; winds also increase in speed through constricting valleys *santa ana winds*

lower

rising air parcel has _______ adiabatic rate than environmental lapse rate of the surrounding air

lower

POTET can be measured with a _____, which employs a buried tank opened at the surface

lysimeter

_______ climate: - warm to cool summers, mild winters - affected throughout the year by cyclonic systems formed along polar front

marine west coast

Bluefield, West Virginia is an example of a

marine west coast climate, affected by cyclonic storms all year

vapor pressure value

mb

_______ climate: - dry summers brought on by subtropical highs - mild winters controlled by cyclonic storm tracts - most precipitation occurs during winter

mediterranean

San Francisco, CA is an example of a

mediterranean climate, dry summers dominated by subtropical high; wetter winters affected by cyclonic storm tracts

melt-water from _______ flow into the oceans, causing sea level to rise

melting glaciers

- column of mercury in a glass tube under vacuum - mercury rises or falls with changes in air pressure

mercury barometer

______ forms as a rotating updraft within the thunderstorm, tornado descends from the lower portion

mesocyclone

formation of a _________ 1. strong winds aloft flow over weaker winds below; shear causes spinning along a horizontal axis 2. updraft from thunderstorm development tilts the rotating air along a vertical axis

mesocyclone

lower precipitation, higher temperatures and reduction in soil moisture is a _______ drought

meterological

Albuquerque, New Mexico is an example of a

midlatitude cold desert climate

air masses eventually lose their initial characteristics due to _______ into areas of different moisture and temperature characteristics

migration

sand and silt has _____ porosity and ____ permeability

moderate, moderate to low

_____, tropical air mass

moist

_______ adiabatic rate 6 C°/1000 m 3.3 F°/1000 ft

moist

______ (MAR) is the average rate at which ascending air that is moist (saturated) cools by expansion

moist adiabatic rate

a deficit occurs with POTET is there is not enough precipitation or ______ to meet demand

moisture

cloud is initially composed of microscopic _______

moisture droplets

- long, dry seasons in colder winter due to stable high pressure region in center of continent - by mid-summer, continental interior heats up creating low pressure area that draws in from surroundings what wind is this?

monsoonal

_____ winds are most notable in eastern india, parts of indochina, and the philippines

monsoonal

warmer air can hold _____ water vapor

more

North Atlantic Oscillation ______ phase: both icelandic low and azores high weakens

negative

North Atlantic Oscillation _____ phase includes: - polar jet stream follows more southerly path, allowing cold polar air to spill southward - winters in US and N europe much colder - weak storm track takes warm air towards meditteranean

negative

Pacific Decadal Oscillation ______ phase: - pacific equatorial surface waters cool while N pacific waters warm

negative

________ clouds yield precipitation where showers typically fall as drizzling rain

nimbostratus

southern oscillation _______ conditions: - low pressure in western pacific, high pressure in eastern pacific - rainfall in australia and SE asia - southeasterly trade winds drive surface ocean water westward along equatorial pacific - upwelling along SA coast brings deep-water nutrients to shallower depths - fishing is good

normal

average drop in temperature with increasing altitude (6.4 Co per 1000 m) for still, calm air

normal lapse rate

cold, dense air mass to the _____ *for jet streams

north

in the bermuda high, the westerlies are to the ____

north

cool water subsides in Labrador and Greenland seas to form _______ deep water

north atlantic

further north, deep bottom currents warm and rise towards the surface to join warm, shallow currents that return to _______

north atlantic

the continuous deflection traces out a clockwise loop in northern hemi is an examples of what gyre?

north atlantic

pressure differences between the icelandic low and azores high alternate in strength

north atlantic oscillation

coriolis force shows apparent deflection of straight line to the right in the ______ hemisphere

northern

counterclockwise rotation of hurricanes in the ________ hemisphere

northern

in polar high-pressure cells, cold air aloft sinks towards the surface: - descending winds diverge clockwise near the surface in ____ hemisphere

northern

warm shallow water flows _____ towards the pole, and further north, warm currents cool due to heat loss from the ocean

northward

further lifting of air parcels cause active condensation of water vapor around condensation ______ (dust, soot, ash, etc.)

