Global History GENERAL

Age of Liberalism: From Geopolitics to Geo-economics

*The end of the confrontation meant the emergence in the 1990s of a sole geopolitical leader, the US -> the equilibrium in 1990s marked by American dominance *Russia was weak, was trying to convert to different political and economic system -recently, we're going towards the opposite: geopolitical disequilibrium, not equilibrium as above presented *The nature of the confrontation challenged the control of the geographic space and the control, or dominance, of the economic sphere but always inside the realm of capitalist societies based upon the models of western liberal democracy *Book by Luster Thurow, Head to Head: about the coming economic battle among Japan, Europe, and America to dominate the 21st century -> were independent, liberal democracies with different visions of capitalism (Europe and Japan vs. US), strong economies *why China was forgotten? - it was then still one of the underdeveloped countries in 1990s! -not the big economic power yet, was opening to the world economy and not yet in the WTO

K.E.J. Fusch

- Jewish physics exiled in the UK during the WWII to escape Nazis' atrocities - was a Marxist-Leninist; - worked in British branch of the Manhattan project regularly sending secrets of military technology to the Soviets - was discovered and tried ® declared that the activity was made owing to impossibility to think that the atomic bomb was going to be a knowledge of only 1 country that would subjugate the whole world so he wanted to restore the world power equilibrium by smuggling nuclear secrets

Political modernization of Japan

- Political modernization: 1889 Constitution · Emperor not sharing power with anybody else · Institutions and Constitution COPIED comepletely from the West · based on one idea: as a modern nation, you NEED a constitution

First Globalization and Nationalism

* An ambiguous relationship: depends from the meaning of nationalism. * Globalization created nations * Nations had to adapt to globalization (Japan) or die (China) * Caused and sustained by globalization, diasporas created the idea of a nation outside the geographic boundaries of the States (Ireland, Greece) * Empires managed/fostered nationalism (Austria-Hungary, India) * Global institutions (Gold Standard) weakened sovereignty

Decolonization of Belgian Congo: Takeaways

* Decolonization not simply as the act of giving or achieving independence but as a complex process which, if not carefully planned, leads to instability and violence. The Belgian responsibilities. * The problem of building a nation where a nation does not exist, but tribal and ethnic dimensions prevail and meddle into politics - and without a long war of independence (as happened in Vietnam and Algeria) * The ambiguous role of the UN in the decolonization process * The Cold War: the geoeconomic (the control of natural resources) and geopolitical dimensions.

Paris 1900 - "Exposition Universelle"

* In 1900 international exposition held in Paris * Picture: Tour Eiffel built for that occasion - buildings around TE built exactly for the exposition - especially the globe - representing integrated world - but word "globalization" not used at all at that time! * Also at that time: Olympic Games in Paris, 1900 - celebrated cosmopolitan attitudes and friendship

Why to care about WWI?

- its globality - it revolutionized the structural components of the "World of Yesterday": erased from the World map several empires and transformed completely the World's geopolitical equilibrium, bringing at the forefront new "imperial" powers, the US. and Soviet Union -it brought to an abrupt end the globalization of the Nineteenth century in its basic components - international trade and migrations. -originated several, permanent components of the global scenario, up to the present days: *ended old Empires * created nations and nationalism, and also more or less tolerated minorities; * created the idea of mass conscience, soon translated into mass parties due to the diffusion of universal suffrage. * promoted emancipation, of women but also of colonial subjects which fought for the "motherland". -put the basis of the general instability -The Great War is still present

Age of Liberalism: Globalization and inequality

*The "new globalization" has been accompanied by another phenomenon, that is: 1) the reduction of inequality among countries at the global level starting from the end of the 1990s (no full agreement) 2) the rise in inequality levels of wealth distribution within countries (full agreement): -After 1989 the total labor force doubled from 1.5 to 3 bn. -Relocations, offshoring and competition on low-medium skill segments -Inside developing countries growing gap between skilled and unskilled, and unskilled hollowed out by migrant workers -Rising inequality may generate an ideological and political backlash against globalization

Decolonization and the Cold War

*The Cold War heavily influenced the dynamics of the decolonization process. *The Cold War impacted in various ways - and sometimes in a contradictory way. - the new World Order contributed to the dismantling of the "old" imperial influences and legacies (the Suez case) also through the support granted to independence movements. -The open rejection of the Cold War logic marked the emergence of the Non Aligned Movement -Frequently, however, when resources were at stake or major geopolitical issues, the Cold War meddled in the aftermath of the independence, as happened in the case of Belgian Congo.

Decolonization of Belgian Congo: the political landscape before the Independence Day

*The Mouvement Nationale Conglaise (MNC): socialist, unionist led by Patrice Lumumba (PM after the elections) *The Alliance Des Ba Kongo (ABAKO): pro-Belgium, federalist led by Joseph Kasavubu (President after the elections) *The Confederation des Associations Tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT): pro-Western, federalist led by Moise Thsombe

War Communism characterization

years immediately after the October Revolution and under the leadership of Lenin were the years of War Communism lasting from 1917 to 1921 characterized by Communist priniciples: *abolition of private property *central redistribution of goods and services *expropriation and nationalization of industries with more than 10 workers (everything in the hands of a state) *state monopoly on foreign trade (to control export and foreign currency that was derived from export) *seizure of peasant surpluses to control food trade and redistribution *military discipline and control of infrastructure (railways) - was a necessity during the Civil War with millions of causalties

Institutional modernization of Japan

· Imported institutions that were already efficient completely from the West · The process of institutional modernization was carried on through a strategy of imitation and adaptation of Western institutions to the Japanese context. * This was typically undertaken through diplomatic missions abroad (ex: Iwakura mission 1871-73) with the purpose of studying the organization of Western modern States

China open door policy (1899)

· The US policy towards the European powers present in China after OW: allowed them to stay in China, while US won't be present there ever -> US wanted to trade with the colonists, not with China according to MD (similarity: Trump's foreign policy as a neo-monroeism)

Globalization waves in history

1) First global economy: 1840-1914/1929 2)First de-globalization: 1929-1979 3)Second Global Economy: 1979-2008 4) New De-globalization: 2008-2020

Decolonization: timing and geography

*took place in very short span of time but not simultaneously *different outcomes: ex: Southeast Asia -> deliberation of economic energy and ownership -> rise of the Asian Tigers; totally different in Africa *the decades in which the decolonization process took place were preceded by a preparatory phase which can be divided in two sub-periods 1) The interwar years, when in several colonies nationalistic/independentist movements started to appear and the concept of Empire itself got into scrutiny - WWI ended the empire age (e.g. Ottoman Empire) but French and British Empires remained, some minor empires got strengthened as well -national conscience developing when the colonies were fighting for the mother country in the trenches of the war - after October 1917, it was clear that an alternative (USSR) was possible -> was a new phenomenon and an inspiration for the nationalist movements 2) The years of WW2 - the relationship between Empires and colonies further transformed and European Empires showed their weakness: -ex: India in 1942 -ex2: Vietnam in 1945 (the French power defeated by the Japanese) -the WWII even more strengthened the idea of national independence - fighting in large parts of the colonies made apparent the weakness of the Empires but also the fact that the colonies were part of this struggle (especially in the South East Asia) -the anticolonial attitude of the "new" powers, US and URSS - Cold War - wanted to erase all the dominations to establish a new geopolitical scenario and so had to get rid of the colonization -At the end of the War the old colonial powers introduced some changes in the management of colonies - but not "radical" changes, even if with some differences. a) Britain was ready to concede independence to India and its partition from Pakistan (1947) and decided to reinvigorate the concept of Commonwealth as trade union among increasingly autonomous dominions. -reasons: the pressure of different events, financial inability to manage this empire after WWII b) France instead had more problematic relationship with decolonization process - maintained more firmly an imperialistic attitude, even if with some "nuances". * the decolonization came into waves, and in a changing geographic scenario - 3 geographic areas in which decolonization took place -Immediately after the war, mainly East Asia (Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines) a) Korea - Japanese colony b) Taiwan - considered not an independence, but a secessionist territory of China c) Indonesia - Dutch colony d) Philippines - released by the US -During the first half of the 1950s, southeast Asia (basically Indochina) -End of the 1950s - beginning of the 1960s: Africa *The process was not always peaceful.

