Gilded & Progressive

Little Big Horn/General Custer

also known as _____ last stand, took place in June of 1876. As part of the Great Sioux War of 1876, it was a major victory for the Native Americans. The Sioux and Cheyenne warriors were led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, and sought to defend tribal land in the Dakota Territory. The land had been reserved for the Natives in 1868, and belonged to them "for as long as the grass shall grow". _____ invaded when gold was discovered on the reservation. _____, including 250 of his soldiers were killed in the battle, and continued Indian resistance.

Muckrakers vs. Yellow journalism

Two types of journalism emerged during the Progressive Era. Theodore Roosevelt coined the term "--" in a speech, implying that they preferred to focus on the evil instead of the benefits of industrialized America. In reality, -- were investigative journalists: people that sought to uncover the truth of the Gilded Age, particularly the extensive corruption and scandals. Their emphasis on concrete detail and firsthand experience reached a peak between 1904 and 1908, exposing industries like meat processing, insurance frauds, political corruption, and monopolies. This aided in reforming legislation, such as banning monopolies and forming the Pure Food and Drug Act. One of the leaders of the --, Joseph Pulitzer, was the head of the New York World. Following his death, the Pulitzer Prize became an award for good journalism. However, after William Taft became president, -- began to be suffocated by high-up officials. -- was a style of sensational journalism more similar to tabloids, consisting of purposefully exaggerated, untrue stories. It helps to serve as propaganda for people to join the war with Cuba and the Philippines. William Randolph Hearst was a main figure during this time for his work in the New York Journal. A cartoonist named Richard Outcault was working for Pulitzer until Hearst hired him away for his own newspaper due to Outcault's immensely popular comic, the Yellow Kid. The bidding war that ensued over Outcault and the overall market battle between the two newspapers gave rise to the term "--". In 1898, when a U.S. battleship was sunk in Havana Harbor after being sent to display American power and diffuse tension between America and Spain, Hearst seized on the explosion and called for immediate war. --fanned the flames of international conflict and the Spanish-American War. Both types of journalism had a huge effect in the public media, often aiding mass pushes for certain styles of thinking such as reform or joining the war.

Native American Education (ex. Carlisle School)

As part of the 'white man's burden,' white people felt compelled to assimilate Native Americans into their society by converting them to Christianity, forcing them to wear white clothes, and teaching them white culture through being forced to attend boarding schools. The ___ Institute was one of these schools that forced Native children to attend. One of the leaders of the school, Richard Pratt, had they saying "kill the Indian, save the man" and used physical punishment to force the children to totally accept white culture. ___ was founded on the beliefs that Native people were equals to European Americans, but in order for the declining 'Amerindian' population to survive, they must adapt to white culture. Although _____ was harsh (the school was literally built out of old prison barracks), many Native people believed that it provided a good education. Despite this education however, the graduates were never truly accepted by white society due to their ethnicity, although they had been culturally assimilated.

Statue of Liberty

Conceived by Edouard de Laboulaye, a Frenchman, in response to Lincoln's assassination, the ---was dedicated in New York Harbor during October 1886. Those at the dedication and who created the statue wanted it to represent unity between France and the US and American freedom, which had been upheld by the Union victory of the Civil War. However, the same year, widespread strikes and protests arose across the United States in response to working conditions. Strikebreakers and strikers had many violent interactions, sometimes ending in deaths. At the same time, the statue came to represent the nation, its freedom, and the immigrants that moved there. With the statue in view of Ellis Island, it became the first part of the US seen by many thousands of immigrants through the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Wild West meanings (romanticized, American exceptionalism)

During the late 19th century, the perception of the West in the eyes of most Americans was that it was a place of wide-open, untouched plains where cowboys and farmers roamed and lived freely. This romanticized version of the West was far from the truth; life for cowboys and farmers was challenging because they had to work long hours doing labor and herding cattle in order to survive. Making a sustainable amount of money for living became more difficult for those living in the West once larger corporations started to explore the benefits of business in this area. Because of railroads and large farms, cowboys were forced to become ranchers, and farming became a business, causing a reduction of smaller family farms. The cowboy also came to represent the idea of what it was to be an American; they were young, brave, strong, hard-working, and often viewed as similar to the Puritans, which changed the idea of American Exceptionalism.

Election of 1880, Garfield Assassination/Arthur

In the election of ___, the four candidates were ____ of the Republican party, Winfield Scott Hancock of the Democratic party, Prohibitionist Neal Dow, and James B. Weaver of the Greenback-Labor party. All four candidates were Union generals. This serves as an example of the effects of the Civil War in the elections from 1868-1900 as every candidate from the Republican party running for president had fought in the war. Specifically,the Republican party's dominion was mostly the North and the Midwest, similar to that of the war. ____ won the election and became president, but was assassinated in 1881 by an applicant denied for a government job. Because of this, the Civil Service Act of 1883 was established to hire government employees by merit rather than connections. ----, ---'s vice president, succeeded him as president.

Roosevelt, John Muir, Conservation, and Antiquities Act

-- a famous Scottish-American naturalist is known for his work in getting the U.S. government to fund national parks. --'s presidency beginning in 1901 focused on the -- as a main issue. The -- of 1906, allowed the president to protect scientific and historic land as national monuments.-- and -- are said to have gone on a 3 day camping trip that may be the most important camping trip in U.S. conservation history. He managed to persuade -- to return Yosemite Valley to a national reserve as well as expanding the national parks system in general.

Election of 1896 and McKinley's Presidency; Gold Standard Act, 1900

--- was president from 1896 to 1901. The election of 1896 hinged on the issue of currency, particularly on how to approach the inflation from a recession which started in 1893. The Democrats, and their nominee William Jennings Bryan, campaigned on a platform of bimetallism. Bryan, a charismatic orator, traversed the country arguing that silver should be used as a standard for currency along with gold. The Republican nominee ---meanwhile campaigned from his front porch. His party pulled strings with big business backers, with manager Mark Hanna putting elaborate money and organization into the campaign, setting a precedent of the political machine. --- won by a decisive majority but along regional lines. In 1900 President --- passed the ---which decisively ended bimetallism. Although the election was about currency, his first term as president was defined more by foreign policy. He was pressured into the Spanish-American war by the sensationalist yellow journalism and annexed the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico as part of the American imperialist movement. His administration also enacted the highest tariff in history, spurring a period of unprecedented growth of industrial trusts and combinations. --- was reelected in 1900 and his second term began auspiciously, but in 1901 he was assassinated at the Buffalo Pan-American Exposition. His legacy started a Republican majority that lasted into the 1930s and his election was the last with extremely high voter turnout, followed by a steady decline.

Horizontal vs. Vertical Integration

--- were the two main and most effective ways to grow an industrial corporation in the Gilded Age. --- is when the company manages nearly all steps in production. For example, Andrew Carnegie's U.S. Steel handled extraction, transport, Bessemer refinery process, steel mills, distributing, and selling. --- allows the company to cut out middle men, therefore cutting costs and yielding a high profit margin. ---, on the other hand, only involves one or two steps of the production process. If this one-step company can acquire other companies focusing on the same step, then they can share resources, which cuts costs, and they can control the price and other settings of that step (if they are a near-monopoly). This is found in Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company, which eventually constituted of 80% of the world's oil refinery. These near-monopolies eventually led to more governmental control over businesses, such as the Sherman antitrust act, and also muckrakers, such as Ida B. Tarbell.

Henry George, Progress and Poverty; Edward Bellamy, Looking Backwards

---'s --- was written in 1879 and examines the question why does poverty follow economic and technological progress. People were upset about the social conditions of the Gilded Age and the fear that the country was in danger of corruption. He proposed his own solution to the problem which was a single tax on land values. ---'s --, focuses on a man who falls asleep for 113 years and wakes up in a socialist America. -- describes his thoughts on a better future for America through the rest of the novel. He shows problems associated with capitalism and socialist solution to the problems.

frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis and the closing of the West

A piece of work which reflects upon the closing of the West and how the Americans needed the West to conquer. It was assertion that the American character, including such traits as democracy and materialism, derived from the frontier experience. He also explains how their was a need for a safety valve and that the frontier, as a place of opportunity and escape, was this since it defused social discontent in America. He ends this by saying that the frontier has now closed. This statement it due to the invention of refrigerated cars and barbed wire. The refrigerated cars make the need for cowboys useless since they can transfer meat, and barbed wire has literally closed off the West. Overall it was a reflection of America in the 1890s as well as a statement of American expansionism.

Redeemers in the New South

After Reconstruction in the South, a group of merchants, planters, and businessmen came to dominate politics and called themselves the "---" because they believed that they had redeemed the region from terrible misgovernment and "black rule". Their goal as a group was to undo the effects of Reconstruction as much as possible; they did so by cutting state budgets, reducing property taxes, and closing asylums and hospitals. The education system suffered greatly from their rule as well, causing a large decrease in white and black literacy and knowledge in the region. The --- also implemented new laws that allowed them to arrest anyone without employment. Because of this, prisons became overpopulated, which led large businesses (railroad, mine, lumber companies) to "take care" of this issue by renting out convicts for cheap, involuntary labor. With the ---s in power, the South experienced a period of regression and corruption after Reconstruction instead of growth and freedom.