nuclei

a _______ front is when two bodies of cold air associated with each front collide, forcing warm air to rise between them - the uplift of warm air results in cloud formation even though the frontal system has no contact with the ground

occluded

when a faster moving cold front overtakes a warm front

occluded front

cold air mass overtakes the warm front during what stage of the midlatitude cyclone life cycle?

occluded stage

- surface water - intermediate water - deep water three layers of the ______

ocean

land masses redirect _____ currents

ocean

surplus water that is not consumed eventually ends up in the

ocean

relatively narrow channels of swift-moving surface ocean water

ocean currents

warm air moves northward and cold air advances southward during what stage of the midlatitude cyclone life cycle?

opening stage

_________ lifting is when air is forced over a barrier such as a mountain range

orographic

in _______ lifting, a mountain acts as a topographic barrier to migrating air mass - air forcibly lifted upslope on the windward slide

orographic

precipitation is so high along western North America because of rain shadow and _____ lifting

orographic

a surplus for POTET occurs when there is an _______ of water

oversupply

the continuous deflection traces out a counterclockwise loop in southern hemi is an example of what gyre?

pacific

involves temperature and pressure fluctuations between the northern and tropical pacific ocean over durations of 20-30 years

pacific decadal oscillation

hail is typically _____ sized, but can occasionally achieve the size of golf balls or baseballs

pea or marble sized

thawing ________ releases soil carbon and the resulting positive feedback drives further warming

permafrost

measure of how easily a rock allows fluids to pass through it

permeability

warmer land in convectional lifting can include urban heat island and the area of darker soil in a

plowed field

_____ atmospheric mass is small and receives little energy from the sun

polar

a water molecule is ______ with the hydrogen bond

polar

two major jet streams

polar and subtropical

site of the polar jet stream

polar front

______ climate: - more moderate than polar continental - no month averages below -7 degrees C

polar marine

South Georgia Island, Antarctica is an example of a

polar marine climate

__________: - occur at high latitudes and high elevations - permafrost and ground ice conditions common - land under continuous snow cover 8-10 months - small plants during spring and short summer - never warms above 10 degrees C

polar tundra

ocean water near _____ sinks when its density exceeds that of surrounding water

poles

rising air within ITCZ, once aloft, moves towards the

poles

percentage of open spaces within a given volume of regolith or rock

porosity

North Atlantic Oscillation _____ phase: strong low pressure over iceland and strong high pressure over azores

positive

North Atlantic Oscillation _____ phase includes: - polar jet stream pulled to the north, cold polar air confined to northern europe and the arctic - strong atlantic storm track takes warm air in north atlantic on more northerly path towards scandinavia

positive

Pacific Decadal Oscillation ______ phase: - pacific equatorial surface waters warm with N pacific waters cool

positive

the water-vapor climate feedback loop, _______ feedback makes warming temperatures even warmer

positive

output in the water-balance equation includes actual evapotranspiration (ACET) and _______ (POTET)

potential evapotranspiration

water that would evaporate and transpire under optimum moisture conditions (when enough moisture is available)

potential evapotranspiration (POTET)

water under hydrostatic pressure seeks to rise to the same height at its pressure (__________) surface

potentiometric

input in the water balance equation is _____ and is measured using rain gauge

precipitation

orographic lifting air cools adiabatically, ______ may result

precipitation

ocean currents move in definite and _____ directions

predictable

winds tend to move from high to low ________

pressure

in the ______, trade winds converge near the equator

pressure gradient alone shows high pressure as _____, ______

a _________ force is created because of a pressure difference between high and low pressure areas

pressure gradient force

______ high and low pressure areas are interrupted cells or uneven belts of similar pressure that stretch across the globe

primary

secondary H-L pressure areas form within ______ pressure areas

primary

- equatorial low-pressure trough - subtropical high-pressure cells - subpolar low-pressure cells - polar high-pressure cells

