Globalisation

Women and development :

*in no country are women equal to men — LICs: fathers may prevent daughters from receiving education bc school is expensive — HICs: women earn less than men and are less likely to be promoted -Reproductive health: as gender inequalities decline, feritlity rates and maternal mortality rates fall and the age of having a first child rises. -Empwoerment: Women enter poltiics as they become empowered. -Education and employment: Staying in education opens up more opportunities for women.

China and its 1978 Open Door Policy:

-1978 Deng xiaoping began the radical 'open door policy' reofmrs which allowed China to emrbace globalisatoin while remaingin under one party authoritarian rule. Previously they were 'switched off' from the global economy due to communism and MAo Zedong. -The earliest reforms occurred in rural areas. Agricultural communes were dismantled and farmers allowed to make a small profit for the first time. strict controls on the number of children were also introduced to curb population growth. -China transformed into an urban industrialised nation and gained rapid momentum. Over the next 30 years 300 million people elft rural areas in search of better life in cities. -Only a strict registration system called Hukou prevented rural villages from emptying altogether. Many cities are new rapidly built ones. A mega region of 120 million people has grown around the Pearl River Delta including cjoined cities of Shenzhen, Dongguan and Guangzhou. -Urbanisation fuelled the growth of low wage factories making china the 'workshop of the world'. The worlds largest TNCS were quick to establish branch plants, or trade relationships wit Chinese-owned factories, in newly established SEZs. -By 1990 50% of Chinas GDP were being generated in SEZs. -For foreign products to enter China the govenrment demands to have the products blueprints and information etc to be divulged to them hence why they make so many copies. -Today China's economy is the largest, with 400 million said to have escaped poverty since the reforms began. Open door approach: -FDI from China and its TNCs is predicted to total US $1.25 Trillion between 2015 and 2025. -Chian agreed to export more 'rare earths' minerals to other countries, in line with a WTO ruling. -Foreign TNCs are now allowed to ivnest in some sectors of China's domestic markets including its rail freight and chemical industries. Closed door approach: -Google and Facebook have little or not access to China'smarket. Instead, Chinese companies like Youku provide social network services. -China's government sets a strict quota of only 34 foreign films to be screened in cinemas each year. -There are strict controls on froeign TNCS in some secots. China's government blocked Coca=colas acquisition of Huiyan Juice in 2008.

Globalsiation in India:

-Began in 1991 for India when sweepinig financial reforms took place. Since them Indian TNCs have grown in their size and influence. Tata and Bharti Airtel, India's mobile network operator have both become major global players. -Until 2013, however, foreign retailers could only gain a presence on India's own high streets by agreeing to form a partnership with a local Indian business. Thus, McDonald's restaurants in North and East India are a join venture between Vikram bakshi and the McDonalds corporation. Indias high street rules have deterred many other foreign retailers, such as IKEA, As a result, 90% of India's shops are still family owned.

More downsides to ethical production:

-Buying organic destorys more forests. Less use of fertilisers and pesticides mean more land is needed to produce the same amount. -Fairtrade increases overproduction, causing prices to fall, which leaves farmers no better off. -Growing cash crops, even under Fairtrade conditions, can mean thtat some farmers end up not growing enough food to feed their families.

The European Union:

An international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members. -Member states are eligible for EU Structural Funds to help develop economies and agricultural producers benefit from farm subsidies issued under Common Agricultural Policy. -EU also helpes cities gain a global reputation by awarding prestigious titles such as 'Capital of Culture' or 'European Capital of Innovation' (given to BArcelona in 2014). -The Eu is the only group of nations that grants all citizens of memmber states freedom of movement. Elsewhere, free flows of poeple do not take palce as a result of trade blocs. Most national borders were removed within Europe in 1985 when the Schengen Agreemnt was implemented.

Switched off places; The Sahel region:

-Chad, Mali and Burkina Faso. These are some of the worlds Least developed countires. -Mismanagment of natural resources and human resources has played a role, dating back to colonial times. LDCs lacking a coastline such as Chad, may struggle ot attract FDI. Arid conditions and desertifcation give rise to further development challenges. In particular, extreme envrionmental conditions increase the cost of providing infrasturcture, such as railways or ICT networks, in regions where poverty has ment there is limited market potential to begin with. -Subsistence farmers may become dependent on flows of food aid from charities in OECD nations. Some farmers grow cash crops for TNCs, for isntance cotton producers in Mali. -Wages are so so low , though, that workers have negligible spending power thus global brands do not yet view these places as viable markets leaving them realtively switched off from consumer networks. -Change is coming though. Rapid economic growth is happening in neighbourign countries like Nigeria. Already a minority of Sahelian people do interact with the rest of the worl din surprising ways: -Malis folk musicians have a large global following on youtube. -Conflcits in the region involve groups linked with al -qaedas global terror attack.