Industrial modernization in Japan

o The dramatic lack in technology was mirrored in the lack of modern industries, even if the Edo period had created good prerequisites (e.g. infrastructures, merchantile class, urbanization). o Since the beginning, Meiji economic policy targeted import substitution in cotton and to the development of indigenous capabilities in textiles and related industries. o At the beginning, State-sponsored (pilot) plants, subsequently sold to wealthy mercantile families. o To create a Japanese industrial revolution, importing industrial plants from West and operaed by Western technicians to speed up industrialization process o The private sector: - A peculiar organizational form: the zaibatsu -financial vertically integrated business conglomerates * Characteristics: · Family Holding - the old "mercantile houses" · Diversified business group: manufacturing, trade, banking · A relevant section of the national economy · A "natural alliance" with the military. Nationalism and militarism o Real GDP per capita increasing in Japan from around 1890 until 1945

Decolonization

process of diffusing freedom in former colonies; went very often together with Communism, Marxism or Leninism in the colonies

Geo-economics

the interrelation among the control of resources, economic primacy, leadership in international trade and markets and its effects on political primacy

What made the WWI Great?

o This War was different from the previous (limited) conflicts for at least three reasons. 1) Its geographic scope: The War was clearly a European affair. · It started symbolically in the core of Europe (Sarajevo, June 28, 1914) [Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb Yugoslav nationalist, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, leading to the July Crisis. In response, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July. Serbia's reply failed to satisfy the Austrians, and the two moved to a war footing. A network of interlocking alliances enlarged the crisis from a bilateral issue in the Balkans to one involving most of Europe.] · but, since was fought by imperial powers (war of empires), it quickly became a global War, in Europe, Middle East, Africa, East Asia. · British Empire · Ottoman Empire · French Empire · Russia went out in 1917 [related to the revolution] · SAmerica [Brazil] excluded and join only in 1917 · US joined only in 1917 · Almost all the globe was involved for the first time (never before) * There were also clashes in the colonies [e.g. German East Africa and Kenya, Northern Rhodesia -> the fighting there wasn't comparable to what happened in Europe but was there present as well 2) The size of Armies involved: o The last conflict in Europe: French-Prussian War, 1871, counted 900k casualties. o exceeded the usual conflicts casualties o The Russian Japanese War (1904-5), 200k o Nearly 40 mln dead 3) In the «War of the trenches» some «battles» had a much greater size than previous Wars. 4) It was the first industrial conflict. o All the industries of the Second Industrial Revolution were involved - from metallurgy, to mechanics, automotive, chemicals (gases & explosives), energy (coal, oil & electricity, communications, and air transport - not to speak of troops' living costs). o Was first unconventional conflict: was massively based on the technology (materials, product, technology) o Brought modernisation of some industries (e.g. metallurgy, aeronautics - first time airplanes were used for military purposes) o Brought into mobilisation all industries that the country had o Complete modernisation of industry and activities of coordination o Italian industries started reaching high efficiency levels only then o The impact was: - quantitative (production volume, employment) - qualitative: e.g. standardization, technological progress ·oWilliam Roberts, «The First German Gas Attack at Ypres» (1918): Modernisation of chemical industry; shows the effects of the gas use ·o Military expenditures increased the moment countries were joining the war -> made all the industrialization efforts possible -> war removed the limit in the military budget, and it happened everywhere -It meant the companies had more money at disposal to produce new things ® military innovations brought to place -Removing caps to military budget -> creation of technology and knowledge (happens sometimes in periods of peace but very slowly usually) -Technological improvements in terms of new sectors and new products

Age of Liberalism: Triumphant Capitalism

* In the 1990s "free-market capitalism" established itself as the "dominant" model, not only in economic, but also political terms (referring to liberal democracy) -capitalism becoming pervasive even in places where it wasn't sought before *In the former Soviet bloc, the establishment of capitalist market systems became the first goal of the new ruling class to be achieved as soon as possible - with mixed results and social impacts. -Yeltsin presidency: rushed into a program of privatization never seen before, putting relevant parts of the former planned economy in the hands of rich entrepreneurial individuals (oligarchs) with the effect that the average Russian citizen suffered a deterioration in the living standards that modern Russia will never forget -> it's the basis of the success of President Putin reversing this deterioration; brought back oligarchs under the control of the state *In China the process of reforms started in 1978 and went on progressively and slowly, but restlessly - culminating in 2001 (WTO) -1980s: the establishment of the special economic zones where the foreign multinationals could settle -1990s: the real privatization process started: privatization of non-strategic sectors, encouragement of animal spirits (e.g. Alibaba) and many entrepreneurs but putting the strategic sectors under the state control (as opposed to Russia)! -it started the model of socialism with the Chinese characteristics that run from the 90s to 2013/2014. -the most recent years have seen extraordinary initiatives to strengthen the control over the economy to become much more independent from the outside world *In the West, the question was now: "which kind of capitalism"? -Book: Capitalism vs. Capitalism by Michel Albert told us that capitalism is the only form! but inside the capitalism there are many differences between different capitalist systems e.g. Anglo-Saxon market capitalism: really market-based, everything about market, success and money e.g. vision of the social market economy: softening the hard part of the Anglo-Saxon version in favor of society: you're free and market is free, unless it harms the society -> very much German, French, Italian and Mediterranean

Age of Liberalism: "The End of History"

* The "ruinous" fall of the opponent (included not only fall of Communism or USSR!), was politically and culturally a positive shock and left only one possible alternativ: the model of "Western liberal democracy", coupled with free-market capitalism. * In 1989, before the fall of Berlin Wall, there was a Tiananmen Square Protests that was clearly giving a sign of transformation from the old order * everything was pointing in 1 direction politically -> Western liberal democracy system * Now Western liberal democracy system has demonstrated not to be the most efficient thing but at that time appeared to be very much so *Book by Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and The Last Man -he considered the "Western liberal democracy", coupled with free-market capitalism (those 2 couldn't be decoupled!!), the last stage of history of mankind - system that could be applied everywhere to everyone ->liberal parliamentary democracy establishes itself as the most efficient form of government, granting freedom and development (human and economic)

World in 19th century

*1820: China as one of the oldest and largest empires in the world *Triangular trade (British India, Afghanistan, China) *Opium Wars: 2 wars waged by the Qing dynasty and Western powers (esp. GB) in the mid 19th century 1) 1839-1842: triggered by dynasty's campaign against the opium trade 2) 1856-1860: the dynasty vs. Britain and France -in each war, the West used recently developed military technology to defeat the Quing's forces and compelled the dynasty to grant favorable tariffs, trade concessions and territory -results: a) treaties weakened the dynasty and Chinese govt and forced China to open specified treaty ports that handled all trade with imperial powers b) concession of HK to the GB after the wars compromised Chinese territorial sovereignty c) Chinese economy slightly contracted due to war but major effect had on it Taiping Rebellion and Dungan Revolt

Colonization of Belgian Congo (1885-1959)

*1885-1908: after the Berlin Conference, the Congo Free State emerges as a personal possession of King Leopold II. -It is an artificial «corporate State», based on the Ruthless exploitation and appropriation of resources in the Congo Basin. *1908-1959: Belgian colony. -The political structure is autocratic. -A powerful General Governor and Provincial Governors. -No representation for the Congolese population (tribal structure). *In the meantime, the Belgian economic interests strengthen: the powerful Union Miniére and a growing Belgian population

2019: clash China vs. US

*2018: Trump gave the Chinese officials a list of bold economic demands in Beijing -> similarity with 1840 (First Opium War) as compared by the Global Times controlled by the Chinese govt -First Opium War: China wanted to have more control over their trade but Britain won and forced China to open their markets to British goods -> same is being done by the US *Trump was elected cause of his disengagement from trade with Chins and reduction of dependence on China in 2016 *Now: separation of the US economy from China is happening *2019: NYT article

Decolonization of Belgian Congo: the Cold War effect

*At the beginning of September, the political situation deteriorates. *Under the US. Pressure, Kasavubu dismisses Lumumba (and vice-versa). * September 14th: the Army chief Mobutu orchestrates a coup. * Lumumba under house arrest, escapes but is captured and handed over to the Katanga rebels. He is shot on 17th of January 1961 by Belgian advisors to the Katanga government and his body is dissolved in acid. * Congo achieves finally political stability but under the autocratic pro-US dictatorship of Joseph Mobutu.

Is the Cold War really over?