primary H-L pressure areas

remote sensing by satellites such as Jason-1 and Jason-2 track changing sea-level using ______

radar altimetry

_______ fog forms when radiative cooling of a surface chills the air layer directly above the ground to the dew-point temperature

radiation

_______ fog often occurs on clear nights over moist ground

radiation

_______ describes the amount by which some perturbation causes Earth's energy balance to deviate from zero

radiative forcing

a million or more moisture droplets aggregate to form a

rain drop

the dry region on the leeward side of the mountain is referred to as

rain shadow

cold fronts have relatively ______ movement

rapid

in areas of abundant rainfall, the _______ area may encompass the entire landscape beyond stream channels

recharge

in regions where withdrawal of water exceeds _______, the water table will gradually drop

recharge

mass of water in air x 100 ------------------------------- mass of water air can hold

relative humidity (RH) expressed in percent

desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain uses the process of _______ to remove salts and impurities

reverse osmosis

high pressure areas appear as a ______, upper air winds circulate around it as a clockwise flow

ridge

in the northern hemisphere, air curvature is to the _______

right

incoming storm surge and greatest precipitation on the ______ side) of hurricane

right side (facing land)

magnitude and frequency of extreme weather events increase: precipitation and floods intensify: hurricane and tornado intensities increase: more heat waves, droughts, and wildfires

risks of extreme weather events

dynamic equilibrium is disrupted, tipping point is reached and the system spasms to a new equilibrium state: disruptions include melting of mountain and continental glaciers, sea-level rise, and ocean acidification

risks of large-scale discontinuities and disruptions

loss of glaciers (global warming), coral reefs (ocean acidification), barrier islands and small islands (rising sea level) are all factors that lead to ecosystem migrate and species become extinct

risks to unique and threatened systems

earth's ______ adds the coriolis force and a 'twist' to air movements

rotation

the key to the coriolis effect lies in earth's ______

rotation

precipitation over land that is not returned to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration flows back to the sea as ______

runoff

deep-ocean thermohaline circulation is driven by differences in temperature and _____

salinity

______ winds are often in force during wildfire seasons

santa ana

when the vapor pressure maximum is reached, no more water can enter the atmosphere and the atmosphere is ________

saturated

______ occurs in soil when pore spaces are filled with water, leaving plant roots incapable of gas exchange until excess water drains downward in the soil (gravitational h2o)

saturation

in the zone of _______, pore spaces are filled with 100% water

saturation

recharge of groundwater occurs in areas where precipitation seeps downward to the ______ zone

saturation

as an air parcel continues to rise, it leads to ______ and _______

saturation and cloud formation

wind is measured by radar ________ aboard the Seasat satellite

scatterometer

at night, warm-air rises over water, drawing in cooler air from land, resulting in surface breeze blowing ________

seaward

drinking water is produced from ________ through a series of filters

seawater

_______ high and low pressure areas are smaller than primary systems

secondary

________ H-L pressure areas range from a few hundred to a few thousand km in diameter

secondary

________ (flat grassland): - tropical, subtropical hot dominated by high pressure - mid-latitude cold occurs poleward of 30 degrees latitude and dominated by continental air mass - desert climate

semiarid steppes

in areas like western US, water _____ result

shortages

migration of deep waters is _____ (averages 5 km or 3 miles a day)

slow

warm fronts are relatively ______ movement

slow

water moves ______ through pores, along parallel thread-like paths

slowly

warm fronts are associated with slow steady rain or

snow

water rationing, wildfires, and other problems affecting the economy and society is a _______ drought

socioeconomic

1. gravitational h2o 2. capillary h2o 3. hygroscopic h2o types of _______

soil moisture

ice is the ______ phase of water

solid

in the bermuda high, the trade winds are to the ____

south

warm, moist air mass to the _____ *for jet streams

south

coriolis force shows apparent deflection of straight line to the left in the ______ hemisphere

southern

in polar high-pressure cells, cold air aloft sinks towards the surface: - descending winds diverge counterclockwise near the surface in ____ hemisphere