New States added 1865-1900

After the Civil War ends in 1864, settlers poured into the West due to the Homestead Act, so many Western territories were added as states during this time. More land came into cultivation in the thirty years after the Civil War than in the previous two and a half centuries of American history. The Western region known as the Middle Border (Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, and Kansas), became a new agricultural empire for wheat and corn, and the population also rose from 300,000 in 1860 to 5 million in 1900. Other western territories were became extremely popular for cattle ranchers/cowboys, but the invention of barbed wire urbanized the West by the 1880s. Also, new states like Michigan, California, Nevada and Colorado were very popular places for the mining industry.

New South

After the Civil War, the North began its rapid period of industrialization. Yet, in the South, it appeared as though the rapid economic growth had passed over. That is why Henry Grady began to spread his idea of the --. He gave speeches on how the south should begin its industrialization, and how they should begin to base their agricultural society around several different crops . As the -- period began, the economy expanded and began to farm tobacco, rice, and Louisiana cane sugar. Although the South began to expand their crop selection, they still focused on producing cotton, which benefited the -- because of the boom in the textile industry. Along with the economy, the race relations began to change. Once the slaves were emancipated, the freedmen and women began to look for work. Instead of finding steady paying jobs, a majority of the freed blacks became indentured servants. Those who became indentured servants got sucked into a cycle of debt. This form of servitude reveals that the whites still looked for ways to remain superior. This can be seen through the actions the south took to complicate the voting process for blacks. In order for blacks to cast their vote, they had to pass a literacy test. Two men who fought against these racist acts were Booker T. Washington and W.E.B Du Bois. These two men became extremely influential figures during the -- because of their efforts to fight for black's rights. The -- was a time where southerners were finally seeing a change in their economy and relations with blacks in the South.

Progressives (as a group, goals, successes, failures)

After the election of --, when Theodore Roosevelt lost the candidature to William Howard Taft, Roosevelt formed the -- Party. This third party is also known as "Bull Moose Party" because Roosevelt said that he was "fit as a bull moose". They were active in reforms and many leaders involved in the reformations were attracted to the --. They wanted to create social insurance, minimum wage, eight hour workday, worker's compensation, and women's suffrage. Though they tried to have a -- president, many republicans refused to join the -- reforms, it was too difficult to electoral votes. By 1914, the party was starting to decline, because of their unpopularity.

George Washington Carver

American botanist and inventor. He was born into slavery in the early 1860s in Diamond, Missouri. His mother disappeared, and he was both freed and orphaned at the same time. He grew up with the white family, the --s, that had originally enslaved his mother. Because the --s had no children, they raised --- as their own. He left Missouri because of a lack of access to education due to his race. He earned his masters in agriculture from Iowa State college in 1896. Afterward, he began work as the head of the agricultural department at the Tuskegee Institute, headed by Booker T. Washington. There, he focused his teachings on resourceful farming, helping to positively influence the lives of sharecroppers. --- became a symbol of Black advancement and workforce achievement.

Pragmatism, William James, and John Dewey

American philosophers and proponents of the philosophy of --, an idea and movement that arose during the Progressive Era starting in the 1870s and continuing on through the 1900's. This philosophical doctrine stated that the truth of any idea could be tested. It denied the existence of absolute truths, instead teaching that ideas should be judged on their practical consequences; the value of usefulness, realisticality, and practicality were stressed by --. The movement was developed largely by --, who publish the book -- in 1907, and philosopher --. -- was also known as the "father of progressive education." -- and those who helped shape it is important because of the way it changed many aspects of American life, including education and schooling.

DW Griffith's Birth of a Nation

As America's first feature-length motion picture, --'s ---- continues to be the most offensive films ever made. Originally called The Clansman, it is three hours of racist propaganda — starting with the Civil War and ending with the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) rising up to save the South from the Reconstruction Era-prominence of African Americans. Despite being suppressed by the federal government, the KKK experienced a resurgence in the 1910s and 1920s as part of a cultural backlash to immigration and progressive reform, and it continues to use ---- as propaganda when recruiting new clansmen.

Sanford Dole (fruit/sugar), Queen Lilly, and Hawaii

Before the annexation of --, the queen was --. -- came to power in 1877 after her brother died. During her reign, she promised to gain back the monarchies power that was lost because of the Bayonet Constitution. Later in her rule, the US staged a coup to get rid of --. President Cleveland declared he would reinstate her if she gave amnesty to those who participated in the coup. Yet, soon after her reinstatement, a provisional government formed in --. In 1894, the US the Republic of -- was created and -- was appointed president. -- had played a large role in --'s government as seen in his positions on the -- legislature and justice of the -- supreme court. -- began to seek annexation for --, but Cleveland instead wanted to reinstate --. -- ignore president Cleveland's authority and instead created the Republic of --. After continuously pressing for annexation, around 1900 -- and his colleagues finally got their wish. -- was then appointed the first governor of the --an territory. The annexation of -- represents the United States involvement in Imperialism, and the US's need for a safety valve.

Bridges and Skyscrapers-- Urbanization and population growth, 1860-1910

Between 1860-1910, America experienced a wave of people moving to the city looking for work. Between 1870 and 1920, 25 million immigrants arrived and almost 11 million Americans moved from farm to city. New York, especially, symbolized urban growth with its new skyscrapers and hundreds of thousands of factories. Once it merged with Brooklyn, the population grew to over 3.4 million. The Brooklyn Bridge (completed 1883), connecting Brooklyn with New York, was the first steel-wire suspension bridge making it a huge achievement of the Second Industrial Revolution as it showed the popular use of steel during this time. It was supported by New York's political boss William Tweed. The rapid growth of cities with their new technology and supplies, cities were able to connect with each other, make more money, and showcase their power.

greenbacks, goldbugs and silverites, bimetallism

Congress discontinued the production of silver coins in the "Crime of '73." Less money in circulation meant banks and merchants could make it harder for people to take loans. Citizens, specifically farmers who needed to borrow money for their crops, wanted more money in circulation to leave more room for them to borrow money. Some wanted this to happen with --- and others preferred the government go back to silver. --- believed that the gold standard was needed to make sure the economy stayed stable. --- believed money should be in silver and gold. In other words, they wanted ---, or the unrestricted currency of both metals at a fixed ratio to each other.

cowboy: myth vs. reality

Cowboys have become very romanticized by American culture. However, in their true essence, they are simply cow herders that guided cattle to from the western plains to Chicago in order to be slaughtered for meat production. Western films portray cowboys as men whose lives are adventures, and their heroism attracted the American public. They depict small dusty towns, saloons, gunfights and duels, and dancing girls. These films, however, omitted the bad parts about being a cowboy. In reality, it consisted of a very dangerous job that reaped little pay. The west was still relatively unsettled, and therefore the law did not have much effect. It was truly every man for himself. Native Americans were often portrayed as the enemy in these films, serving as a threat to American expansion and prosperity. Yet in reality Native Americans were the victims of harsh America expansion.

Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders

During the Spanish American War in 1898, -- created a volunteer Cavalry troop filled with cowboys, natives, and miners called the --, becoming famous when they defeated the Spanish at San Juan Hill in Cuba. By creating this unit and coming out with military successes, -- earned fame, later allowing him to become McKinley's vice president because of his draw of public popularity. After McKinley's assassination one year into his second term, -- became the youngest president in U.S. history and pursued some progressive reforms as well as continued imperialist policies.

early labor movement: formation of the AFL, IWW, Knights of Labor; Department of Labor

During the industrial revolution, the demand for cheap labor skyrocketed. The combination of immigrants desperate for work and bosses greedy for large income led to less than ideal working conditions. --- was spurred by people who sought to change conditions for workers. During the ---, many groups of workers fighting for better conditions, known as labor unions, were formed. One early labor union was known as the ---. It was a group comprised of smaller craft unions. All members were skilled workers. It excluded unskilled workers knowing that it would increase their credibility. The group grew In size and went on to be one of the largest union groups in the country. They were successful in having their demands met and creating change in the workplace. Another labor union was the ---. They were founded in 1905 in Chicago. This group was considered radical, with ties to socialism and anarchy. It believes that all workers should be united as a single social class. In the early 1900's, the group was successful, particularly in the American West. Membership declined in the 1920's due to the formation of the __ and the government crackdown on radical groups. The group continues to exist with around 3000 members today. Another labor union is the ---. It was created in 1869. They rejected socialism and anarchy and fought for the 8 hour work day. The group was never well organized, and with the exception of a rapid expansion in the 1880's, was a small force. In response to the growing popularity of labor unions, the government created the --- in 1913. Created to protect the working class and improve working conditions. The creation shows the overall success of labor unions. The creation of labor unions reflected the changes the nation faced during the industrial revolution, and they served as a key part of the Progressive Era.

Plight of the Buffalo (and environment)

Emblematic of white settlement and the taming of the Wild West. Native Americans, especially on the Great Plains, relied on buffalo to live; in fact, they had over 52 uses for them, gaining benefits such as clothing, food, shelter, and military protection. However, once more and more people started to move to the West and railroads expanded, the Indians had to compete with settlers, who would kill the buffalo and waste a lot of their parts. People like William "Buffalo Bill" Cody and hunters from the East killed buffalo by the thousands. In just one hundred years (1800-1900), the buffalo population went from three million to less than one thousand. The near buffalo extinction was the main cause that put the Indian Wars to an end; without resources from buffalo, Indians could not effectively fight back against the Americans. Also with the growing settlement, land was being over-farmed (thus rendered infertile) and destroyed because of railroad expansion.