How have flows of FDI changed?

-China is still the world's largest recipient of FDI -Now countries such as India, BRazil , Russia nad South africa (BRICS) also control flows of FDI. -The BRICs invest heavily int he USA, EU, sub-Saharan Africa and South America. -Investment flows from the BRICS to other countries now account for over 10% of the global total.

Aisa : how cultural change affects people and the environment:

-During 1990s, China's annual meat consumption per capita increased tenfold from 5 to 50kg. By 2015 china had also become the worlds biggest market for processed food . -Livestock farming has become the new focus of Asian agriculture, bringing a steep rise in emissions of methane, a powerful greenhosue gas. crops are improted from across the world ot feed China's farm animals. -Vast tracts of pristine Amazonian rainforest have been cleared during the last decade to make space for soya cultivation to feed Chiense cattle. China's food demands will only continue to grow as more pople escape poverty. As a result. China has embarked on a programme of land acquistion in poorer countries including Cuba and KAzakhstan. -Rising affluence also puts pressure on aprticulr plant and animal species if their use or consumption is culturally linekd with social prestige. Shark fin soup is an improtant but expensive dish by those who can afford it. As incomes rise, the number of sharks killed world wide to meet growing demand has doubled.

Switched off places; North Korea-

-For nearly 70 years, North Korea has been ruled as an autocracy by the Kim family, Kim Jong-un. They have chosen deliberately to remain poltiically isolated from the rest of the world. -Ordinary citizens do not have any access to the internet or social media. -There are no udnersea data cables connecting North Korea with aywhere else. North korea divided from South Korea in 1949. South Korea has since become a developed country whcih is home to Samsung and other global brands. A comparison of the two countries, and the policies of the governments, illustrates clearly how palitical decision making affects globalisation.

TNCS: Corporate coloionalism?

-In 2016 there were over 60,000. The top 200: -Employed jsut 1% of the global workforce but accounted for 25% of the world's economic activity. -In 2006, six of the top 10 TNCs were based in the USA. By 2015, only two of the top ten were American and three Chinese companies had overtaken Ford, General Motors and ConocoPhillips -A king of reverse colionalism has happened. Hong Kong, Singapoer, China, South Korea, MAlaysia, India and Brazil are no established HICs or MICs and are all net providers of overseas investment. -In 2015 there were over 800 indian owned businesses in the uk -China is investing heavily in infrastrcuture in Africa.

Waste and recyling:

-Local authorities manage the disposal of most of the UKs waste. NGOs such as 'Keep Britain Tidy' also try to alter people's behaviour. Sicne 2004 , waste management and recyling in the UK has hsown a steady improvement. -In 2014-2015, the total amount of waste recycled was 43.7%, comapred to 23% in 2004. However recycling percentages vary: -In 2014-15 , ten councils achieved over 60% but hte London borough councils of Newham ad Lewisham achieved jsut 18% in 2013-14.

Interdependence

-OVer time, international migratoin makes places interdependent. Each country depends on the eocnomic health of the other for its own continued well-being. -Firstly, economic interdependency may develop. Some sectors of the UK economy are highly dependent on Easter European labour 'Eastern Europe, in turn, relies on mgirant rmeittances from the UK. In 2009, during the financil crisis, many UK building projects were cancelled. The known on effect was that many mgirants stopped sending mioney home ; some ven returned to their countries. Estonia's economy shrank by 13%. -Secondly, social and poltiical ties between two countries can be strengthened through mgiration. The arrival of a large Indian diaspor population in the UK has deepend the country's enduring friendshpi with India because their economeis had become interlinked.

The global Shift - Imapcts in the UK's industrial cites. E.g Leicester.