southern

strong dry winds generated by high pressure over the great basin of western US flow out across the desert towards _________ CA *santa ana winds*

southern

originates in the tropical pacific and accompanies el niño

southern oscillation

region of high atmospheric pressure see-saws from one side of pacific to other: - high pressure in western pacific, southeasterly trade winds diminish - equatorial current stops or flows eastward to produce el niño - equatorial surface becomes warmer - upwelling blocked along west coast of SA by warm surface water - fishing is poor - drought in australia and SE asia

southern oscillation and el niño

cold bottom water flows ______

southward

in the northern hemisphere, trade winds blow mainly towards the ______

southwest

recent droughts around the world are possibly linked to global climate change - give two examples

southwestern US and australia

mass of water vapor (in grams) per mass of air (in kilograms) at a given temperature

specific humidity

poleward-moving air must converge aloft because the earth is a _____

sphere

the strongest frontal activity for storm tracks occurs during the ______ and is often associated with thunderstorms and tornadoes

spring

______ occurs where groundwater emerges at the surface

springs

strong winds have ________ pressure gradient

steep

the less-dense warm mT air is lifted up and over the denser cold cP air: - frontal boundary is often the site of _____ and __________

storm activity and precipitation

northward shift of _______ in spring occurs when cP and mT air masses are in greatest conflict

storm tracks

because jet streams wander, they have a big influence on the development and intensification of ______

storms

______ clouds develop horizontally as flat and layered clouds

stratiform

_______ clouds are lumpy, grayish, low-level clouds that sometimes indicate clearing weather

stratocumulus

Resulting upslope fog forms a ________ cloud at the level of saturation

stratus

_____ clouds are composed of water droplets

stratus

clouds that appear dull, grey, and featureless

stratus

the closer isobar lines are, the _______ the wind

stronger

________ climate: - cool summers and very cold winters - dominated throughout the year by continental air masses

subarctic

Churchill, Manitoba is an example of a

subarctic cool summer and cold winter climate, high pressure dominates Churchill during cold winter

the direct change of water vapor to ice or ice to water vapor

sublimation

polar front in the area of contrast between cold and warm masses in ________

subpolar low-pressure cells

if the water table is allowed to drop significantly, land _________ will result

subsidence

- pacific high - bermuda high examples of

subtropical high-pressure cells

convergence and cooling of air masses aloft causes the air to sink at about 30 degrees N and S latitudes to form __________

subtropical highs

______ water varies in temperature with latitude and seasons

surface

water supply in the USA comes from ______ and _______ sources

surface and groundwater

_____ water is runoff available for withdrawal, consumption, and various instream (navigation, wildlife, hydroelectric, power) uses

surplus

________ may develop within an air mass, along a cold front, or result from orographic lifting along a mountain slope

thunderstorms

large quantities of water vapor in clouds condense, releasing tremendous amount of latent heat - liberated heat lowers density and increases buoyancy of surrounding air

thunderstorms

formation of __________: 1. beings with a layer of unstable warm, moist air trapped beneath a ceiling of cold, dense air 2. warm buoyant air suddenly finds an opening in the overlying ceiling 3. warm air rushes rapidly and violently upward through the opening to create a narrow zone of very intense low pressure 4. surrounding air and associated debris near ground level rushes in from all directions, creating a vortex

tornado

the 7 years from 2003 to 2009 show a significant increase in the average number of ________ per month

tornadoes

______ are utilized by mariners for trade when traveling from Europe to America

trade winds

what caused Colombus to land in the West Indies rather than continental NA?

trade winds

outward movement of water through small openings (stomata) in the underside of leaves

transpiration in plants

tropical cyclones originate within.....