Second Wave of Immigration

Immigration to the US reached its peak from 1880-1920. During these years the US saw a greater ethnic diversity of immigrants from regions like Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia. The new groups arriving by the boatload in the Gilded Age included Greek, Italian, Polish, Slovak, Serb, Russian, Croat, and others. Until cut off by federal decree, Japanese and Chinese settlers relocated to the American West Coast. Unlike previous immigrant groups in America, none of these groups hailed from democratic regimes, and most did not speak English. There was also some resistance to immigration in the US. Nativists successfully restricted the flow of immigration with laws like the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, which barred this ethnic group entirely,and the Immigration Act of 1924. The idea of America being a "melting pot" came from this period of heavy immigration.

Eugenics; Social Darwinism

In 1859, British scientist Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, a scientific novel that reignited the idea of natural superiority. It expanded on the theory of evolution, and argued that the animal species best suited to their environments took the place of those that were unable to adapt. Language from the book, such as "natural selection" and "survival of the fittest", entered both the public sphere and discussions about the underlying issues of the Gilded Age. From these discussions emerged --, which stated that the government should not interfere in the natural evolution of human society. It supported the idea that the poor were responsible for their situations, and that anyone who experienced failure deserved to suffer. Darwin's cousin, Herbert Spencer, had different ideas about the improvement of the human race. He proposed the theory of --, in which desirable traits and controlled breeding are used in order to enhance future generations. The public's interest in -- and evolution helped propel -- into serious scientific study in the early 1900s.

Booker T. Washington, Tuskegee Institute

In 1881, former slave ---, known as the most famous black educator, founded the -- to promote economic success for blacks, teaching them trade skills in industry and agriculture. He hoped that the young people he was training would prove their worth in society by their abilities and by working behind the scenes, not by literally fighting for freedom. Ideally, by accepting discrimination for the time being, blacks would more easily become full-fledged citizens by showing that they are just as capable as whites (without any violence). --- and his institute had a positive impact on race relations in the South, inching the US closer to the civil rights movement.

Tariffs: McKinley Tariff (1890) and Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894)

In 1890, Republican Senator --- led the way to increase tariffs on manufactured foreign goods by as much as 50%, for the purpose of protecting American industries, and lowering or removing tariffs on goods such as sugar, alcohol, and tobacco. This put farmers at a disadvantage, because they were selling their products to an unprotected market, while having to buy expensive foreign agricultural tools. This will become one of the reasons for the forming of the Populist party. The tariff also affected Hawaii, which previously had a great relationship with the U.S. through sugar trade. With their sugar prices lowered in the U.S., they were being undersold and fell into depression, which caused them to push for their annexation since the tariff problem would disappear if they were not a foreign country. The tariff was highly unpopular with American consumers, so at the next election, the democrats were voted to comprise of the majority of the House of Reps. The --- was replaced with the ---, which reduced the tariffs and also re-introduced federal income tax (to compensate for the lowered government income through the tariffs). It also reinstituted the tariff on sugar, which hurt Cuba's economy, which relied heavily on America for sugar exports. Their economic downfall later fueled the Spanish-American War.

William Jennings Bryan, "Cross of Gold" speech

In 1896, Democrats and Populists joined to support --- for the presidency. He won the Democratic nomination after giving the ---that gave voice to the farmers' pride and grievances. He called for "free coinage" of silver (the unrestricted minting of silver money) and condemned the gold standard. He and his supporters believed that increasing the amount of currency in circulation would raise the prices farmers were paid for their crops and make it easier for them to pay off debts. In contrast, the Republican candidate, McKinley, insisted that gold was the only "honest" currency. The speech is indicative of a larger policy battle that was taking place over which currency America would use.

Examples of American power: Platt Amendment, Panama Canal

In the early 20th century, America began to form into an imperial power. They sent missions to countries all Central and Southern America. Their main objective was to establish economic connections between countries, in order for America to be able to import foreign fruits, as well as other goods. However, President Roosevelt eventually became active in diplomatic affairs as well. The -- was an amendment that the U.S. government made to the Cuban Constitution. Drafted by Senator Orville H. -- of Connecticut. This amendment stated that the United States had the right of military intervention whenever they saw fit. Only when Cuba accepted this amendment did the U.S. grant them independence. President Roosevelt ordered the construction of a canal running through the land between Panama and Colombia, to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The notion was not Roosevelt's original idea. The construction of a canal had been attempted before, but failed due to inadequate funding. In 1903, Colombia failed to approve the project. At this time, Panama was a part of Colombia. Roosevelt them incited a rebellion, recruiting Philippe Bunau-Varilla to lead it. American even sent a military ship to prevent the Colombian government from suppressing this rebellion. Bunau-Varilla achieved independence for Panama, and signed a treaty that allowed to construct and operate a canal over the 10 mile wide strip of land. Almost 50,000 workers, the majority being from Barbados, were brought to construct the --. The working conditions were brutal because of the tropical diseases carried by mosquitoes, which had halted earlier efforts of canal construction by the French. The -- was completed in 1914, yet the tension of how it was acquired by America remained for many decades. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter turned over the operation responsibilities of the canal to Panama. Finally in 2000, total control of the -- was submitted to Panama.

Election of 1884 and 1892; Grover Cleveland's non-consecutive terms

In the election of --, New York Governor -- narrowly defeated Republican former Senator James G. Blaine of Maine. He became the first democrat elected to the presidency since the election of 1856, before the Civil War. He ran on a platform of transparency and honesty to counter the Republicans, who had become associated with corruption and scandal. As president, -- upheld the merit system, denying government jobs to thousands of party members. He also was able to repeal the Tenure of Office Act so he could remove officials appointed by previous administrations without having to wait for their terms to end. He also vetoed a bill that would have allowed Civil War veterans to collect pensions for disabilities that occurred after the war. Additionally, he stood against protective tariffs on imported goods. During his first term, he married a woman named Frances Folsom, making him the only president to have wed while in the White House. Although winning the popular vote, -- lost the election of 1888 to Benjamin Harrison. In --, -- came back to defeat Harrison. He became the only US president to serve ---. In his second term, he used the Monroe Doctrine as justification to use force if necessary in a dispute with Britain over a South American border. He legitimized the new government Americans had established in Hawaii. He also prevented expeditions from the US to aid rebels in Cuba. He repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to maintain the gold standard. Upon leaving office, the nation was still in a depression and the Treasury was close to bankruptcy. Despite staying honest and sticking to his word, -- was unable to fix the problems he faced in office during his second term. -- remains a unique president today, serving two non-consecutive terms and consistently remaining true to his word.

Labor Laws and Reform

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act (1916): The child labor act limited the work hours of children, forbade the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor, and began a new program of federal regulation in industry. Adamson Act (1916): This legislation established an eight-hour workday for railroad employees, and dramatically averted a potentially crippling railroad strike. Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916): With this act the government provided financial assistance to federal employees injured on the job

sitting bull

Native American chief who led the Native Americans in their efforts to remain living in the Great Plains. Americans wanted the land due to increase expansion. American troops wanted the Native Americans to live in reservations. Over a long period of time, constantly helping his men stop the invasion of Americans into their land. Finally, in 1868, the Natives agreed to move into a reservation in modern-day South Dakota. All was peaceful until gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota in 1874. Controversies arose and remained until the Battle of Little Bighorn. During this battle, he, Crazy Horse, and a few other tribes would defeat federal U.S troops. After a few years, the tribal people could not sustain themselves and had to surrender to the government in order to save themselves from starvation. In 1890, he was shot and killed by the U.S government. He was killed to ensure that he would not aid the Ghost Dance Movement.

new innovations-- refrigerated cars and Bessemer process

New innovations were the fundamental pillars of the industrial revolution and dramatic changes during the Gilded Age. For example, ___ allowed for meat to be transported from the farm to the slaughterhouse without the need for cowboys to herd their cattle to the slaughterhouse site. Thus, with the demise of the romanticized Wild West and cattle drives, cowboys became ranchers, with no need to herd cattle. With ___, goods could travel farther faster and the Mid-West became the "Bread Basket." --- entailed the creation of steel through the oxidation of iron. Iron, a pure, tough metal, added with chemicals and oxygen resulted in a more flexible and stronger material called steel. Henry --- (Br.) and William Kelly (Am.) created this process in 1850 and by 1900, 250 million tons of steel was created for railroads, bridges, and other structures. Steel was stronger and cheaper than iron and became the building block of industry. Andrew Carnegie consolidated companies into the U.S. Steel Company which earned him $310 billion dollars in today's money. Other new technologies were Alexander Graham Bell's telephone, Thomas Edison's light bulb and electricity, mass production, and skyscrapers; the innovations of the Gilded Age lead to the modern industrialized city.

Settlement House Movement, Jane Addams

SHE (1860-1935) was a pioneer in the field of social work who founded the ---. -- and her friend, Ellen Gates Starr, co-founded Hull House in 1889. A center of the community in Chicago's West Side slums, Hull House provided classes for adults and children and was a theater, coffee house, art gallery, gymnasium and book bindery. --' father was a member of the state senate, a friend of Abraham Lincoln, and a fervent abolitionist. -- was shocked when she saw the horrid conditions of immigrants and the poor and asked what could be done to improve their lives. Inspired by a British movement, -- and other social reformers began founding settlement homes like Hull House across the country to attempt to abolish industrial poverty. -- was the first American woman awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Andrew Carnegie and US Steel

Scottish immigrant who began work as a telegraph messenger for Thomas Scott, one of the railroad's top officials. He began making investments, and eventually founded his own company, -- (it became US Steel after he sold it to JP Morgan in 1901). He used vertical integration in his company, controlling all parts of the steel process, and by the 1890s, he dominated the steel industry. He believed that the rich had a moral obligation to society, so he donated much of his money to charities. However, he also ran his factories twenty-four hours a day in twelve hour shifts and only gave his workers the 4th of July off. This duality makes it difficult to classify him as either a Robber Baron or a Captain of Industry. success is indicative of the industrialization of America in the Gilded Age, and his harsh treatment of his employees shows how little the government regulated businesses at this time.