*China and US clash: -socialist country with 1 authoritarian party government vs. liberal western democracy (similar to USSR-US relation) -China's communism is different than Russian one tho *the First Cold War ended on November 9th 1989

Making of Communism: from Lenin to Stalin

*Civil War *War Communism *crisis, stagnation and political change: -medium-long term effects on the self-perception of USSR (being under attack) -heavy number of casualties -loss of fixed capital and infrastructure (included effect of nationalization on foreign investments) -impact on agriculture and crops -1921 famine: effects of droughts, War Communism (confiscations) and Civil War (destruction) and inefficient transportation system (from 5 to 7 mln died of starvation) -> convinced Lenin to end WC *1922: NEP *1924: death of Lenin realization: revolutionary country could only last if the country could be economically competitive (serious challenge for the USSR) with the capitalist countries -> need to strenghten the economy that was 100 years behind the capitalist countries that in the interwar were already advanced *1924: Stalin takes power and new phase of the revolution starts

The Cold War: The impact

*Cold War was hardly sustainable -was expensive in terms of military expenses and budgets, and indirectly was also costly in term of the subsidies and aid for the "satellites" in the two blocks. -one (realistic) explanation of the end of the confrontation points at its economic sustainability: given the characteristics of its economy, the Soviet military budget was largely financed by the rents in oil and gas. The long trend in the decline of oil prices played a determinant role. -URSS was also less and less able to control its satellites, as the Polish uprisings (1981) clearly demonstrated

The rationales of decolonization

*Endogenous reasons: 1) from the perspective of the colony: -Emergence of the national conscience - spread of socialist, anti-imperialist, nationalist attitudes -Transformation in the conscience of the individuals: to these belong socialist parties, civil rights movements, and the recent experience of resistance to Nazi occupation and oppression. (you didn't want to be the oppressor knowing your relatives were dying under the oppression of wars - the "alternative moral universe") 2) From the perspective of colonizers: -Expensive maintenance of the colonies: revenues generated by the colonies were lower than the costs the colonizers had to bear -Changing attitude in the nominal culture of the new generations that put power into decolonizers -The change in the ideological attitudes increased the opportunity cost of managing colonies *Exogenous reasons: ranging from the support to anticolonial forces provided by URSS and China, to the pressure of new international bodies (e.g. UN) to, above all, the new power balance of the Cold War. -US stopped the French and the British in the Suez Canal

The Cold War: Origins

*Far from being «homogeneous», the Cold War was characterized by several phases, and geographic scenarios. -initiated by changes in leadership (rapproachments) interchangeably and colder relations *Initially was an European phenomenon, progressively propagated to the Middle East, to Asia and later - coinciding with decolonization - to Africa *Countries were allied, but "incompatible universalisms". *Countries having different objectives: -The US: willing to preserve and expand geopolitical power; restoring globalization; avoiding a comeback of isolationism -The URSS: willing to gain security against aggressions; expand socialism; punish Germany - different objectives -These visions clashed very soon, even if the Soviet control over Eastern Europe was not in question.

The Cold War: How it unfolded?

*First phase: the origins *Second phase: From Collaboration to Confrontation - the «European» Cold War -Initially, three areas of "friction" in Europe and the Middle East. •Germany: the Soviets were scared by a German "renaissance" (the fear of aggression) while the US. (after Morgenthau) had opted for a German rebirth. •Turkey and Greece: Stalin wanted a control of the Black Sea (connection between Mediterranean and Russia). The US. (filling the British vacuum) opposed the Soviet "imperialist" ambitions. Middle East (Iran): the access to strategic resources (oil). Again, US filling the British vacuum (GB completely unable to control those areas after the war) •1948 as a symbolic year: Czechoslovakia coup d'etat, ERP, Yugoslavian split from the Soviet influence, Berlin Blockade (by the USSR - failed), NATO talks that culminated in the division of Germany *Third Phase: The Internationalization of the Cold War -1949 marked instead a new phase in the dynamics of the Cold War: 1) In Europe, the major event was the division of Germany into two separate political entities (FRG, GDR), a move which completed the division of Europe between the two blocks. 2) The Soviets successfully conducted the first atomic test 3) The Chinese Civil War ended with the victory of the Communist Party and introduced a new scenario in South East Asia 4) The Korean (proxy) War (1950-1953) *Fourth Phase: Cold War, decolonization and underdevelopment -The globalization of the Cold War coincided with a new geography of the confrontation, now including areas of the World characterized by one common feature: social and economic underdevelopment. -Decolonization, in particular, provided the opportunity for a further globalization of the confrontation in Southeast Asia and above all Africa, where new, fragile, unstable, ethnically divided governments of countries endowed with strategic natural resources became theatres of "proxy wars", confrontation and "negotiation". -The cases of the Suez Crisis (1956), Congo (1960), and Cuba.

Age of Liberalism: Which capitalism?

*In the 1990s emerged, at a global level, a consensus/shared idea among the main international governing bodies in Washington (e.g. IMF, WB) about the way in which the "liberal democracy model" should be translated into stable economic systems for both developed and developing countries, and a set of shared "policies". *Washington Consensus: a set of reforms necessary to perpetuate capitalism on one side and to diffuse everywhere the benefits of capitalism on the other hand -low government borrowing -diversion of public spending from subsidies to important long-term growth -deregulation: eradication of regulations and policies that restrict competition/add unnecessary barriers to entry -fiscal discipline -openness to FDI: relaxed rules on FDIs -tax reforms to broaden the tax base and adopt marginal tax rates -financial liberalization: selecting interest rates determined by the market -unified and competitive exchange rates encouraged through freely-floating currency exchange -trade liberalization: free rade policies -privatization of state enterprises -reorientation of public expenditures -secured property rights *Some of these "pillars" were in place even in China and "traded" in exchange of inclusion (e.g. EU admission) or aid (IMF, WB) *Some characterized the world already in 1990s *World Bank: giving loans to countries transforming from planned/underdeveloped to market/transition economies *This set was considered a point of strength but turned out to be a point of weakness: one size fits all - was applied to advanced economies and was to benefit everyone *Summary: two main ideas - 1) state should be out 2) market should be in

World in 17th and 18th century

*India and China having 2/3 of world's GDP (world's rich) *China exporting a lot to the West (silk, ceramics, tea), importing opium that they (40 mln of Chinese) got addicted to

Global Communism: why should we care?

*Is rare occurrence, but can be found in some countries around the world, not only in official Communist regimes but also in states with single-party rulers or dominant power of a Communist party (Vietnam, NK, China, Laos, Cuba) *Its global influence: the pervasive relevance and influence of communist parties in non-communist state (e.g. Italy, France) *Its role in shaping global phenomena: the Cold War and Decolonization *Is at the basis of the political discourse in many countries (e.g. Putin willing to rebuild the economic and poitical influence of Communist Russia as a big world power)

Decolonization of Belgian Congo: outbreak of the Congo Crisis

*July 5: the «Force Publique» rebels against white officers. In order to calm the situation, Lumumba appoints one of his acquaintances, and former military, as Army chief: Joseph Mobutu. * July 11: the Katanga province secedes, largely under Belgian pressures (fear of Lumumba "communist" orientation). * The legitimate government appeals to the UN the day after. Again, the UN's contradictory behaviour: only interposition force. * The Cold War pops-up: In August Lumumba asks for Soviet help. The Shinkolobwe uranium

The First Global World: Globalization

*Last globalization period: the period of amazing integration which characterized the World between 1850 and 1914. *What's globalization? the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. -has accelerated since the 19th century due to advances in transportation and communication technology this increase in global interactions has caused a growth in international trade and the exchange of ideas and culture. -is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that is associated with social and cultural aspects; however, conflicts and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization, and of modern globalization. *Are we in a globalization phase? Yes, but it is slowing down (slobalisation) *Is the current globalization a danger and why? -Might be, especially when it comes to the local waves of globalization -The danger: all the contradictions of globalization

Age of Liberalism: Globalization and its discontent

*Our reality now is the opposite of what 1990s promised -multipolar disequilibrium in geopolitical terms -economic inequalities and underdevelopment -challenge to the liberal democracy as a political regime that is granting all the benefits without problem *Three decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall the "Washington Consensus policies" are still in place, but increasingly questioned and criticized, particularly by the developing and underdeveloped countries and by stagnating developed countries. *The "new globalization" phase failed in keeping important promises the Washington Consensus had made: 1) Political convergence towards Western liberalism: rapid development in autocracies instead, and the challenge of fundamentalism -the most vibrant economies in the world today are NOT liberal democracies (illiberal, authocracies) 2)Convergence in incomes and living standards (equality) -privatization increased inequality instead of diffusing 3)Rapid economic growth in transition and developing economies. Failures in South America and Africa -turned out to be a fantastic idea but far from the reality 4)The Consensus proved to be inadequate in crisis (2007-8) and recession

How did the first globalisation undermine itself?