-Some regions in hics also face social and environmentla problems as a result of the global shift. -For example leicester was once domianted by the textile indsutry. -However, by the 1970s, chepaer clothes were manufactured in Asia. Industries closed, causing deindustrialisation. Dereclition and contamination. -Many textile companie sin Leicester were forced to close. A lot of the land was left abandoned or derelict. Derelict industrial land can often be contaminated. Unemployment , depopulation and deprivation: -In the 1970s and 1980s, man inner-city areas became run down and the hosuing was low cost. -People on low incomes or unemployment benefit moved in. The areas became pockets of deprivation. -In leicester, areas of deprivation often coincide with previous industiral areas. -Many inner city areas have gained reputation for cime. In fact, crime rates have fallen sharply since 2000. This decline may be due to regeneration and gentrification.

Global Players:

-The 'Bretton Woods institutions' were established after WW2 to restablise the world economy and avoid a return to conditions that prevailed udring the Great depression. IMF: -Purpose to maintain international financial stability. -In return for loans, it tries to force countries to privatise government assets in roder to increase the size of the private sector and generate wealth. -Many believe that this policy has forced poorer countries to sell offf their assets to wealthy TNCs. -It also exists to stabilise currencies in order to maintain economic growth. World Bank: -purpose is to use bank deposits palced by the world's wealthiest countires to provide loans for development. -Recipient countries have to agree to certain conditions concerning repayment and economic growth. -It also focuses ona ntural disasters and humanitarian emergencies. World Trade Organisation (Not part of BW institutions): -Purpose to promtoe free flow of trade to prompt econmoic growth, especially in the poorest countries. -The WTO believe in Free Trade, advocates removing barriers and seeks to encourage all trade between countries free of tariffs, quotas or restrictions.

How degrees of globasliation vary:

-The KOF and Kearney indexes measure how globalised a country has become. KOF: -ITs score for each country is ecalculayed using specific interactions. -Economic globalisation -eg cross border transactions and the volume of FDI. -Social globalisation: eg. information flows, and the presence of mcdonalds as an indicator of 'global affinity'. -Political gobalisation: eg. the numner of foreign embassies and the country's membership of itnernational organisations. -13 of the top 15 most globalised countries are European which contrats with tables of GDP where USA leads or manufcaturing output where Chian leads. The KOF index measures international interactions. China and the USA have large domestic economic markets, so internal connections are important but do not count in the KOF values. AT KEARNEY INDEX: -It identifies four main indicators: -Political engagement: Eg a country's participation in international organisations and peacekeeping operations. -Technological connectivity: Eg, the number of internet users and servers. -Personal contact: eg. Through telephone calls, travel and remittance payments. -Economic integration: eg. the volumes of international trade and FDI. -The index uses mroe holistic indicators (Eg number of web servers, rather that internet communications_ and also volumes of trade as wel as FDI. The AT Kearney index top 5 are Singaopre Switaerland USA IReland Denmark.

Will the BRetton Woods plauers maintain their influence in the future?

-The global finacnail crisis of 2008-9, which originated in US and EU money markets and undermined the entire world economy. As a result, governments in devloping countries have becoe more scpetical of the financial advice the the IMF and World bank offer. -Geopolitcal changes mean thaat new alternatives are emrging to the Bretton Woods institutions. developing countries in search of assistance can instead approach the China Development Banks. China loaned more than US $110 Billion to developing countries in 2010, a value that exceeded World Bank lending. In 2014, the BRICS group of nations annoucned the establishment of the NEw Development Bank as another alternative to the World Bank and IMF. -The WTOs continuing lack of success in getting its 159 member countries to reach a globala greement on any aspect of trade, especially in relation to food, raises questions about its long term roles.

A widening gap?

-There is a gap between the economic growth rates in different global regions. But widening income inequalities also develop within countries. -This can be measured using the GINI INDEX, an index with the values - to 100 shown using the LORENZ CURVE. -A low idnex value indicates a more qual income distribution. -A high index value indicates unequal distrubution. - Only about one third of countries publish a Gini index. Gini coefficient is defined as a ratio of the areas on the Lorenz curve diagram. If the area between the line of perfect equality and Lorenz curve is A, and the area under the Lorenz curve is B, then the Gini coefficient is A/(A+B). Since A+B = 0.5, the Gini coefficient, G = 2A = 1-2B -China's Gini index is 47 as it's inequality is increasing.