tropical air masses

_________ climates: - principally along coastal areas - rainfall from 6-12 months of the year brought by the ITCZ - dry season dominated by subtropical highs that last one or more months

tropical monsoon

Yangon, Myanmar is an example of a

tropical monsoon climate

Brazil is an example of a

tropical rain forest

________: - influenced all year by ITCZ - climate is constantly moist and warm - rainy all year - convectional thunderstorms triggered by local heating and trade wind convergence

tropical rain forest

________ climates: - ITCZ dominates during summers and characterized by wetter conditions - dry conditions occur when ITCZ shifts away and high pressure dominates

tropical savanna

what climate has intense dry periods with plants adapted to seasonally dry water budgets?

tropical savanna

Arusha, Tanzania is an example of a

tropical savanna climate

Ar-Riyad, Saudi Arabia is an example of a

tropical, subtropical hot desert climates

Waight, New South Wales, Australia is an example of a

tropical, subtropical hot steppe climates; generally occur around the periphery of hot deserts

anvil-shaped head forms on clouds form at the top of the ______

tropopause

circulation in the middle and upper ______ can be visualized by viewing a constant isobaric surface

troposphere

low pressure areas appear as a _______, upper air winds circulate around it as a counterclockwise flow

trough

_______ refers to wind updrafts and downdrafts

turbulence

not bound by aquicludes

unconfined

impacts are greatest in low-latitude and less-developed countries due to shifts in crop patterns and spread of diseases at high latitudes, indigenous people of the circumpolar arctic will be affected by the rapid melting of ice sheets / permafrost

uneven distribution of climate change impacts

in the _______ zone, pore spaces are filled with water and air

unsaturated zone

an isobaric surface for the ______ atmosphere undulates: - ridges of high pressure where winds slow and converge in anticyclonic motion - troughs of low pressure where winds accelerate and diverge in cyclonic circulation

upper

Adiabatic expansion results in cooling and condensation for ______ fog

upslope

during the day, valley air heats rapidly causing warm air to rise _____

upslope

A type of advection fog where moist air is forced to higher elevations along a hill or mountain

upslope fog

fog common in winter and spring along the Appalachians and eastern slopes of the Rockies

upslope fog

converging air is forced ______

upward

two opposing forces work on a parcel of air: - upward ______ force - downward _____ force

upward buoyancy downward gravitational

_______ fog forms as a chilled, saturated layer near the ground

valley

fog in cool, dense air that settles in low-lying areas

valley fog

the amount of pressure exerted by water vapor in the atmosphere

vapor pressure

- surface texture - wind speed - time of day and year - atmospheric conditions

variables affecting friction

cloud altitudes are ______ developed

vertically

gravel has ____ porosity and _____ permeability

very high, very high

____ water of el niño condition

warm

______ fronts are warm low density air pushing cold dense air

warm

rising _____ air occurs within the ITCZ

warm

warm air moves up and over cold air in a ________

warm front

a parcel _____ than the surrounding air is less dense, expands, and cools as it rises

warmer

air parcel is always _________ than the surrounding atmosphere

warmer

more water vapor is required to saturate _______ air

warmer

differences in temperature create changes in density within an air parcel - warmer air: _____ density - cold air: _____ density

warmer: lower cold: higher

positive radiative forcing indicates

warming

_________ is a portrait of the hydrologic cycle at a specific site or area

water budget

if ACTET is less than POTET, then a _______ will occur

water deficit

if precipitation exceeds the amount of water required for POTET, _____ occurs

water surplus

a well supplies water when it penetrates the ______ and enters the zone of saturation

water table

climate regions are areas with similar ________

weather statistics

_______ were utilized by sailors returning to Europe from North America

westerlies

in the northern hemisphere, ______ mainly blow from the west towards the northeast

westerlies

all seasons are ____ in the polar front

wet

climate in the ITCZ is ____

wet - rainforests on land

_____ temperature (Twb), is indicated by a moistened thermometer bulb exposed to air flow

wet bulb

the _______ occurs when the only water remaining in the soil is unavailable for plants (hygroscopic h2o)

wilting point

______ is the horizontal motion of air across earth's surface

wind

________ determines wind direction

wind vane

surface ocean currents are driven by the

winds

jet streams are the most intense in the ______ when the temperature contrast is greatest

winter

groundwater occurs within ~ __ km of the earth's surface

~4km