*The global world ended in August 1914, as Keynes stressed *First global world ended due to: 1) Inequality: on a global scale, the world of yesterday was largely unequal; created winners and losers on a macro (across countries) and micro (esp. inside countries) scale due to: o the north-sud, west-east divide, o imperfect taxation system, o the absence of welfare and widespread poverty even inside the developed countries =all these were effects of globalization that brought its end causing inequalities 2) Micro and macro inequalities -rising inequality both in Europe and the US 1870-1914 3) Trade: trade integration hurt European landed interests (esp. and wherever these were powerful enough, the legislative reaction was predictable) -it was cheaper and easier to bring food from abroad to Europe -> European peasants were worthless and unemployed -> were starving and started moving abroad (globalization) -> discontent -Consequence: tariffs went up 4) Migrations: Countries of immigration (the New World) started to tighten rules by the end of the 1880s (esp. US tightening the rules over admissions) -The safety valve of emigration was stuck, and voice started to prevail over exit. -E.g. the Picture: the WASP-White Anglo-Saxon Protesting: White Anglo-Saxon Protesting kicking out Italians and Chinese not wanted anymore in the US

Global diffusion of Communism in 20th century

*USSR and China *also areas coincidental with former colonies of the European Empires (Southeast Asia, Africa) -> connection between Communism, Cold War and Decolonization *Bolivia: prevalence of the Communist Party

Age of Liberalism: Trade and Capital flows

*Washington Consensus promised many things * the other side of the diffusion of the liberal market was the second wave of globalization -> involved aspects of economic integration *Since the early 90s, the «Washington Consensus effect» has had visible impact in restoring the international World economic integration, including the "Chinese effect". *tariffs: a symbol of trade protection *big growth in the volume of world trade with the only exception of the crisis 2007/2008 -> shows global trade integration *new financial globalization made of internationalization of capital markets and companies with foreign investments

The World of Yesterday by Stefan Zweig

*World reached a remarkable level of cross-border integration in many aspects - cultural, economic and political * Flows of people, goods and capitals increased progressively and steadily after the Napoleonic Wars * The World of Yesterday was the world of globalization * Globalization: word that was not used, but best describes what happened

Age of Liberalism: Globalization vs. Defensive Nationalism

*Yet another failure of WS - ideological rejection of globalization *Rising inequality may lead to an ideological (and political) rejection of the components of globalization - a process not very different from that taking place before the Great War. *The rejection of trade integration and of the institutions promoting integration in general - e.g. EU * The rejection of global mobility *The rejection of globalism in open support of "defensive nationalism" (different from nationalism per se) *The rise of populism (right and left-wing) - the people vs. élites as the sociological and political translation of inequality status ®polarization of the society

Features of the Cold War

*a geopolitical concept, where geography is as important as ideology - now: geo-economics gains increasing relevance than in the past -> US and China are looking for economic dominance in their own spheres of influence -> now China and US are still involved in the global economy but it's possible to change the situation and go from globalization to deglobalization and fragmentation of the markets *the emphasis on geographic partition and division of space by walls, fences, curtains, perimeters, barriers (trade) (conventional wars cross borders, cold wars erect barriers that are visible and invisible) *confrontation taking place at the global level (very few countries untouched) - more global than WWII -now: China & US are involving more countries in their sphere of influence, building diplomatic ties with many (e.g. owing to their diplomatic pressures, China diminished number of countries recognizing Taiwan as an independent country) *involved and targeted civilians everywhere in a pervasive way, touching all aspects of everyday life (e.g. chess, Olympic Games) -now: same influence of the war on the lives of people -> 5G technology delayed or derailed by current confrontation *not constant tension but characterized by sudden accelerations and slowdowns, depending on many factors (esp. nature of internal leadership) -ex: heated up in 1960s (Cuban Missile Crisis) -constant tensions in the ME and South America (Chile 1973) -slowed down at the beginning of 1970s (summits, Nixon-Kissinger) and heated up at the end of 1970s (Afghanistan 1978) and beginning of 1980s (Reagan presidency *politics and ideology developed

World War I: basics

*a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. *Contemporaneously known as the Great War or "the war to end all wars", * it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history. * It is also one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with an estimated 9 million combatant deaths and 13 million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war, *Resulting genocides and the related 1918 Spanish flu pandemic caused another 17-100 million deaths worldwide *Allied powers (victorious): France British Empire Russia (until 1917) Serbia Belgium Japan Montenegro Italy (from 1915) United States(from 1917) Romania (from 1916) Portugal (from 1916) Hejaz (from 1916) Greece (from 1917) Siam (from 1917) China and many others *Central Powers: Germany Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria (from 1915) and others *Some argue 2 world wars were 2 big events in one ongoing war conflict

Dungan Revolt (1895-1896)

*a rebellion of Chinese Muslim ethnic groups against the Qing dynasty due to a violent dispute between 2 Sufi orders.

US-China clash: What matters for power - economy or ideology?

*to some extent, it's about achieving economic leadership to remain dominant (economy as a fundament for survival and consolidation of power) *China has bigger economy, US is more influential in terms of ideology *There are also ideological reasons: -desire of China to take a revenge for the humiliations from XIX century -clash between democracy and autocracy (e.g. same happening in Europe) -clash between capitalism and a new form of Communism (linking capitalist economy with a strong control of a party over nation to exploit economic growth to make pressures and make Western countries dependent - taking advantage of some economic capitalist features to succeed where USSR failed) -not repeating the mistakes of USSR (lack of interdependence and weak domestic economy)

Decolonization: definition

*background: the West, largely Europe, colonised Africa and a large portion of SE Asia during the scramble of Africa and the imperialist age during the second half of the 19th century *1949: moment in which Chinese communist party seized power, ending the century of the foreign presence and humiliation - the moment when the decolonisation started *1960s: decolonistion ended with some exceptions: •1974: independence of Angola from Portugal •1997: HK and 1999: Macau getting independence from China *the meaning of the term "decolonization" is quite complex - The act of giving independence to a former colony - The act of getting rid of colonial rule o Once confined to the idea of the release/acquisition of the control over political institutions, now is more often considered a process affecting political institutions but also having a broader impact over both the colonized and the colonizer. -was a process, not an Independence Day! was going long before and after that (the rise of national conscience, the beginning of national struggle, the problems with the local movements of liberation and the increasing weakness of colonial institutions -- all that eventually bring to independence) - in some places decolonization process might not be yet finished

Decolonization as a "macro" phenomenon

*composed by several cases of decolonization *covered at least three continents *took place with a growing intensity from 1945 to the early 1970s, symbolically ended with the release of Hong Kong (1997) and Macau (1999) to China *to be analyzed and understood in the broader frameworks of the Cold War bipolar World Order and of the problems of underdevelopment and poverty.

Age of Liberalism: Global Privatizations since 1990s

*during 1990s, deregulation and privatizations (sale on the market of assets previously controlled by State) spread everywhere - Western Europe since 1985 -Eastern Europe and Russia since 1990 - China since 2000 *was a global phenomenon of Washington Consensus

A revolutionary avant-garde (Bolsheviks) coup 1917 - October Revolution

*gained power by a successful coup d'etat *in the West, there is a propagandist vision built by USSR: the rise to power happened as an act of population, not coup d'etat

The Cold War: How was it fought?

*no direct confrontation due to Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) since 1949 when USSR detonated its first A-Bomb (developed quickly due to intense espionage of USSR - Manhattan Project - by Communist scientists -now: China and US are relevant nuclear powers that still are in a situation of MAD that makes the nuclear confrontation impossible still -> but in the first cold war very circumscribed nuclear attacks could be carried on in terms of military strategy but more problematic in terms of practical use -> today the very circumscribed atomic conflict with big losses is possible but without a MAD in any case *fought on a completely new battleground and required totally new means and combat techniques: technology, research and science: had a technological component -ex: a space race - was to test the technological superiority of the countries and was big impact on the budgets of 2 countries (was very expensive) -now: trade wars are in particular involving sectors and industries that are technologically sensible/sensitive -> the most important of confrontation form economic side is now in the semi-conductor industry that is a symbol of high-tech industry -> US trying to smash Chinese competencies in the ICT industry -> Chinese developed over time very relevant industries in the system of communications (e.g. 5G) with some leading companies (e.g. Huawei) -> US trying to cut the exports of semi-conductors to China *Through politics and ideology *Intelligence and in-depth, systematic knowledge of the opponent -now: intelligence passing through social media and is also very important *"proxy wars": conflicts between "satellites" and/or direct/indirect support to opposition parties and insurgence - CW wasn't directly fought between US and USSR but fought between one of them and one or many countries supported by the opponent -ex: Korean War: Korea and on the side USSR vs. US and the Chinese -> USSR was there but wasn't truly -proxy war is a conflict running between the satellites or a satellite and a contendent but not 2 contendents -proxy wars are still here now, but not to same high extent

Age of Liberalism: Migrations and Globalization

*not about refugees, but migrants! *A truly global phenomenon, international migrations (IMs) have characterized the present globalization wave. -was very typical of the first globalization but is very distinctive of the second globalization and the 90s *According to the UN, between 1990 and 2010 the most developed regions were the recipients of the majority of immigration flows *since 1990 onwards, the stock of global migrations accelerated rapidly *the impact of IM is multidimensional (political, social, economic) both in the countries of birth and of destination *Ms (causes and effects of) allow to understand better the dynamics of globalization

Aftermath of decolonization

*reference to the cover of Life magazine *the "wars of liberation" were only the beginning of a much more complex process. -Ethnic/tribal and religious conflicts -Weak elites/authoritarian regimes -Widespread economic inequality -Weak economic systems locked in low-income traps, import dependence and based on the primary sector, but also often hostile to FDIs -(imperial) path-dependent infrastructural endowment -human capital drain

Why is Japan a unique example of a globalized state?