Glocalisation:

-This refers to changing the design of products to meet local tastes or laws. It is an increasingly common strategy used by TNCs in an attempt to conquer new markets. E,g, -India, Mcdonalds have veggie burgers suited to Indian tastes there. Eg McSpicy Paneer. No beef because Hindus. -Law, the driving seat should be positioned differently for cars sold in US and UK markets. -Reality TV shows like big brother and Jersey shore gain alrger audienceies if the are redilmed using local people in different countries.

International trading blocs:

-countries are grouping together to promote free trade between them. E.g. EU and NAFTA most are located in particular geographical regions and support trade for their members by: - removing tariffs between member states - creating barriers for non-member states by placing tariffs on imports. This increases the price of imports and helps to protect their own industries. -advantageous for many countries however, non-members are excluded, preventing their development.

The global shift - Imapcts in China:

Benefits: -Investment in infrastructuer. By 2016 China had: -The world's lognest highway network and high speed rail system . -The worlds fastest commercial trai nservice (Shanghais MAglev) _Eight of the worlds top 12 airports. by freight tonnage -Reductions in poverty: from 1981 to 2010, China reduced the number of peopel living in poverty by 680 million. From 1980 to 2016, its extreme poverty rate fell from 84% to 10%. -Increases in incomes - Urban incomes have risen by 10% a year since 2005. There is a big and growing rural -urban divide. -Better education and training: Education is free and compulsory for 6-15 year olds. In 2014, 7.2 million Chinese graudated from uni, and this helped to create a skilled workforce. Howeveer, there is the big rural urban divide. Drawbacks: -The loss of productive farmland. By 2016, Over 3 million hectares of arable farmland in China had been po;;uted with heavy metals. Increased use of ertilisers and pesticides has led to farmland near rivers being taken out of production. -Increase in unplanned setllements - The need for more urban housing has resulted in an increase int wo types of informal housing, both illegal: 1. villages on the dge of cities add extra storeys to their hosues, then let the space. 2. Farmland is developed for housing without permission. -Pollution and health problems: -In 2015, one US climate research organsiatin calculated that Chinese air pollution kills an avergae of 4400 poeple everyday. -70% of China's rivers and lakes are now polluted. -360 million Chinese do not have access to safe drinking water. -Land degradation: -40% of China's farmland is now suffering degradation. Soils are eroding or suffering from acidifcation caused by industrial emissions. -Over exploitation of resources and resource pressure: -Chian needs mor eresources. Amazonian rainforest has been cleared in Ecuador and oil fields are udner development in Venezuela - all for China's consumption. -Loss of biodiversity: -In 2015, WWF found that china's terrestrial vertebrares have declined by 50% since 1970. The main causes are habitat loss and the degradation of natural enrionments by economci development.

Attempts to control globalisation:

Censorship: In China the free flow of information and ideas is perceived as a threat. Cenisrship of internet content as well as published material in order to retain control. MArital law was imposed and there were protests. At 1 a.m. on June 4, Chinese soldiers and police stormed Tiananmen Square, firing live rounds into the crowd.Although thousands of protesters simply tried to escape, others fought back, stoning the attacking troops and setting fire to military vehicles. Reporters and Western diplomats there that day estimated that hundreds to thousands of protesters were killed in the Tiananmen Square Massacre, and as many as 10,000 were arrested. limiting immigration: Donald Trump has propsoed building a wall along theUS Mexican border. Debates in UK on limiting net migration trade protectionism: In 2016, cheap Chiense steel was being 'dumped' onto global markets. As a result, the Indian owners of Tata steel threatened to close its UK steel plants. A solution would have been to raise tariffs on imported steel as the USA has done but this is forbidden by WTO rules.

NGO action:

Charity War on Want helped South African fruit pickers ; it flew a women called Gertuida to a Tesco shareholder meeting in London where Tesco told the farm it would use a different fruit supplier unless conditions improved. -NGOs have limited financial resources. This can limtie the scale of what they can achieve or esult in slow progres. -Although NGOs such as Amnesty International work ahrd to raise awarenesss of ethical issues, many people remain unaware of, or unconerned with worker exploitation.

Growing resistance:

Concerns and impacts: -Cocnerns include the percieved explotiation of environments and people. -This has led to opposition by anti-globalisation groups and environmental pressure groups. -They reject globalised cultures and the practices of many TNCs in avoiding tax payments. -In Iran in the early 2000s, the barbie dolls were confiscated from toy stars as the government denoucned Barbie's un-islamic image. -Until the early 2000s, the French gov limited how much foreign culture could be broadcast. However, internet downloading of music and films placed in this dispute. Since 2007, the French gov has been more accpeting of globalisation .