Prohibition, WCTU, Anti-Saloon League

Taking root in the 19th century, the -- movement popularized the outlawing of the consumption and distribution of alcohol. Many people supported the movement: employers believed it would yield a more diligent labor force, reformers thought it would promote more orderly cities, and women reformers hoped it would protect wives and children from abusive and money-wasting husbands. In 1915, the -- movement won victories in 18 southern and midwestern states where Protestant denominations opposed drinking and immigrant population was small (the Prohibition movement popularized the notion that alcohol abstinence as an American ideal). The -- movement celebrated when the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the manufacturing and intoxication of liquor, was passed in December 1917. Founded in 1874 by Frances Willard, the -- was the nation's largest female organization of the late 19th century: by 1890, there were over 150000 members. The -- cited alcohol as the primary corrupting influence in the US and pushed for the -- movement in order to "save" the wives and children of drunkards. The -- was founded in Ohio in 1893 by Howard Hyde Russell. The name comes from the idea that saloons were a place of political organization and overall derogatory force. Although it supported the -- movement, the -- did not affiliate itself with the political -- Party; instead, it allied itself with major parties (le.g. The Republican Party). The -- was successful in getting state legislatures to ban saloons and to pass -- related laws. It is known for being a grassroots campaign and was organized through churches.

Spanish-American War

The United States entered into the conflict between the Cubans and Spanish in 1898. The struggle began with the sporadic Cuban revolts toward their Spanish colonizers. The war was already gaining support in the United States with reports on Spanish violent toward Cubans, but after the exploration of the Maine, an American ship, the United States entered the War. The explosion of the Maine was most likely an internal accident, but Americans blamed the Spanish. President McKinley attempted to sign a peace deal, including Cuban independence, with the Spanish, but when his offers were rejected, the United States declared war on Spain. Congress passed the Teller Amendment in order to specify the United States intentions of simply aiding the Cubans in their quest for independence but not taking over the island. The war itself lasted only four months and had very few casualties, causing Secretary of State John Hay to coin the term "a splendid little war". Theodore Roosevelt gained popularity for his charge up San Juan Hill during the war. The war ended in August of 1898 with Cuban independence after the Treaty of Paris was signed. U.S. presence resulted in an odd relationship with Cuba for many years in the future. President McKinley forced Cuba to approve the Platt Amendment which guaranteed America the right to intervene militarily if the president believed it necessary. America established a naval base at Guantanamo Bay and has stayed connected with Cuba. The U.S. involvement in the -- is one of the best examples of American imperialism during this time.

election of 1908 and Taft's Presidency

The election of -- had Republican -- pitted against Democrat William J. Bryan. -- had been Roosevelt's Secretary of War; Bryan ran for the presidency for the third time. His supporters consisted of the Populist Party and liberal. -- received the majority in both the electoral and popular vote, becoming the 27th president of the US. -- had a long list of things to accomplish during his presidency, but not everything was welcomed. He managed to strengthen the ICC and helped pass the Sixteenth Amendment; in addition, he worked on economic relations with Latin American and Asian countries through "Dollar Diplomacy," where American bankers granted loans to certain countries. -- was quite conservative, but he supported the Progressive view for the nation. He ran for a second term, but lost to Woodrow Wilson.

Frontier life (gender, race, ethnicity)

The frontier farms held the most diverse group of Americans. There were native-born easterners, blacks from the South, immigrants from Canada, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain, and many others. The first wave of immigrants hailed from NW Europe while the second set came from SE Europe and Asia. The most ethnically diverse state during the late nineteenth century was North Dakota. These Americans, white, black, immigrant, etc. , choose to attempt life on the frontier because the west provided opportunity without the old world confinements of race and ethnicity. In terms of gender, women worked as cowgirls, farm hands, and care takers of the home and children on the frontier. Life on the frontier was appealing to minority, immigrant, or female groups because of the West's focus on skill and rough work instead of the traditional boundaries of society. Still even with these appealing aspects, life on the frontier was difficult for all genders and races. Over half of the families that moved to the West with the 1862 Homestead Act did not survive the first five years and the isolation caused great problems with infant mortality and medical issues. Overall, the West gave many the opportunity to shed the past confinements of race and gender, but not without significant risk.

Political Machines (kickbacks, block voting, government services)

The popularity of --- grew immensely during the gilded age and the progressive era. A --- is a system that is run by either a single owner or a small corporation. When the workers, generally supporters of campaigns, help the political machine, they are rewarded. The general purpose of a --- is give workers incentive to give the owner a vote that aligns with their party, so they can stay in power. Black voting was a political area that was affected by political machines. Black leaders were undercut by whites because of these. The whites used the power of the ---s against the blacks to overpower them . One of the most famous ---s would be Tammany Hall, run by William Tweed. He would provide shelter and jobs to immigrants in exchange for their vote. Though many other politicians were outraged by what was happening, the government was unable to step in because the progressive era was all about the industry, not about government control.

Railroad expansion 1860 to early 1900s, Transcontinental railroads

The railroads started out with the main goal in mind: connect the east to west. However, they served as much more than that as America began to rapidly expand population wise, economically, and industrially. Starting in the 1860s, there were 30,000 miles of railroads, but by 1890, there were nearly 210,000 miles. With the first transcontinental railroad meeting at Promontory Point, Utah in 1869, by the 1890s there were 5 transcontinentals. They transported the products of western forests, farms, and mines to eastern markets and brought back the manufactured goods to the west. Railroads are not only to thank for the rapid expansion along the frontier, but also the official creation of railroad time in 1883 in which major companies divided the nation into 4 time zones to help with deadlines and a central time system. The railroads helped form an expanding market, mass production, and mass distribution because it became much easier to transfer goods from one place to another.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (Assmilationist PolicY)

Though created with good intentions, once the Civil War ended, the ___ began a new, ambitious program to dismantle tribal governments and assimilate Indian people into the American mainstream. In the following years, there was an increase control over the tribes' rations, goods, ceremonies, and land. A specific attack on their traditions was the Dawes Act, which broke up the tribes' land into individual allotments for each Indian and the remaining would be sold off. The goal of this act was the continual assimilation of the Native Americans by have them live separately from the rest of the tribe, which would encourage subsistence farming, an "American" way of life. Though amended in 1891, it reduced Indian lands from 138 million acres to 48 million. Between 1850 and 1880, ____ set up the Reservation System to consolidate the tribes and free up more land for white citizens. As an instrument to "civilize" and assimilate the Indians, the Bureau of Indian Affairs opened off and on reservation Boarding and Day Schools. Richard Henry Pratt, the founded of the Carlisle School, an example of an off-reservation boarding school, had the motto of "Kill the Indian, save the man".

Margaret Sanger, birth control movement

Within the Progressive era, the --- was at a crossroads for multiple issue groups, particularly feminism, free speech, and labor reformists. With women becoming more and more prevalent in the work force, changing their lifestyle and particularly their sexual and maternal lifestyles, there was a growing demand for access to -- resources. Emma Goldman, an inflammatory anarchist orator, was a prominent early voice for contraceptives. -- was the key Progressive in the ---, openly challenging the laws banning contraceptives and information about using them. She was born in an immigrant Irish working class family as one of eleven kids. In 1911, she began a column "What Every Girl Should Know" about sex education in a New York socialist paper and by 1914 began her own journal including illegal contraceptive advertisements. She opened the first birth control clinic in a poor industrial worker neighborhood in Brooklyn and was subsequently shut down, arrested, and sentenced to a month in prison. Birth control reforms didn't start to take hold until World War I and continued into the 1940s. The movement was a political outlet for changing ideas about sexual rights.

Munn v. Illinois (1877); Great Railroad Strike 1877

a US supreme court case in 1877. This case ruled that the state government is allowed to, and has a place in, regulation of industries and business in the US. This case was started after a push from Illinois for a maximum to be set on how much a company could charge for holding agricultural products and for the elimination of railroad discrimination. The warehouse, -- and Scott in Chicago, was found guilty of violating the rules and regulations of storage. This case then went to the supreme court, and it was ruled that state power extends into the duties of regulating any industry that affects the public, regardless on whether or not it is private. decision was ruled by Chief Justice Waite. However, this positive trend in the prospect of government interference was cut short nine years later when Wabash vs. Illinois said only the federal government, not the state government, has the power to monitor business. Similarly, in 1877, while some workers were protesting a pay cut, which stalled rail travel, US troops tried to forcibly make them get back to work, and opened fire on the Pittsburgh protesters. The troops killed around 20 people, and the reaction was staggering; the protesters burned the railroads. This caused millions of dollars worth of damage, but also increased and displayed the bond between workers and strengthened the connection between workers and the Republican Party.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

a United States federal law signed by Chester A. Arthur on May 8, 1882. The Chinese were the largest immigrant group in California since coming over after the Gold Rush of 1848. Intended to last 10 years, the act was not repealed until 1943 and allowed the U.S. to suspend Chinese immigration because many Americans, including laborers, viewed new immigrants with hostility and as competition. Many religious leaders and racial purists were fearful of the increase of non-Protestant believers and new blood in America. These nativists lobbied successfully to restrict the flow of immigration. Twenty-five years after the ---, Japanese immigration was restricted by executive agreement. These two Asian groups were the only ethnicities to be completely excluded from America, but additional immigration restrictions would be passed in the 1920s.