*shows that globalization can't be avoided and must be confronted *For a long time (until 1970/1980), the only East Asian case of modern economic development -> Is an Asian Tiger · Absorbed goods of globalization but at the same time kept local dimensions intact o An outstanding catching-up story: from rags to riches in (less than) one generation o A unique case of "institutional imitation" - Put in place a strange mix of institutional standards of West and a peculiar role player by the state o A peculiar version of State-led development o Political economy of nationalism and imperialism - Japan was isolating itself for a long time and then globalization came and impacted Japan, very nationalistic and proud country - Consider themselves as THE civilization

Age of the West

*since 1815 Napoleonic Wars until now *is a period of Western dominance geo-economically and geopolitically *has been characterized by at least 2 accelerations of global integration 1) 1870-1914 2) 1989-present *Western domination was in fact short relatively to the Eastern domination

the Age of the East

*until the middle of the XIX century (1820s), the richest in terms of world's GDP share and world's largest empires were India and China *currently, pendulum is shifting towards East once again *from 1980s, China and India are gradually becoming dominant again, while the West is going down in terms of GDP based on PPP *Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring 1665 -> the lady was dressed in everything coming from the East (silk, Chinese clothes) -> Asia was in the centre of the world in the 17th century

Congolese Decolonization

*was the largest possession in the center of Africa, "heart of darkness", and was basically managed by the Belgians *was the way to create a buffer state to avoid the clashes among the other colonial powers present in Africa *was populated by several tribes with no national conscience -> the tribal divisions prevailing! *there was no nationalism to give the ideological fuel to the oppressed nation

An unexpected materialization of Communism

*since publication of Manifesto (1848), Communism was really wandering across Europe *Creation of USSR wasn't expected in its materialization *materialization of Marx's predictions (transition from a capitalist society into a communist one as the last stage of his historical vision of history made of stages) took place not where it was expected - not in the mature, capitalist countries (e.g. GB), but where feudalism ended too abruptly leading to the communism, in poor, politically marginal and rural states (Russian Empire) *during the last 2 decades of XIXth century, Russia started a process of modernization and liberalization transforming from a feudal society based on agriculture and land ownership to an industrialized society at the level of other European countries (was en effect of 1st globalization, like Japan but in different geography) -Russia was technologically backward *1854: Crimean War demonstrated that backwardness (Russia lost heavily against European powers and GB) *could improve it by state intervention, attraction of foreign investments, liberalization, establishment of the sectors of production in the industries of first and second industrial revolutions *bad impact on Russian society: creation of many industrial bases nearest largest cities in Western Russia where the force and accelerated process of industrialization concentrated a large part of the population coming from the countryside -> created new contradictions -> fast modernization was traumatic for feudal, traditional society, while Tsar was reluctant to give up his autocratic power *1905: crucial watershed - Bloody Sunday in St. Petersburg and the defeat by Japan - was a first revolutionary attempt to build on what were to become pillars of Leninism: 1) organization of a revolutionary avantgarde 2) general strikes 3) proletarian workforce action

November 9, 1989, Berlin - the picture of Berlin Wall

*the end of Cold War and decolonization *1989: watershed years in many aspects *the picture conveys: -the idea of a popular revolution -the riots were signals of crumbling in the Eastern Bloc seen in Poland in the mid of 80s (84/85) -> this was a popular movement called Solidarność coming from below, started in Danzig -the revolutions in Eastern Europe following November 1989 and the events in Berlin were largely popular movements *the faces of the young policemen in the Eastern Berlin holding each other in the anti-riot technique, looking with curiosity into something different for them on the other side of the wall -it's symbolic but suggests it was a threshold that has been reached quickly, often without understanding fully what was on the other side of the wall -> the sense of a change was there but not the extent of a change: many weren't aware of what's been happening -change brought by Mikhail Gorbachev

Age of Liberalism: The Bear had disappeared

*the idea of unexpected future emerged *the Bear: the word used by Ronald Raegan (Republican President of the US) in his political campaigns/advertisement; the Bear as the Soviet Union - communist threat *The end of the Cold War coincided with a radical transformation of the post-WW2 bipolar World order, in a unpredictable (and unpredicted) way. *The dissolution of the "Soviet Empire" took place only two years after the fall of the Berlin Wall (1991), and was preceded, and followed, by a wave of democratization in the (formally independent, but one-party-rule) satellites in Eastern Europe and the Balkans in 1989. - everything (the dissolution of Eastern Europe) happened in the span of few months ® people now aware of the velocity, how quick it all happened *Between 1990 and 1991 the former Soviet Union followed, starting from the Baltic Republics to the final act of dissolution, on December 26th, 1991. *1991-1999: Dissolution of Yugoslavia *Germany had been re-unified in 1990

The End of Colonial Rule in Congo

*the late 1950s *notwithstanding the economic relevance of Congo, in the late 1950s the Belgian colonial rule starts to crumble for both internal and external pressures (decolonization wave). *The Congo's population started some political activity, creating parties. - Since the beginning, therefore, local vs. national, federal vs. unitary, pro-West vs. anti- West * Belgium seeks to find a way to comply with the necessity of giving independence to Congo and managing its vast economic interests. * Nationalist uprisings in 1959 - and the Brussels Conference. * The "independence day" (June 30, 1960) is preceded by general elections in May.

A Passage to India - connections with the classes

*the movie discusses how the balance of power constantly changes relatively to globalization waves. The First Asian Age, when Indian Empire was globally preponderant, is contrasted here with the West-dominated world as a result of the First Globalization, demonstrating the dynamics of imperialism -> the movie reveals the British imperialism by demonstrating how their supremacy, driving its imperial ambitions, functioned in practice in the Anglo-Indian community. *the movie functions as a real-life interpretation of the discussed painting of Spiridione Roma. *the film advocates against globalization -> identifying the symbols of the British culture (tea party, bridge, and polo), it demonstrates the effects of migration - the cultural homogenization, and further loss of the Indian national identity -> by bringing to light the unemployment among Indians, and overall injustice they suffered at the hands of British, it foregrounds how globalization strengthened the Indian nationalist attitudes. *provides a historical context for current political discourse where the imperialism is still present. As demonstrated by the UK vote to leave the EU or the scandal around Boris Johnson caught on camera reciting "The Road to Mandalay", prevailing British political debate is partially grounded in colonial nostalgia for the British dominance the movie discusses.

Multiple Globalizations

*there were many globalizations *since the 17th century, the centrality of Asia was shown by an intense wave of commercial and cultural exchanges between the West and Asia, with Asia being the most natural terminal of international trade as the richest and mostly endowed region *at the same time, there was Atlantic Trade System: Atlantic crossed by a flow of trade (of manufactured goods, raw materials and slaves) linking together NAmerica, Caribbeans, NEurope and Africa -> protoglobalization: growing integration of trade *protoglobalization followed other phases of acceleration in the intensity of trade, e.g. Pax Mongolica (the eased communication and commerce and relative peace after the Mongols' vast conquests in 16th century) lasting 100 years *Globalization is "strong" but "fragile", depending on a mix of factors as technology, institutions, cultural attitudes that may hinder or promote integration *Globalization and integration in general promote growth, "convergence" and equality, but often also generate inequality and discontent - and ultimately a problematic contradiction. *Globalization not new but a recurring phenomenon *Globalization not monotonic but made of waves -> globalization's fluctuating

The follower of Russia: China

-After the abdication of the last Emperor (1912) China was a fragile Republic still subjugated and partitioned among Western powers. -The CCP appeared at the beginning of the Twenties, gaining immediate success - contrasted by the nationalist Kuomintang (Sun Yat-Sen, then Chiang Kai- shek). -Both joined forces against the Japanese (1937), but after the end of the War the tension exploded. -In 1949 the Communists won, and established the PRC, while the nationalists fled to Taiwan. -According to some, the PRC can be seen as a step in the decolonization process -As happened in Soviet Union, the consolidation of the Revolution in 1949 called for economic reforms aiming at modernization and increased production in the primary and secondary sectors. -1953: planning initially (and differently from the Soviet Union) mainly based on the primary sector and the collectivization of the land, through the creation of a system of self-sufficient administrative and productive bodies (the People's Communes) -> were the building blocks of the productivity increase in the primary sector which was functional to the "Great Leap Forward": a heavy industrialization-urbanization disastrous policy devised in the 2nd plan (1958-1963). -China learned the lesson: high importance of consumer goods and important internal consumption!