Global outsourcing to India:

Costs: -Some call centre workers complan they are exploited. -Their work can be highly repetitive. Business is foten conducted at night - due to time zone difference - sometimes in 10 hour shifts, 6 days a week. -Despite overall growth, the gap between rich and poor has widened sharplu. India has more billionaires than the UK yet it also has more people living in absolute poverty than all of Africa. In 2015, half a billion Indians lived in homes that lacked a toilet. Benefits: -Indias call centre workers earn good middle class wages by indian standards. Nightclubs and 24 shopping malls in Bangalore trestify to the relatively high purchasing power of a new indian 'tehcno-elite' typically earning £40 a week. -Indian outsourcing companies have become extremely profitable. Foudned in 1981, Infosys had revenues of US$9 Billion in 2015. It is one of the top twenty global comapnies for innovation, according to Forbes.

The impacts of technology:

Economic globalisation: Allows managers of distant offices and plants to keep in touch mroe easily. Helps TNCs to expand to new territories, either to make or sell thier products. Each time the barcode of a MArks and Spencer food purchase is canned in a UK store, an automatic adjustment is made to the size of the next order placed with suppliers in distant countries like Kenya. Social: -Maintaining of long distance social relationships through things like Skype. Cultural: Culturtal traits, such as langauge or music, are adopted, imitated and hybridised faster than ever before eg Gangnam Style by Psy ion 2012 clocking up over 1.8B views. Political: -Social networks are used to raise awareness about political issues and to fight for change on a global scale. Greenpeace spread their messages online whilst Daesh ahs used the internet to spread its message of terror globally, and to gain new recruits.

The processes and impacts of globalisastion:

Economic globalsiation : -The growth of transnational corporations accelerates cross border exchanges of raw materials, componenets, finished manufactured good, shares, portfoloio investmentr and purchasing. -Information and communications technology supports the growth of complex spatial divisions of labour for firms and a more international economy. -Online purchasing using Amazon on a smartphone. Social globalisation: -International immigration has created extensive family networks that cross national broders - wprl city-societies become multi ethnic and pluralistic. -Global improvements in education and health can be seen over time, with rising world life expectancy and literacy levels, although the changes are by no means uniform or universal. -Social interconnectivity has grown over time thanks to the spread of 'universal' connections such as mobile phones, the internet, and email. Cultural globalisation: -'Successful' Western cultural traits come to domiante in some territories such as the 'Americanisation' or 'Mcdonaldisation' of tastes and fashion. -Glocalisation and hybridisation are a more complex outcome that takes place as old local cultures merge and meld with globalising influences. -The circulation of ideas and information has accelerated thanks to 24 hour reporting; people also keep in touch using virtual spaces uch as facebook and Twitter. Political globalisation: -The growth of trading blocs (eg EU , NAFTA) allows TNCS to merge and make acquisitions of firms in neighbouring countries, while reduced trade restrictions and tariffs help markets to grow. -Global concerns such as free trade, credit crunch and the global response to natural disasters ( eg 2011 Japanese tsunami) -The world bank, the IMF and the WTO work internationally to harmonise national economies.

International migration:

Elite mgirants - London: -London is a major world city. Flows of skilled, wealthy mgirants - elite migrants - have moved there. -OVerseas buyers have invested in a number of London properties: -Qatari ivnestmens has bought into the Shard and harrods. -Between 2004 and 2014, a third of all purchases of residential property in London by overseas buyers went to wealthy Russians. -This high demand has led to property price inflation. -Much London housing has become too epxensive for many local people. Low-wage migrants - UAE and Qatar: -THhe USA and Qatar each has labour shortages: -they recruit manual workers from oversea. -Migrant workers now wmake up 90% of UAE's workforce including 1.75 million Indians and 1.25 million Pakistanis. -Movements on this scale are referred to as mass low wage eocnomic migrations. The host location: -Recieves skilled foreign owrkers -Gains lower skilled workers for jobs that are difficult ot fill -Can sustain the lifestyle of it middle classes by gaining workers to provide childcare, cleaning snf rlfrty vcare -Can often balance an ageing population with young adults -Can epxerience pressure on housing, ehalthcare and school palces. The source location : -Expereicnes reduced unemployment as people emigrate to find jobs elsewhere. -Loses its most skilled and dynamic workers - brian drain. -Earns remittance payments, sent home by overseas migrants. -Suffers an imbalanced popualtion because many young people mgirate, leaving a dependent popualtion.