Muscular Christianity- Salvation Army, YMCA/YWCA

a belief that started in British schools that urged competition in games to help create an ideal and strong human being. Thomas Hughes was a popular British author who was successful in promoting -- in which he said,"[It] is "a good thing to have strong and well-exercised bodies .... The least of the -- has hold of the old chivalrous and Christian belief, that a man's body is given him to be trained and brought into subjection, and then used for the protection of the weak, the advancement of all righteous causes, and the subduing of the earth which God has given to the children of men" (Hughes 1895, p. 113). This idea caught on in the 1900s when Roosevelt said Hughes' book was one of two books every American should read. Groups like ---- emerged as a reaction to the spread of --. In America, the first group was started by Thomas Valentine Sullivan as a "home away from home" idea and bible study for his marine missionaries. The - became a refuge for those living on the streets and in unsanitary conditions. The -- was also created as a reform movement to help "win the lost multitudes of England to Christ" (www.salvationarmyusa.org). William Booth was untraditional in his teachings by straying from the conventional church and instead travelling throughout England conducting evangelistic meetings. Those who were usually shunned away (thieves, gamblers, prostitutes, and drunkards) were the first of his "students" to convert to Christianity. Between 1881 and 1885, nearly 250,000 people were converted under the --. In America, the first -- meeting was in 1879 and their mission was received enthusiastically. Both organizations played a key role in getting America (and other countries as well) active in their Christian beliefs as well as helping reform the modern city full of unsanitary conditions, drunkenness, and crime.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896); Jim Crow Laws

a landmark decision made by the supreme court in 1896. In this court case, the court gave its approval to state laws requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites under the idea that they would be "separate but equal." In reaction to this, the states passed laws mandating racial segregation in every aspect of life, particularly in southern schools, hospitals, waiting rooms, toilets, and more. These laws, made civil rights movements necessary in the 1960s and only prolonged extreme racism in the United States. --- would be overturned in the early Civil Rights case Brown vs. Board of Education (1954).

Niagara Movement

began in 1905, when W.E.B Dubois and other black leaders gathered at Niagara Falls. They were forced to gather on the Canadian side, as the American side would not accommodate them. At its core, the --- sought to reinvigorate the abolitionist traditions. They promoted the idea that all freeborn Americans should have the same political, civil, and social rights; Furthermore, they sought to end racial segregation and spread complete equality in economic and educational opportunity. Four years after the Movement in 1909, W.E.B. Dubois founded the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) to enforce the 14th and 15th amendments.

Frederick Law Olmsted

a landscape architect in the late 1800s best known for his large urban parks, most notably Central Park in New York City. In his early life, -- was a successful journalist, who was sent by the Times to go into the pre war south and texas. He published a series of three books from these travels, and also published two more during his time in the south, in which he describes the slave trade as weakening the southern states. After his venture with journalism, -- entered a design competition with landscape expert Calvert Vaux to design Central park in New York. Having never done any sort of landscape design before in his past, -- was an interesting choice for such an important position. However, their risk paid off. --wanted for Central Park to be accessible to all people of all social backgrounds. He believed in a truly public park, a revolutionary idea for his time.Central Park was designed during a key point in time in which beautification of urban cities was of the utmost importance, because as the cities grew, beautiful green areas diminished. Further, -- was passionate about conservation, as he worked with Senator John Conness to preserve Yosemite and other plots of land for federal protection. -- went on to design parks in Chicago, California, Maine, and Massachusetts to name a few. His legacy lives on in the timeless elegance of Central Park and the other beautiful parks he helped to bring life to.

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair; Meat Inspection Act 1906; Hepburn Act of 1906

a muckraker, wrote -- in 1906 to expose the health violations and unsanitary practices in the American meatpacking industry. He wrote it intending to convince people that America needed to adopt more socialist principles, but this was overlooked because people were so disgusted with the meatpacking industry. The novel led to the passage of the --, which makes it illegal to adulterate or misbrand meat products and ensures that meat is processed under sanitary conditions. It authorized the Department of Agriculture to monitor and inspect the slaughterhouses and processing plants. The -- gives the Interstate Commerce Commission the power to set maximum railroad rates and view the railroads' financial records. The ICC's authority also extends to bridges, terminals, ferries, railroad sleeping cars, express companies, and oil pipelines. Both pieces of legislation are examples of the government regulating business, something it was reluctant to do in the Gilded Age.

Social Gospel Movement v. Gospel of Wealth

a religious movement that arose during the 2nd half of the 19th century. Ministers, especially Protestant, began to tie salvation and good works together. They argued that people must put aside their own earthly desires and help other people, especially the needy. This movement also led to the creation of settlement houses, which provided numerous opportunities for less fortunate people. "---" is an article written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889 that describes the responsibility of philanthropy by the new upper class of self-made rich. He proposed that the best way of dealing with the new wealth inequality was for the wealthy to redistribute their surplus means in a responsible and thoughtful manner.

Ghost Dance Movement, Battle of Wounded Knee

a religious revitalization initiated in the late 1800s by Wovaka, a shaman in the Northern Paiute tribe. He foretold the reuniting of the Western tribes, the return of the buffalo, and the end of white encroachment on Native land. Large numbers of Native Americans throughout the region danced, sang, and participated in religious ceremonies intended to connect the living with the spirits of the dead. When the government realized what was happening, it sent troops to the reservations to deal with what white settlers saw as the beginnings of an uprising. On December 29, 1890, soldiers opened fire near the _____ Creek in South Dakota, murdering nearly 200 tribe members (mostly women and children). The _____ Massacre ended all armed conflict between the native population and European settlers.

Jay Gould and Railroads/Speculative Investing

a ruthless businessman in the mid to late 1800s. He was known as a railroad developer and speculator, and his success made him one of the richest men of his time. A speculator is a person who invests in ---, which is an investment with a lot of risk where the person is betting on the price fluctuations. They invest when the price is low, hoping that the price will increase. -- started his as a bookkeeper for a blacksmith, and he eventually owned half of the business. In 1859, -- started to invest in small railways. He invested in the Erie Railroad, and during this time Daniel Drew, James Fisk, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and -- engaged in stock manipulations, an attempt to interfere with the market by creating false or misleading appearances, called the Erie Wars. During this, -- gained control of the railroad. At the same time, he became involved with Tammany Hall. He made Boss Tweed a director of the Erie Railroad, and Tweed arranged for favorable legislation.

Henry Grady

an American journalist based in the Reconstruction and early Gilded Age South, specifically Georgia. Led The Atlanta Constitution to become the most popular newspaper in the South. His work gave him the nickname "Spokesman of the New South". Through his articles and speeches, he stressed the importance of industrialism and crop diversification in rebuilding the South. For example, he spoke of the "The New South" during a speech in New York City in 1886. His view on race were moderate, as he supported some freedom for blacks but not equality. One specific example of his political voice through the Constitution was the Atlantic Ring. This group acted as a political machine to cause the election of certain politicians. He continued to promote industrialization in the South until his death, but many critics argued that he turned the South over to Northern interests. Other critics claimed his interests were solely based on Atlanta without concern for the rest of the South.

Geronimo

an Apache chief whose tribe was relocated by the government a number of times, provoking him to lead groups that crossed and recrossed the border with Mexico. He and his tribe were one of countless groups of Native Americans who were forced to leave their land and move into reservations to make more room for white settlers coming to the West. His efforts to deter the US government were some of the most successful. He and many of his groups managed to avoid being captured by the US Army and occasionally killed civilians along the way. Their successes both embarrassed the US government and made him a beacon of hope for other Native Americans that were making efforts to fight back. He and his group finally surrendered in 1886. He was a legend for the Native Americans and inspired them to continue fighting until the bitter end. This is significant because it shows the oppression of the Native Americans and exemplifies the major contradiction of the US government which was that they had fought for their own equality so fiercely but were unwilling to treat the Native Americans as equals.

WEB DuBois, Souls of Black Folk; Talented Tenth

an activist who used his impressive education to fight for rights for African-Americans. "---" was his book written to encourage other black Americans who were enraged at the accommodationist policies of Booker T. Washington to take a stand. In addition, he tried to inspire other African Americans by coining educated black Americans (as he was) the "---." He said this group must use their knowledge to help fight for equality, which was in opposition to Booker T. Washington's accommodationist approach. -- went on to organize the Niagara movement with other black leaders which adopted the Declaration of Principles, advocated black suffrage, an end to racial segregation, and equality. In addition, -- was a founding member of the National Association of Colored People (NAACP). The goal of this group was to get the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to be more strictly enforced. He is significant because he was a pioneer for African American rights during the Progressive Era in the New South.

Atlanta Compromise (Washington)

announced in 1895 at the Atlanta Exposition Speech. It was an agreement between Booker T. Washington, the president of the Tuskegee Institute, some African-American leaders, and Southern white leaders. This compromise said that Southern blacks would submit to white political rule. It also guaranteed that blacks would receive a basic education and due process in law. At the same time, blacks were not supposed to press for equality and justice, and Northern whites would fund black educational charities. Though Washington was African American, he believed that African American should focus more on building up their own communities rather than fighting whites for equal rights. It was originally widely accepted but was later opposed by W.E.B. DuBois and other black leader because it accepted, in part, the practice of segregate (known to blacks as accommodation approach). Washington and his speech were part of the racial equation in the emerging New South after the Civil War.