Ferdinand De Lesseps

-Embodied the idea of cosmopolitanism - French diplomat who spent most of his career in the Middle East - Was very well aware of the problems of ME countries, including the Western influence (French and British) over ME - Wanted to promote a common good to promote integration and combat nationalism - Founded an international company building a Suez Canal - Suez Canal was this common good · was to facilitate communication · was to bring peace in the areas of nationalist and imperialist attitudes

The Suez Crisis

-In July 1956, the Egyptian President, Nasser - head of a anti-Western, pan-Arab and anti-Israeli socialist and URSS-backed government, announced the nationalization of one of the most important geopolitical and geo-economic assets in the World, the Suez Canal - owned by the French Suez Canal Company (Suez) and in itself a symbol of Western rule in Africa. -The "aggression" provoked the immediate French and British reaction. -In the Fall, a Tripartite alliance (France, Britain and Israel) started a joint invasion by land, sea and air. The invasion was successful, with Israel conquering the whole Sinai. -However, in front of the threat of a Soviet intervention in Europe and of the hostile attitude of the US. towards further destabilization in the area, as well as of international reactions, the alliance had to give up. -The Suez Crisis is considered to be the symbolic end of Western imperialist behavior (if not presence) in Africa.

The Belgian Congo Case

-The «Congo affair» started immediately after a reluctant Belgium granted independence to the country in June 1960 in exchange of mining rights for Belgian companies. The new Congolese leadership of the radical nationalist Patrice Lumumba had to manage the power transition, and a rebellion of the military against the white Belgian officers. -Lumumba had hard times in mediating among tribal interests and this gave room for a Belgian backed secession of the resources-rich Katanga region in the South -The Congolese government (Lumumba and the elected president Joseph Kasavubu) asked and received the UN support in Congo. The UN refused however to suppress the revolt, only accepting a peacekeeping role. Lumumba turned to URSS. -Pressed by the US., the President dismissed Lumumba and in the power void the military chief of staff, Joseph Mobutu, orchestrated a successful coup d'etat, starting a one party dictatorship lasting until 1997. -Patrice Lumumba was captured and assassinated by Katangan rebels and Belgian mercenaries in 1961.

New Economic Policy (1922)

-based on pragmatic collaboration between private initiative and state control -moderate reintroduction of private capitalist principles, supporting entrepreneurial initiative in light industries, trade and in the countryside (agriculture): Kulaki -State kept a strong grip over capital-intensive industries and foreign trade -China did the same thing in 1987 after Xiaoping's economic reforms -mix of public and private initiatives (public-private partnership) - aimed at restarting economic growth and consolidating Bolsheviks' power at the end of CW

Russia under Stalin: planning since 1928

-undertaking the total control of everything had to be coordinated and harmonized -required strong power and realization -the coordination of industrial production was concentrated into the Gosplan -in 1930s, USSR was able to achieve levels of manufacturing capacity compared to those of Europe or West -1929-1936: from 4.3 to 18.5 growth

The global impact of the Great War

1) Colonies at War: As a global imperial conflict, the War was fought by colonial forces, travelling to very distant locations and destinations o Was fought largely in Europe but also in colonies o Conscriptions in the home countries but also in colonies o War was a powerful trigger of other phenomena *Soldiers and laborers: o The British Empire had a caleidoscope of troops fighting in Europe. - India contributed with 1.5 million men. - Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland a further 1.3 million men. - Indian and New Zealand troops fought together in Gallipoli (Turkey). o France recruited between 1914 and 1918 nearly 500,000 colonial troops, including 166,000 West Africans, 46,000 Madagascans, 50,000 Indochinese, 140,000 Algerians, 47,000 Tunisians and 24,300 Moroccans. o Additionally, nearly 140,000 Chinese contract labourers were hired by the British and French governments. o Not only fighting soldiers but also labourers working on the war macinery (e.g. building trenches) were needed ® brought from colonies · Conclusions: -Far less European, far more global picture of war o Changing political position of colonies - From the master-slave relationship to: "you need the colonized people to build your trenches" approach - Increasing importance of the colonized people - India started considering itself as independent 2) · The War and "propaganda" strengthened nationalistic sentiments and national identities at different levels · Relatively "young" Countries/Nations lacking common identity -War strengthened those identities - War was a cancellation of empires and birth of nations - ex: Italy · born in 1861,1866,1871 · Huge differences between north and south · made by people barely speaking Italian, was a country of dialects/regions · the unity (national identity) was an elite phenomenon · it wasn't a revolutionary movement from below, but top down · war started the process and gave the common identity to the regions, effective after the war ® people even started even speaking one language (especially that's what needed in the trenches) o Nations inside multi-national Empires (e.g. Hungarians, Serbians but also Australians and New Zealanders) have given national consciousness - Started thinking of themselves as nations within empires o Nations emerging from the collapse of Empires (e.g. Turkey) o Reluctant Nations (Ireland) for/inside empires -This reluctance strengthened the nationalistic spirit - ex: Ireland as fighting for the British Empire - But nationalism was strongly enforced by the participation in the WWI · War propaganda and nation-building o Based on choosing a villain and a bilateral rhetoric (we're good/they're bad) · Originally, wars were fought by professionals and were fundamentally clashes between elites -> changed in the WWI (conscripts fought and whole populations were involved) ---- Women and Civilians at War o War fought by man but involved more than in the past civilians and women o The Great War created new "roles" for civilians and for women. o Civilians became for the first time "actors of war" (active and passive/targets). o Were financing the war o Women gained spaces of freedom and autonomy which strengthened "gender conscience". o If I can fight, why can't I vote? ---- Masses at the war o War for the first time was an effort that required an effort of MILION of people o Many uneducated o The mobilization of millions of men had another consequence, that is the creation of a concept "new" in World history: mass self-consciousness, which was in its turn translated into "revolutionary" movements and mass political parties. - Translated to the Russian Revolution later - Further also into the mass political parties

The global consequences [legacy] of the Great War

1) Global/Political Instability o Before: British dominated; o War ended the equilibrium that was before it without providing a new one o The end of the War in November 1918 started a phase of deep instability. o It was the end of three continental Empires, the creation of new nations and of areas of geopolitical instability (e.g. the Balkans, the Middle East) o The Russian Empire ended through revolution, followed by a six years long Civil War. Revolutionary movements sparkled across Europe (e.g. Germany and Italy) o The War reshuffled the World Order and the US. Started to replace Great Britain as the leading nation o Sykes-Picot secret agreement 1916 on the Ottoman Empire partition: OE divided into spheres of influence without ethnic considerations 2) Social Instability o The Great War had a demographic impact never experienced before, through its casualties but also a H1N1 flu pandemic started in France military camps. o Birth rates declining strikingly o By erasing or moving borders and creating new ones, the Great War created another "legacy": minorities, generally included into "new" Nations, hostile to them (e.g. South Tirol and Slavs in Italy, minorities in the Balkans, Armenians in Turkey, Germans in Poland) o Destroyed empires and redesigned borders created minorities o People within new borders were immediately becoming foreigners in the places where they were born o New border=new minority o implication: war is not only a military issue, but also a social/political transformation