Selected reactoins against globalisatoin:

France: Under local content law, 40% ov television output must consist of French productions. French language music is heavily promoted on radio statoins. China: The great firewall of China prevents internet users from using BBC or Facebook services. 39 foreign films a year. However, many Chinese people now celebrate Christmas.

The attiudes and actions of national governments:

Free-MArket liberalisation: -Also known as neoliberalism, this governance model is associated with the Policies of Reagan and thatcher during the 1980s. It follows two simple beliefs: 1. Government intervention in markets impedes ecnomic development. 2. As overall wealth icnreases, trickle-down will take places from the richest to the poorest of society. -The deregulation in 1986 of London removed large amoutns of red-tape and paved the way for London to become the worlds leading global financial hub for financial services and the home of manu super welathy non domestic billionaires. Privatisation: -Until the 1980s, important assets such as railways and energy supplies were owned by the state. Selling tp private investors reduced gov spending and raised money. Encouraging business startups: -When Sunday trading was intorduced in 1994, the UK became a more attractive market for froeign retailers, from Burger King to Disney store. Italy has eased restrictions on Chiense investors wanting to start up textile companies inside the EU; as a result, the city of Prato now has the largest Chinese populatoin in Europe.

Changing values;

Globalisation challenges values - sometimes in a transformative and beneficial way — e.g. in 2011, only 25% of disabled people in China find employment. —A year later, author Palmer wrote 'disabled people in modern China are still stigmatised, marginalised and abused'. —That same year, China came top of the medals table in London's Paralympic Games. (Paralympics - They helped marginalised people to gain support, training and a more equal status)

First Nations in Canada:

Many caes of resource exploitation in Canda have caused conflict with traditional communities. The Canadian government have been accused of supporting TNCs against indigenous landholders. In 2013, 6/21 proposed resource projects were close to collapse, because of protests from traditional communities. Their targets included projects such as : 1. Oil sands and shale mingin (alberta) 2. The Trans mountain pipeline between Alberta and Vancouver. -Petroleum development near the settlement of Normal Wells in Dene: over 200 million barrels of conventional oil has been extracted there since 1920. Particular concerns include: 1. The death of trout and other fish in oil-polluted lakes, a lifestyle based around subsistence fishing, hunting and trpaping is fundamental to the Dene's cultural identity. 2. The effects of alcohol and drugs bought by oil workers on the behaviour of young Dene people.

Sustaining globalisation:

Many people in HICs get used to having what they want, wherever and whenever they want it. -Global supply chains fulfil these demands and produce is now available in al seasons. Ecological footprints are one concern: Like most HICS, the UK is living beyond its 'environmental means' . To supply resources for every country at UK levels of consumption would take 3.1 Earths.

Mumbai and Karachi:

Mumbai: -India's Mumbai urban area in 2015 had 22 million people, having more than doubled in size in 1970. People flock there from the impoverished rural states of Uttar PRadesh and Bihar. -Urban employment covers a range of economic sectors and ksill elvels. Big globl brands such as Hilton and Starbucks are present in mumbai. In retail areas, like Colaba Causeway, large numbers of local poeple work selling goods to the country's rising middle class. -Some v wealthy people live in Mumbai, including Bollywood stars and the senior managemen tof large TNCS such as TATA and Reliance industries, some of whom are billionaires. Their spending helps drive up housing prices in affluent areas such as Atlamount Road. In contrast, Dharavi is a sulm housing area. It has a bbuoyant economy : 5000 poeple are neployed in Dharavi's plastics recylcing industires. However, rsiing land prices across Mumbai men there is great pressure to redevelop this and other slum areas. Karachi: -Before Islamabad was founded in 1960, the port city of KArachi was the capital city of pakisatan. -Approximately 24 million people lived in KArachi ni 2015, making it the most hihgly populated city in Pakistan and the second most populous megacity in the world after Tokyo. -Karachi is Pakistan's centre of finance, industry and trade. People flock there from rural areas for work from all over pakistan, including the Sind and Punjab provinces. Once there, they find work in a range of industrial sectors including shipping, banking, retailing and manufacturing. Karachi's population icnrease over time is due mainly to internal migration, though itnernational migrants from other South Asian countries play a role in its growth too. -KArachi is a famous university city, producing skilled graudates who have helped it to become a hub for media and software companies. The TV channels Geo TV and CNBC Paksiatan are based in the city.