JP Morgan and banking

became an influential businessman and economist during the Gilded Age, as he primarily associated with his successful banking house. Considered a ruthless capitalist, his goal was to replace cutthroat competition with economic stability. Consolidated mergers that gave birth to companies such as AT&T and General Electric. He established U.S. Steel, the first billion-dollar corporation, and helped to organize a bailout package among bank presidents following the panic. To many, he represented the oppressive power of Wall Street, as he certainly had his hand on multiple industries.

Panic of 1893

because of an economic depression. It was caused by the collapse of railroad overbuilding and shaky railroad financing. This set off a series of bank failures. Many railroad companies went bankrupt such as the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, Northern Pacific Railway, Union Pacific Railroad, and Atchison Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. Many believed the economic depression was caused by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act that required the Unites States government to buy millions of ounces of silver for coining money; however, President Cleveland repealed the act in 1893. As the economy worsened, people rushed to the banks to withdrawal their money. The unemployment rate was 17-19% during the economic depression as well. Many middle-class families could not meet their mortgage, and many had to walk away from their recently built homes because of this. The people blamed the Democrats and President Cleveland for the depression which caused the Republicans to make huge gains. Eventually the economy began to recover in 1897.

Wabash v. Illinois (1886); Interstate Commerce Commission (1887)

the supreme court ruled that the federal government, as opposed to the state previously ruled on in Munn v. Illinois, could regulate the railroads that dealt with interstate commerce. This ruling covered most of the important railroad lines, but not necessarily the smaller ones. The effect of this was the --- in 1887. Though this act was supposed to help the people when dealing with railroads, when in court, it usually lost. It was supposed to protect the people's working conditions and wages, but it was rarely victorious.

Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution of 1910

began in 1911 when Francisco Madero overthrew the government of dictator Porfirio Diaz. Without Woodrow Wilson's knowledge but with the backing of the US ambassador and of American companies that controlled Mexico's oil and mining industries, military commander Victoriano Huerta assassinated Madero and seized power two years later. Wilson was appalled and sent American troops to Vera Cruz to prevent the arrival of weapons to Huerta's forces. However, the Mexicans greeted the troops as invaders rather than liberators which led to 100 Mexican casualties and 19 American casualties. Huerta left presidency in 1914, but civil war continued, and neither side were happy about Wilson's interference. In 1916, --, the leader of one faction, attacked Columbus, New Mexico, where he killed 17 Americans. Wilson ordered 10,000 troops into northern Mexico to seek Villa which turned out to be unsuccessful. This revolution was a warning that it might be more difficult than Wilson assumed to use American power to reorder the internal affairs of other nations, or to apply moral certainty to foreign policy. This action taken by Wilson reflected the ideas of the Roosevelt Corollary and also the idea of American imperialism.

Ashcan School, 'The Eight'

began with a group of artists led by Robert Henri in the early years of the 20th century. He and his fellow artists focused on current issues and events in society, primarily in New York using a dark palette as their aid. The artists were well-off members of the middle class and wished to portray politics through the medium of art. Though they portrayed reforms, the artists themselves were not social critics or reformers. They avoided some realities such as the homeless population and problems based on class tensions, so their works were never as dark as some reformist artists who actually went into the darkest parts of the nation. The term "---" refers to the first eight artists of the group who wished to make art more accessible in everyday life and later merged with other artists to form the Ashcan school.

Ida Wells Barnett

black journalist who lived from 1862-1931. She was an early suffragist, feminist, and co-founder of the NAACP. She was born into slavery, but was freed 6 months later due to the Emancipation Proclamation. Her father was an active republican who aided the Reconstruction of the south as a member of the Freedman's Bureau. He helped found Shaw University (now Rust College), where Wells attended before she attended Fisk University. She chose to become a journalist after she was not allowed to sit in first-class on a train, despite having a first-class ticket. (She later brought the railroad company to court and won $500 in settlements). wrote for multiple black newspapers under the name 'Iola' and later co-owned the papers Memphis Free Speech and Headlight and Free Speech. Throughout her life she campaigned for the improvement of black education and civil rights. After writing an editorial about lynchings in the south and receiving death threats, she moved from Memphis to New York City. Until she died, she continued to advocate for the rights of women and people of color in America.

History of standard Oil by Ida Tarbell

book written by journalist -- in 1904. She was a muckraker and wrote the book as a detailed expose of the Company run by John D. Rockefeller. The book inspired many other journalists to investigate large businesses that had attempted to establish monopolies with the absence of effective antitrust laws. --'s book was credited to begin the breakup of the Standard Oil Company in 1911 when the Supreme Court concluded that the company to be in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. --'s inspiration for publishing the book was actually influenced by personal experience, as her father had been a worker there and witnessed firsthand the intense conditions of Rockefeller's company in attempt of establishing a monopoly through horizontal integration. She highlighted Rockefeller's unethical tactics and sympathetically portrayed Pennsylvania's oil workers. After working for McClure's Magazine, she began her investigative journalism of the company and uncovered crucial evidence which proved that Standard Oil Company had rigged railroad prices and wrongfully preyed on competition. After she published the book, reactions erupted from all over. Many journalists, politicians, and citilzens celebrated Tarbell's exploit and ability to bring to light the hidden agenda of Rockefeller's business. This event became emblematic of the power of the press and investigative journalism which called attention to the hidden endeavors of large corporations during this era. In spirit of the Gilded Age, muckrakers such as -- were among the few to uncover the shining outward appearance, revealing the unpleasant truths which hid on the inside.

Ellis Island, Angel Island

both known as the main entry points for immigrants in the United States during the Second Wave of Immigration. Typically, European immigrants entered through --- while Asian immigrants entered through ---. Before --- had opened in New York City, eight million immigrants had been processed by New York State officials. However, on April 18, 1890, control was transferred to the hands of the Federal Government and over 10 million immigrants were processed at --- from 1890-1920. New arrivals had to go through extensive medical and document examinations, including the chalk system to identify health problems. Approximately 2 percent of migrants were back home due to disease or insanity. Additionally, a pay entry was mandatory to enter through ---, as officials confirmed that immigrants had brought the $18-$25 cash with them. On the other hand, --- was located in San Francisco and processed nearly 1 million Asian immigrants entering the country between 1910-1940, coining it as "The --- of the West". The conditions and questioning at --- were much harsher. Once the Chinese Exclusion Act was enacted in 1882, immigrants spent years on the island awaiting entry. The Chinese suffered from discrimination in America and their population was diminishing. The ban which was only intended to last 10 years lasted over 60 years and was not repealed until December 17, 1943. Both locations have become symbols of immigration and new opportunities, and raise the question of whether America would be more of a "melting pot" or a "tossed salad".

Half-breeds, stalwarts, mugwumps

competing political factions of the Republican party which arose in the 1870s and 80s. Their partitions hinged on the issue of civil service reform, with -- calling for a merit system, and -- or "normal" Republicans opposing this in favor of the existing spoils-system political machine. These divisions especially came out in presidential elections when the factions vied for the nomination. President Garfield, elected in 1880, was a compromise candidate but leaned towards -- reforms. The man who assassinated him was a Stalwart. Former VP, now President, Chester Arthur assumed office as a Stalwart but worked against machine politics for civil service reforms. The election of 1884 also saw clear party divisions for the Republicans which ultimately led to Democratic victory. The --, reform-favoring Republicans, absolutely opposed their own party's nominee James G. Blaine, a Half-breed, and instead went so far as to support the Democratic nominee Grover Cleveland. Today the term -- is political slang for any independent voter. These factions had largely dissolved by the end of the 1880s but they are a clear example of Gilded Age politics as well as the causes and effects of party divisions.

Cornelius Vanderbilt and Ships/Railroads

created a shipping empire, but he started by commanding a single steamboat. He worked his way into management positions and was involved in the Gibbons vs. Ogden case, in which the Supreme Court ruled that states could not interfere with interstate commerce. He then began to monopolize steamboat shipping and expanded to ocean-going ships during the California Gold Rush. After the civil war, he built the New York Central Railroad, among many others. He was a philanthropist, especially where education was concerned. He was symbolic of the Gilded Age businessmen due to his shrewdness and brashness, but his rags-to-riches story also embodied the basic American dream.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act, Clayton Anti-Trust Act

created in 1890 and is known for being the first law to restrict monopolistic trusts and regulate large corporations. It was promoted by Senator John --- of Ohio and is based on Congress's constitutional power of overseeing interstate commerce. In 1914, the --- was extended by the ---. Passed by Congress, the --- enforced more restrictions on monopolies and also announced that labor unions and agricultural cooperatives (groups of farmers who pool their resources) did not work against trade; thus, these groups were now exempt from anti-trust legislation that had previously hindered them from representing all of their concerns. The --- led to labor unions and agricultural cooperates to be even more effective and was called the "Magna Carta of American Labor" by labor union leader Samuel Gompers.

Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments

emerged from organized efforts of the temperance movement and Anti-Saloon League. The amendment called for the banning of manufacturing, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. The amendment passed both chambers of Congress in December 1917. The amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919. The amendment did not make consumption of alcohol illegal, just selling, making, and transporting it. Because of the --, the Volstead Act passed that defined intoxicating liquor as any beverage containing more than 0.5% alcohol. This act was used to define the terms of the --. The -- was later repealed by the Twenty-First Amendment. This was the only amendment to be removed from the Constitution. The --, passed in 1920. This made it illegal for any citizen, regardless of gender, to be denied the right to vote. The Suffrage Movement helped lead to the passing of the --. The movement has been ongoing since before the Civil War, but not until 1920 are women granted the right to vote.