Characteristics of the first globalization wave

1) Technology intensive in transport and communication -Technologies of the first Industrial Revolution (steam engine, mechanics, steel and later electricity) became pervasive and allowed globalization -e.g steam applied to transport -> development of steamship: ship able to connect very distant points in space with one important difference with the past boats -> steamships weren't dependent on the winds -> no dependence on seasons -railways -telegraphs: powerful mean of spreading and sharing news -rotary press: printed huge number of pages in short time -> Was cheap -> allowed for the economies of scale -> led to the democracy in information *now: ICT Revolution led to current wave of globalization *technology is a premise for globalization but wasn't enough to bring the integration -> it's the political power that enforced the technological power through laws, regulations 2) Economically integrated -The second half of the 19th century was characterized by a remarkable rise in the level of economic and financial integration of the world economy (can be compared to the present one) in terms of: a) Capital flows, capital mobility thanks also to Gold Standard - Level of capital mobility: how freely capital can be transferred from 1 country to another -barriers to mobility usually put when the govts want the capital to stay inside the country because is necessary for many things, e.g. development - if you allow the capital to move abroad, it's allocating itself when it finds it the most convenient or where is more efficient (where the prices of capital = IR is the highest) -the capital mobility was remarkably high in 1860-1920 - and the same happens today: the same level of capital mobility today as then -The emergence of the capital of capitals: cities specialised in trading and finance (e.g. Shanghai, London, Calcutta, NY, San Francisco) b) Trade Flows, Tariffs and Prices Convergence/Decline -during the first globalization wave, the level of trade integration is the same as today -decline of protectionism and expansion of free trade in 19th century like after WWII -free trade as a component of then and today -tariffs decreasing steadily throughout 19th century c) Foreign Investments and Global Companies (producing global products for global markets) -Globalization was and is made of global products: all over the world you can find the same products -e.g. Singer: sewing machine (company founded in 1850s, in 1914 had 90% market share of sewing machines and almost each household had a sewing machine) 3) Borderless -More than now! -Mass migration: Trans-Atlantic, South-east Asian, Pacific, North Asian -Today it's mainly about refugees, not migrants -During the 2nd half of the 19th century not less than 60-70 (according to other calculations, 90) millions people migrated following long-distance routes. -6 mln emigrants up to the WWI basically to the North and South America and Australia -migration was involving all the countries and regions around the world (Europe, Asia, many migrations in Russia also) oThomas Cook -first company granting relatively cheap travels all over the world -founded in the second half of the 19th century o1912: ship Titanic - symbol of the globalization -wasn't only for rich people (except the 1st class) -third class: those guys who died massively were mostly not rich -this ship was bringing migrants from all around the world to the US - was a good representation of what globalization in terms of migration was 4) Politically imperial and imperialist -During the 2nd half of the 19th century, the World was largely subject to some kind of an imperial rule, which mirrored the West-East / South-North division -Consequence: major conflicts and blockages diminished in number and had mostly a local dimension -Globalization brought relative peace in a British-dominated geopolitical order, further fostering integration -The largest empires (French, British, Ottoman) were characterized by the domestic stability, freedom of trade, human movements -> were powerful agents of globalization and integration -Politically, many differences with the today's globalized world - 2/3 of the world's surface was living in Empires-> very few areas not coincidental with Empires (e.g. South America) 5) Cosmopolitan -A cultural trait of the decades preceding the Great war was cosmopolitanism: the idea of mutual benefits in exchange (not only of economic nature) inside a sole global community -cosmopolitan attitude: being a citizen of the world/region [e.g. Europe], more of a citizen of a nation/city -> broader concept most important -An ideology with some visible effects: had diffused around the world -isn't economic or political concept, but purely cultural 6) Rich of hubs: rise of global cities 7) Undermining itself

How globalization impacted Japan?

1) clothes o Corset: standard underwear between 1900 to 1914 for top and middle class -Had one characteristic: purpose - to make you look as the lady -Had a painful material -Important component: wale bones -> flexibility *19th century: main component of every underwear 2) whale fishery industry - whales used for oil, good lubrication, clothes, cosmetics -> very efficient -were very valuable in economic terms but had complicated value chains -19th century as a golden age of whaling -written about: Melville, Moby Dick (1851): about the Atlantic whale fishery as a global product/industry - was run in global waters -Pacific Ocean was the best for fishing whales and that's why US was so interested in PC -declined due to technological revolution [chemistry and electricity] -1852: a letter by US President sent through the hands of Commodore Perry to the Imperial Majesty of Japan -> a letter showing how not to use diplomacy -whales fishery brought globalization to Japan *Japan was on purpose keeping foreigners away o exception: Dutch traders * 1852: Japan started thinking about globalization *1854: Perry came to Japan and forced them to open

Decolonization: Why and how does it matter?

1) was a truly global phenomenon - unfolded in 3 continents (part of Oceania, Southeast Asia, and Africa but involved also Europe (as colonizers!) and China -now: China presenting itself as a former colony being subjugated by the West being able to rise as a global power after 1 century of humiliations, and sympathizing with current former colonies -affected also US and USSR that claimed to be anti-imperialistic but were adding up to the process -> sustained decolonization at the expense of old colonial powers to create a new arena for international relations 2) had a long-lasting impact on the former colonies -lasts until present in some places -included social, political and economic instability 3) has had a broader, global impact in cultural terms on ideas of: - racial hierarchy -equality beyond races - inclusion - modern self-determination and citizenship - civil rights (including gender equality) *brought to the surface racial/ethnic divisions inside countries with borders drawn fully by colonizers *changed not only a map of the world but also the vocab of the world -> brought to the front general ideas unthinkable before (absence of racial hierarchy, equality beyond race) *took place simultaneously with the more general movement of civil rights in the 60s and 70s on a global scale

Russian Civil War

1917/18-1921: clash between Reds and Whites leadership of Bolsheviks wasn't easily consolidated *from inside: counter-revolutionary forces (Whites) attacking Reds *no established control in the center of Siberia until 1924 *from outside: the aligned intervention of non-Communist countries helping Whites -last moment when US directly intervened in the Northern Siberia as a part of international force -instilled a sense of entrenchment in the USSR leadership minds (explained policy of USSR towards Eastern Europe after WWII - the union of Repulics) - 7/12 mln casualties -coincided with the first disintegration of Empire's integrity but also with a necessity of preserving the Revolution from external threats (Allied intervention)

A Passage to India - basics

1924 by Edward Morgan Forster

the end of USSR

1991

Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

A rebellion in China led by Hong Xiuquan (who claimed to be the long-lost brother of Jesus) to topple the Qing Dynasty and replace it with a Christian government; the bloodiest civil war in world history

Global diffusion of Communism in 20th century: Joseph Stalin's quote

Addressed the delegation of US workers in 1927, before the Cold War still *brought up the idea of Cold War: world having 2 centers in geopolitical and geo-economic terms: he was well aware of the necessity of economic strength to enhance the ideological strength *it's a similar description to what's going on now between US and China

Black ships diplomacy

o Treaties and a progressive opening to the global economy. - In the years which followed the military elite (shogunate) started a process of prudent modernization, between traditionalism and "progressive" attitudes. o In the second half of the 1860s growing clashes among the Shogunate, the Emperor, the samurai over the process of modernization o To understand Japan better: - On the one hand, they knew what may happen if you resist to the impact of globalizations, based on the example of China [China was defeated in the 1st Opium War and was to be defeated in the 2nd Opium War because wanted to resist Western abuse of power and because it was trying to resist international economy] - Therefore, the Japanese elite saw the risks of resisting globalization - On the other hand, globalization threat: losing identity

The Red Iceberg

Many Communisms in 1950s: * the (enlarging) divide between the Soviets and the Chinese version of Marxism, and the non-aligned versions (e.g.Yugoslavia) * The Sino-Soviet split of 1956, due to de-Stalinization and criticized "peaceful coexistence". * China on its side was selling itself as a new Southeast Asian pivot

Why USSR was openly anti-imperialistic?

reason 1: ideology - imperialism as the last stage of Capitalism reason 2: practical - the idea of a revolution starting not in the motherland but in the colonies (was very Leninist) because they were the places where the capitalism reached the highest stage of exploitation.

applied communism

translation of communist ideology and principles into a political entity and a form of government

Japan: Globalization cannot be escaped

o Japanese new political elite was clearly perceiving Japan's inferiority in technical, industrial, institutional terms - a too high threat in face of a dependence building up and pursued modernization in all those dimensions. o Seclusion was however not an option. The sole alternative was therefore modernization o Political, institutional, technical, industrial modernization

Technical modernization of Japan

o One major problem after two centuries of isolation was a dramatic technological backwardness. o The solution: human capital training both abroad, and in Japan o Massive import of human capital to speed up modernisation process

Decolonization: France

The dissolution process in the French Empire was very quick o 1943 - end of Lebanon mandate o 1946 - end of Syrian mandate o 1953 - Laos and Cambodia protectorates o 1954 - Vietnam (after war 1945-1954) § that started with Vietnam War - bloody conflict having particular impact on the public opinion in France, v much different from the conflict in Algeria o 1956 - Tunisia independence o 1958 - Guinea o 1960 - Benin, Burkina, Cameroon, Chad, Republic of the Congo (not the Belgian Congo!), Ivory Coast, Gabon, Mali, Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Togo, Central African Republic, and Madagascar (independence was given without relevant or no fighting ) o 1962 - Algeria (after war, 1954-1962) -> started with Algeria War

The American Century: US as a global actor

o Since the Great War, a pervasive influence/impact of the US. at global level in each sphere (international relations, society & culture, global economy). o The pivotal role played in the creation and action of the institutions governing the World in the 20th century, particularly after the end of the Second World War. - World Bank - IMF - Everything to restart the world after the war o The 20th Century as "The American Century". - Allowed the world to confront the globalization · Immigrants travelling increasingly to the US and the US managed to absorb them o Put the limits on the population before 1914 o Imperial extension of the country · Result: US population increased o The current debate around the role of US. in the new global geopolitical order: isolationism vs. an internationalism started with the Great War.

Russia under Stalin: a new turn

The end of the Civil War (Red Army won) and the consolidation of power allowed a new «turn» in the country's policies. - Heavy industrialization through creation of industrial «basins» and sometimes forced urbanization - "We are 100 years behind, we must cover this distance in 10 years" - The concentration of labor forces in industrial cities from the countryside was necessary for the industrialization process necessary for the survival of Soviet Union, and to provide a valid alternative to the capitalist economic leadership. - Urban basins (with heavy urbanization) created mainly in the western Russia (large concentration in the Urals) -USSR rapidly increasing 1930s-1940 -15% of population living in urban centers in 1930; 1940: 25% -> jump not seen in other capitalist countries - to make this possible: agriculture and collectivization *the primary sector had a subordinate role in this mandatory process: the countryside was a workforce reservoir for industry and must also provide cheap food -> Stalin established a firm control over the primary sector (collectivization and collective farms) -> re-abolishment of the private, capitalist, market-oriented initiatives of the Kulaks -> had to be exterminated as a "social class" by creation of gulags (concentration camps for them) *effect: clash with the agricultural bourgeoisie that between 1921/1922 (NEP beginning) and 1928 had developed into Kulaks (capitalists in the primary sector) -> were considered a positive force in NEP but quickly became a negative icon during the collectivization *was the most painful process in terms of human and social cost

Weltanschauung

a particular philosophy or view of life; the worldview of an individual or group.

the Cold War: definition

a status of permanent confrontation between powers without a direct conflict conducted by military force taking place to achieve a stable control over territorial space *in the modern version, the space is both geographic and economic: involves establishment of the spheres of influence

Political economy of Japan

o The Japanese case shows for the first time the close "political economy nexus" linking industrialization, technological leadership and political goals. o Industrialization was essential to: o Secure national borders o Being among "peers" o Consequenes of globalization: - Expanding the geopolitical influence: * 1894-5 China, * 1905-6 Russia, * 1910 Korea annexation

The Algerian War 1954-1962

a war between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria gaining its independence from France -In Algeria, France was extremely reluctant (as in Vietnam) to release the control of the country: *The pro-empire, nationalistic attitude of De Gaulle's government (The presence of the Pieds Noirs, many (18% of the population, approx. 1.2 m) that were politically influential *The geographic proximity *Algeria was not like Vietnam -> was a part of the motherland -> geographically very close; and was a part of the British Empire once *The presence of natural resources *The recent defeats in Indochina, particularly Vietnam. (1956: France defeated by Vietnamese) -Mix of nationalism, patriotism and Marxism but particularly the rise of national movements -The Front de Libération Nationale started hostilities in 1954, mainly in the countryside. -In 1956 the war starts in the main urban centers, above all Algiers. -France reacts sending paratroopers. -Urban warfare proves to be particularly ferocious, with many military and civilian casualties (e.g. killing people on the streets, in the cinemas). -Algerians brought the conflict to France (the Café Wars), which made around 5,000 casualties. -France ultimately lost from the diplomatic point of view and in front of the public opinion, internal and international. -The War ended in 1962, with around 150 thousand casualties among the Algerians and 25 thousands among the French. Around one million expats returned to France after 1962.

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

after the independence from the UK, the idea of geopolitical isolationism, while at the same time enlarging sphere of influence to protect broadly intended borders of the US -Was achieved through the peaceful means: after the Civil War, the US bought Alaska from the Russian Empire (difficult to control by the Tsar)

Gosplan

an agency responsible for setting production goals and orchestrate production outside a market system in which management takes decisions on the basis of market signals and prices + regional agencies -was conceived to be the soviet central economy -was quite effective - "Gosplan calculated the sum of the country's resources and facilities, established priorities for their use, and handed down output targets and supply allocations to the various economic ministries and through them to every branch and enterprise in the entire economy". - was a sign of power centralization *created an imbalance of producer and consumer goods -The Gosplan quickly transformed the structure of the Soviet economy, which was since then producer- much more than consumer-based (the cost of human lives was huge) -In the long run (and particularly after 1989), this was going to be a serious weakness which is still evident today (today's China is the example) -on one side Gosplan was successful, but created an economy that was based on producer/investment/heavy-industry goods -high imbalance of those 2 goods -economy was producing machines, but wasn't producing e.g. shoes -> only bad quality products -was hard to transform into capitalist society after USSR's fall

success years of the USSR

from the end of RCW until its dissolution in 1991

Why do we need history?

historical knowledge as: - a cultural attribute of a skilled professional (or a "wise man") -a mean to test, verify and falsify theories -a way to understand the intimate nature of the present time -a tool against fake news - use and misuse of history and its manipulation *history isn't a forecasting tool or a crystal ball

US extending its geopolitical leadership

o Among its global effects and consequences, the Great War had another far-reaching effect. It brought in front on the World's scenario a new World power: the US. 1) A very large size in terms of population · more than 76 million in 1900, fuelled by increasing immigration flows starting from the 1820s -> absorbed migrants the globalization expelled [granted a relief to the world] · Limits on immigration only in 1914 2) A continental/imperial extension, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. · The US had started the expansion westwards only at the beginning of the XIX century (Louisiana Purchase from France 1803 in return for 15 mln$), but by the mid-19th century had reached an "imperial" extension through a further series of annexations of unclaimed territories and purchases. 3) Starting from the end of westwards expansion in the 1850s, and in line with the principles of the Monroe Doctrine (1820s), the US. had been forging a clear strategy of creating and consolidating its sphere of influence over the American continent and, above all, the Pacific (the "Greater America"). o The "sphere of influence" was enlarged, also, indirectly. 1) The Japanese forced opening (1854) -US was interested in Pacific to establish there an economic leadership (e.g. whale fishery) 2) China open door policy (1899) o On the eve of the first World War the US had established themselves as a "geopolitical pivot" in the Pacific area, given the weakness of both Japan and China. o In 1913, the US were already among the richest countries in the World. § By 1900, the US had left the UK and Germany well behind in terms of GDP per capita levels. US., UK, Germany: GDP per capita comparison (1850-1913) [gs1]uzupełnij

Partly anegdotical example: the motivation for Japan to enter the WWI

o Entered in alliance with the allied powers (France, UK, Italy) seeking the dominance in the Pacific o Moved the conflict to another continent o Effect of the Meiji Restoration o Japan estimated Germany as the most dangerous and the most important rival because e.g. had colonies in Borneo and was a fundamental desire allowing Japan to expand; together with China as Japan was interested in the penetration of Manchuria [large Chinese territory - closest region to Japan] o Was dominant in the Pacific o Was interested in Philippines and Papua New Guinea o The Occupation and Subjugation of China after Opium Wars - British got Hong Kong - Many European powers got the possessions of the Chinese cities - Tsingtao (Singa - beer) was taken by the Germans o Korea was already a part of Japanese Empire (1905 - war with Korea)

Japan 1851

o In the mid-nineteenth century increasingly globalized World, Japan was quite a "peculiar" country. o Some features: -Nationalism, closure (from the West - "sakoku": isolationist foreign policy of Japan), · Explanation: traditionalism, unwillingness, suspection - Imperialism - Feudalism (power centralisation), - Emperors, "shogunate": military dictatorship (Tokugawa=Edo) and the "samurai elite" · Top of the social hierarchy dominated by the elite chosen by the emperor (had a symbolic role) · But real power in the shogun · Many local lords, warriors, warlords ("samurai elite") supporting the shogun and emperor · Not distinct from the structure of social structure of Europe in the Middle Ages made by peasants, kings but also feudal elite supporting the king o only difference: presence of shogun · Dual hierarchy of power · Management of the military in hands of dictator · Endowed with physical and unmaterial infrastructure -> many roads implying market economy - Social rigidity but ethnic homogeneity - Confucianism diffused from China via Korea - Specialised agriculture, merchants and urbanisation - Widespread education · Education for both male and female · High level of education if confronted with West

Meiji Restoration

· the only way to assert Japanese independence o Was a culmination of clashes about being modernized and isolated: Tokugawa family [shogun] opposed the Meiji emperor o Was a civil war made of many fragments opposing the Meiji Emperor o War made of various clashes ended in 1868 - Outcome: Emperor getting back the whole power o The Boshin Wars: the War between the Shogun and the Emperor, samurai factions and foreign military advisors. Before restoration: Sonnō jōi (尊皇攘夷 Revere the emperor, expel the barbarians) o The end of shogunate: actually, a Revolution under the form of a Restoration. o Nationalism but modernization, industrialization, "westernization". After restoration: Fukoku kyōhei (富国強兵, "Enrich the country, strengthen the military") o Japan discovering the World: the Iwakura mission (1871-73) - Youth pushed abroad, esp. to the US, to gain knowledge and improve the level of Japanese human capital - Considered a symbolic event even by Japanese o A full involvement in the global economy o Modernisation inserted Japan into a global order but also inserted it as an INDEPENDENT country o Globalization was seen e.g. in the Western dresscode