Eugene V. Debs/Socialist Party

formed in 1901 with a platform of reform that benefited the working class; like --- in Europe, they wished to place businesses in control of the government so that capitalism could no longer exploit the worker. ---, after having worked in unions and organizations like Industrial Workers of the World, created the --- and ran for president in 1912 and 1920. In addition, two --- members were elected to Congress, and thousands held state or local offices. Despite these successes though, true --- never caught hold in the United States, largely because of Progressive reforms, the possibility of social mobility, and a rising sense of nationalism.

NAACP and the Crisis (newspaper)

founded in 1910 as a civil rights organization. It was founded in opposition to Booker T. Washington. Their mission was to promote racial equality through speeches and lobbying. Along with their speeches, they started a new magazine called --. The editor of -- was W.E.B. Du Bois. --'s popularity grew gradually throughout the years, reaching a very high level of influential meaning during the Harlem Renaissance literature movement. Throughout the years, the -- has won countless court cases ensuring blacks the right to equal treatment in different facets of life. Their first supreme court case won was against the grandfather clause. The grandfather clause was used by southern states to disallow blacks to vote. The -- won this case, helping thousands of blacks take an easier path to voting.

Granger movment/Granger laws

has its roots in 1866 when Department of Agriculture employee Oliver Hudson Kelley took a tour of the South and was dismayed to see the farmers' unsound conditions of living. He formed the Patrons of Husbandry in 1867 to bring farmers together and promote educational discussions. The organization was later divided into units known as "---". By the mid-1870s, each state had at least one --- and farmers were becoming increasingly drawn to the action against monopolistic railroads and grain elevators. These charged the farmers high rate for transporting their crops. By the end of the 1870s, the movement became political. In 1871, Illinois farmers pressed their state legislatures to fix maximum rates the railroads could charge and were ultimately successful. Other states such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa also did the same. These cases became known as "--- cases" and even reached the Supreme Court, most famously with Munn vs. Illinois. In this case, Chief Justice Morrison Remick Waite ruled that "a private enterprise that affects the public interest is subject to government regulation". Such laws that passed in the West to regulate railroad rate in the interests of the farmers became known as "--- laws". As a result, independent farmers' political parties became more prominent throughout the country and Ignatius Donnelly was a principal organizer. They urged others to only vote for candidates who promote agricultural interests, not the monopolistic ones of the railroads. This event signifies the tension between the growing industrialization and smaller groups of laborers who would not be subject to ill treatment because of it. The --- Movement also correlates to labor unions that would form in protest to the factory workers' conditions and took to confronting their bosses about their unfair treatment. The National --- remains an organization of farmers who take an active stance on legislation affecting agriculture.

Navajo "Long Walk"

in 1864, was essentially a deportation of the whole Navajo tribe. It represents the start of the final era of conflict between Native Americans and the U.S. government following the Civil War. They were forced to walk at gunpoint from their native land in present day Arizona to eastern New Mexico. This march was over 300 miles, and approximately 200 Navajos died of starvation, heat exhaustion, and dehydration. They then endured miserable conditions at Bosque Redondo, which was essentially an internment camp. Four years later, they signed the US-Navajo treaty of 1868. This allowed the Navajo to return to a small portion of their original homeland. The Long Walk has become a central part of their historical experience, much like the Trail of Tears for the Cherokee. This was the first of many "fights" the Natives lost, ending with the dissolution of past treaties and the reservation system.

Immigrant Quota Act of 1924

limited the number of immigrants entering the US through a series of national quotas; the number of immigrants allowed mirrored 2% of the total number of people who adhered to the immigrant's nationality and lived in the US (these numbers were based on a 1890 census). The act highly favored Northern Europeans and barred the entry for those ineligible for naturalized citizenship (this included the entire population of Asia (minus the Philippines)). However, there was no limit on immigration from the Western Hemisphere: this was because farmers in California needed a steady labor supply.. The Act also established a border patrol to protect the US land boundaries. --- of 1924 was the main immigration policy the US followed until the 1960s and ensured that the descendants of old immigrants would always outnumber the children of new immigrants.

Dawes Act (1887)

made in 1887 by Massachusetts senator Henry L. ____, was used to break up tribal land into small parcels to be given out to Indian families to farm on. The remainder of the land was auctioned off to whites. If Indians accepted the land, it meant they were adopting the "habits of the civilized life" and could become American citizens. This was an issue seeing that tribal identity was a very important to the Indians. This act ended up being more beneficial to whites than to the Indians. The Indians lost most of their tribal land and their culture while whites gained lots of cheap land. This leads into other acts that also deteriorate the Indian culture such as forcing Indian kids to leave their families and attend American schools. This leaves the kids distant from their old lives and still not fitting in the 'America' world. Also with all their land being given to whites, less and less was being preserved which lead to expansion and building which ultimately closes the frontier.

Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities; How the Other Half Lives by Jacob Riis

muckrakers who strove to uncover corruption during the Gilded Age. In 1889, --s book ---, complete with photographs, informed the world about the squalid conditions in which laborers and immigrants lived. When Roosevelt read the book, he was moved enough to demand legislature ameliorating the workers' situations. Later in 1904, -- published ---, which exposed the illegal relationship between businessmen and government treasuries. The public outcry his article generated led directly to the creation of a city commissioner system. Both these men delved deeply into the injustices of the Gilded Age and helped to usher in the Progressive Era, making social reform possible.

Haymarket Square Riot

occurred in Chicago, Illinois on May 4th, 1886. Originally, many people were at the square for a protest against the killing and wounding of several workers by Chicago police during a strike at McCormick Reaper Works. They were protesting the length of the work day and working conditions. During this time, there were many radical labor activists. They not only wanted better treatment but also the entire capitalistic enterprise be stopped. For example, there was a man named Samuel Fielden. After he said something radical, police came to disperse the crowds. However, someone threw a bomb at the police and seven of them were killed. Because no one could figure out who threw the bomb, eight men were convicted of the bombing. They were all sentenced to death. Four of the men were executed on November 11, 1887. The other four men that were convicted were supposed to be executed as well; however, one committed suicide and the others were pardoned by Illinois Governor John P. Altgeld. He had to pardon them because there was a public backlash. People were questioning their guilt and how their trial was handled. The people who were executed were then considered martyrs for their cause.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

occurred on March 25th, 1911 in New York City. It is known as one of the deadliest industrial disasters in American history, with 146 deaths, the majority of which were female European immigrants between ages 16 to 23. In order to safeguard against thefts and unexcused absences, the owners locked the doors so that the workers had to jump from the tall windows. This event showcased the high levels of corruption in the government and garment industries, as well as the horrible working conditions endured by the employees. The owners, Max Blanck and Isaac Harris, were suspected to deliberately set fire to their businesses before working hours to collect insurance money and so neglected to install sprinkler systems and fire safety features typically required. The two were also known to pay off the politicians to look the other way as they mistreated their workers. All of New York was united in grief that day and the city was stricken with guilt after being shown the consequences of the rapid, corrupt industrial boom. By capturing the public attention, it generated a lot of support for labor unions calling pushes for reform. Out of the ashes came new safety regulations, child labor laws, and workers compensation. It was significant because it was one of the major reasons of guiding America from the Gilded Age to the Progressive Age, becoming a watershed moment for the nation to push for progress.

Bull Moose (Progressive) Party, "New Nationalism", and Election of 1912

party created by Teddy Roosevelt in order to run against fellow Republican William Howard Taft and Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the Election of 1912. When Taft won the Republican nomination, Roosevelt split the Republican vote by running on the -- ticket. He ran on a progressive platform, speaking of a "--," a term that encapsulated many types of social reform, including women's suffrage, federally-funded insurance, and various labor and health regulations. This resonated well with Progressive Republicans, while Conservative Republicans mostly sided with Taft. With the Republican vote split, Wilson won the election easily with 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt and Taft had 27% and 23%, respectively (the remaining 8% was mostly for Socialist Eugene Debs). The Election of 1912 was significant because it is widely considered as the end of the relatively unopposed control of the Republican Party since the end of the Civil War and the passing of the 15th Amendment.

Homestead Act of 1862

passed in 1862 by Abraham Lincoln. This act legally allowed people to move out west and gain around 160 acres of land. Along with attaining new land, the buyers had to build homes and structures as well as farm or better their property. Although it allowed for westward expansion, the move into new territories led to further cruel treatment of the Native Americans. These new westward expansions also promoted the romanticized image of the cowboy. It not only opened lands and opportunities to conquer the Native Americans, but it also allowed the west to become the safety valve for America.

Boss Tweed/Tammany Hall; Thomas Nast

ran one of the most influential political machines of the early 1870s. very pro immigrant, so when a young immigrant arrived in New York, his political ring, ---would offer them food, a place to work, and a way to get to the job. Because of this, he had a particularly strong bond with the Irish communities; they viewed him as their 'Robin Hood'. --- was the headquarters for the Democratic Party. In return, whenever it became time for an election, he would endorse a candidate, and through the '--- Ticket', his endorsement could greatly influence the outcome of the elections. Because of this, --'s reach was able to go much further than just ---. He became one of the richest and most important people in New York City. However, one Muckraker, ---, made it his life's duty to expose --'s mal-business practices. Through a series of scathing political cartoons, -- was able to create the tear in --'s thick armour. These cartoons were exceptionally threatening, because they called -- out on his corruption as the ring leader, and ultimately lead to --'s arrest ad consequently the end of his reign. However, -- left his legacy on the city; because of -- the Brooklyn Bridge was built, New York expanded into the Upper East Side, and other assorted buildings and organizations were created, providing the people and -- with a lot of money.

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments

ratified on February 3, 1913. It allows Congress to levy income tax without distributing it evenly among the states. This happened after Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.. Before this case, the tax on income from property was treated as a direct tax; however, the Supreme Court ruled that this was unconstitutional. The -- was ratified on May 31, 1913. This amendment established the popular election of the senators by the people. Before this amendment, senators were elected by state legislatures. It also allowed changes the way vacancies were filled in the Senate. The amendment allows governors to appoint a person temporarily until an election can take place.

Teddy Roosevelt and Roosevelt Corollary, 'Walk softly and carry a big stick"

rose from vice president to president in 1901 after president McKinley's assassination. -- was always active in domestic and foreign affairs, and he tried to put an end to the economic problems caused by large corporations by distinguishing the "good" and "bad" businesses. Known as a "trustbuster," -- ordered the Northern Securities Company (founded and run by J.P. Morgan) to be prosecuted and dissolved because it was a monopoly. He was reelected in 1904 and appealed to the public for support because of his call to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission. The -- basically stated that the U.S. had the right to implement "an international police power" in the Western Hemisphere. This policy was applied in many different cases. For example, when British, Italian, and German navies blockaded Venezuela in order to make them pay bank debts, -- persuaded them to withdraw. -- and the -- ultimately expanded Monroe's doctrine of committing to defending the Western Hemisphere against European intervention prior to World War I. --'s tactic of "---" advises caution and non-aggression, but is also backed by the capability for violence.

John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil

rose to prominence as an oil tycoon with his company, ---, in the Reconstruction period and by the 1880s, the company controlled 90% of the US oil industry. --- was significant in its use of Horizontal Integration in which he bought out the oil refineries of his competitors, so that eventually he gained a monopoly on this part of oil production. Despite his generous donations to education and medical research, --, like many Captains of Industry, ran his company with an iron grip and opposition to any sort of union on behalf of his employees. He himself was controversial in part due to his bribery of government officials and his monopoly on the industry. Many, including muckraker Henry Demarest Lloyd, believed that -- was an example of how "Liberty and monopoly cannot live together." Another muckraker involved with Standard Oil was Ida Tarbell, who exposed the corruption and greed of the entire corporation. -- and -- embody the power and controversy regarding big businesses during the Gilded Age, and he remains one of the richest men in world history.

Populist Movement (and Party); Omaha Platform, 1892

spearheaded by the People's Party which developed from its predecessor the Farmer's Alliance in the early 1890s. They appealed to the working classes (farmers, industrial workers etc.), mostly in the South and the West. In order to inform the rural population of their platform, they published pamphlets, newspapers, and hosted lectures, with speakers such as Texan "Cyclone" Davis. The party presented a Jeffersonian view of the American dream, with a focus on agrarian, individual labor rather than that of big businesses. At the Populists' --- Convention in 1892, they adopted the ---, a document written by Ignatius Donnelly that proposed laws to reduce the influence of big businesses, such as income tax and the direct election of Senators. From 1865 to 1900 they elected several members of Congress and pushed through proposals to regulate business such as railroads. This iteration of populism culminated in the campaign and loss of William Jennings Bryan for president in 1896.

Women's Suffrage Movement, NAWSA

the struggle for women to vote and run for public office. It began in the 19th century as part of the larger women's rights movement. Women across the world but mostly in the US and Britain formed organizations to fight for female suffrage. Women who fought for suffrage were known as suffragettes and were part of the early feminist movement. The -- was created in 1890 to fight for women's suffrage in the United States. It was a merger of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). Its membership grew from about 7 thousand the 2 million, which made it the largest voluntary organization in the nation. It played a significant role in the passing of the 19th amendment. Susan B. Anthony, a long time suffragette, was the primary figurehead of -- in its early days. She was followed by Carrie Chapman Catt, who took over as president after Anthony retired in 1900. She implemented the strategy of recruiting wealthy members who could use their time, money, and experience to grow the movement. She was followed by Anna Howard Shaw in 1904, who helped the group grow in membership and approval. Catt took over as president again in 1915, and put the creation of the 19th amendment as her primary goal. She helped win sympathy for her cause by complying with the war efforts during WWI. In February of 1920, prior to the passing of the 19th amendment, the group became known as the League of Women Voters, which remains active today. This group represents changes being made during the progressive era and exemplifies early feminism.

Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette

was a Wisconsin Republican senator, governor, and 1924 Progressive Party presidential candidate. He advocated for women's suffrage, minimum wage, labor reforms, and child labor laws, and was popular during his early-mid career. In 1909, he started a newspaper called --'s Weekly, which is still being published as "The Progressive" today. At the time of World War I, he opposed U.S. participation in the war, which caused dissent in some areas of the country. He lost to Republican candidate Coolidge in 1924, and died of cardiovascular disease in 1925.

Pullman Strike, Homestead Strike

was from May 11, 1894 to July 20, 1894 in Chicago, IL. It was a railroad strike and boycott that disrupted rail traffic in the Midwest. The -- Palace Car Company is a manufacture of railroad cars, and the company cut workers' wages by 25%. This left many families facing starvation because they did not have enough money for food. Workers tried to meet with the company's president, George M. ---, about the low wages, working conditions, and 16-hour work days, but he refused to see them. All the workers left the factory on May 11, 1894, on strike. The Strikers received backup from the American Railway Union (or the ARU). The ARU offered the idea of a boycott on June 20th, and by June 30th, 125,000 workers on 29 railroads quit work. On July 3rd, President Cleveland ordered troops into Chicago. Eventually, there were 6,000 federal troops, 3,100 police, and 5,000 deputy marshals in the city of Chicago; however, they could not maintain the violence of the strikers. The General Managers' Association began hiring nonunion workers, and the strike begins to dwindle. On July 20th, the federal troops were called back out of the city. The --- Company reopened on August 2nd, 1894, and the company agreed to rehire striking workers but only if they signed a pledge saying they would never join a union. The strike ended up costing the railroads millions of dollars, and strikers had lost more than $1 million in wages. Another strike was the ---. It started in in 1892 when Andrew Carnegie was determined to break the union. When the union refused to accept the new conditions, Carnegie had his plant manager, Henry Clay Frick, locked all of the workers out of the --- steel plant which was a few miles from Pittsburgh, PA. Frick sent 100 Pinkerton guards to defend the plant, but the guards were met by 10,000 strikers. The Pinkertons had to surrender to the strikers. Because of the violence, nine strikers and seven Pinkertons were killed with a lot were injured. The sheriff asked for support from Governor William Stone, and 8,000 militia arrived on July 12. Gradually strikebreakers got the plant running again. On November 20, 1892, the strike lost momentum and ended. The strike inspired workers, and also showed how difficult it was for any union to strike and rebel against the combined power of the corporation and the government.

Chief Joseph (Nez Perce)

was the leader of the Nez Perce Indians in the latter half of the 19th century. His father was a Christian and supported peace with white settlers, even helping set up a Nez Perce reservation with the government. However, when the majority of the land was taken from them, he denounced the United States. His son succeeded him. Led a strong resistance as the government tried to force his tribe to Idaho. After the threat of violence, he unwillingly began to march his tribe to a fraction of their previous land. However, about 20 young Indians, appalled at the thought of losing their home land, rebelled against the military forces and killed several whites. General O.O. Howard led the attack on all of the Nez Perce members that had not successfully reached the reservation, capturing and killing many. He surrendered with the hope of saving his people. In defeat, he gave a speech in D.C. where he pled his case to President Hayes, "From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever." He died without accomplishing his goal that was giving his people American's oath of freedom and equality. He and the Nez Perce Indians embody the struggle that has always plagued American society: to whom should equality be extended to and what defines a citizen.

Lochner v. New York; Muller v. Oregon

were both court cases concerning legalities of limiting work time in regards to the Fourteenth Amendment. In --- (1905), the state of New York enacted the Bakeshop Act forbidding bakers to work more than 10 hours a day. Joseph ---, the owner of a local bakery, was sentenced to incarceration for making his employees work overtime. He decided to sue, stating that the New York law violated the liberty protected by due process of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the end, the Court decided under Justice Peckham that the right to buy and sell labor is a fundamental freedom protected by the Constitution, saying that "the general right to make a contract in relation to his business is part of the liberty of the individual." This is significant because the controversial decision gave rise to a time known as the -- era, where many progressive reforms were repealed and the judiciary consistently struck down labor condition regulations. However, -- was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1937 during the West Coast Hotel v. Parrish case. --- (1908) is another example of a step in the opposite direction. Oregon passes a law dictating that women could not work more than 10 hours a day in industries. --, an owner of a laundry company, was convicted of violating the law and so made an appeal to the court. Oregon's attorney general Louis Brandeis attempted to show that Oregon was protecting women's health by passing the law. By a 9-0 vote, the justices decided that the law was significantly different from the -- case three years ago. Thus, -- became a precedent that allowed the Court to approve some state reforms while others were struck down under the same reasoning as --.