Fairtrade:

Offers a guaranteed higher income to farmers and some manufacturers, even if the market price changes. Examples include coffee, chocolate, bananas, wine and even clothing. -it lets shoppers know what they spend wilwl find its way into the pay pockets of poor workers - but not all shoppers will pay more for it. However, as the number of schemes grows, it becomes harder to ensure that money has been correcntly distirbuted. -Additionally, it is not possible for all the world's farmers to join a scheme offering a high fixed price for potentially unlimited crop yields.

London's melting pot:

Open borders - Eu citizens free travel -the freedom to ivnest in business or transfer capital :In the UK, any bank or indivdual can trade in shares without having to use the London stock Exchange. -FDI: in 2015, the UK attratced over 32000 jobs from overseas-owned companies investing in software and financial services. This has all led to a cultural mix. Two issues: 1. Extreme political parties arise such as English Defence League or Northern League in Italy which are becoming increasingly popular. -Since 2014, streams of refugees from syria - as well as economic migrants from many other countires - have caused tensions between Greeece and other Balkan coutnries, and Turkey.

Susttainable living:

Responding locally- Transition towns. -some local groups and non governmental organisations promtoe local sourcing of goods to icnrease sustianability. Totnes in Devon was the world's first 'Transition town'. Transition promtoes: -Reducing consumption by repairing or reusing items. -Reducing waste, pollution and envrionmental damage. -Meeting local needs through lcoal production, where possible. Advtanages: -Every £10 spent in local businesses is actually worth £23 to the local economy - through the 'mulitplier effect'. In that way, local pepople gain employment as well as involvement in the local economy. Disadvantages: -Strategies like community currencies, eg the Bristol pound, threaten global economic growth because they reduce the demand for new items from overseas. -Most developed countires actually rely on a throwaway culture for their econmoic growth. -Some services like transsdport are coordinated centrally so its hard to influence them. -It has been argued that Transition in as big city like London could be difficult. However, there are currently about 40 community-scale Transition initiatives across London.

Important innovations in transport have included:

Steam power: -Britain became the leading world power in the 1800s using steam technology. steam ships and trains moved goods and armies quickly along trade routes into Asia and Africa. Railways: -In the 1800s , railway networks expanded globally. By 1904, the 900km Trans-Siberian Railway connected Moscow with China and Japan. Today, railway building remains a priorioty for government across the world. The proposed High Speed 2 railway , linking London and northern England, will halve some journey times. Jet Aircraft: -The arrival of the intercontinental Boeing 747 in the 1960s made internationl travel more commonplace, while recent expansion of the cheap flights sector, including EasyJet, has brought it to the masses in richer nations. Containerised shipping: -Around 200 million individual container movements take place each year. Some commentators describe it as the 'backbone' of the global economy since the 1950s. everything from chicken drumsticks to patio heaters can be transported efficiently across the planet using intermodal containers. The Chinese vessel Cosco is 366M long, 48m wide and can carry 13,000 containers. -The worlds largest trading roioute is between Asia and europe. The huge distances between ports make the size of ships and the number of containers they carry important in order to reduce costs. -In 1990 the average container ships held just 4000 containers. Now fewer but larger shipping companies domiante global trade and the largest ships carry 20,000 containers. -Products are made by European or US owned companies and Asia and transported to Europe. -Relocating/out sourcing production to Asia exploits cheaper labour costs. -The ships which bring high value goods to Europe, return to asia carrying low value waste.

ICT:

Telephone: core technology for communicating across distances, replacing telegraph cables in the Atlantic in the 1860s. In aprts of Africa, people are 'technologically 'leap frogging' straight to mobile phone use. Broadband and fibre optics: Today enormous flows of data are conveyed across the ocean floor, by fibre optic cables owned by national governments or TNCS such as Google. More than 2 million KM of flexible udnersea cables, carry all the worlds emails, searches and tweets. GIS and GPS: There are now 24 GPS's 10,000km above the Earth. these satellites continuously broadcast position and time data to users throughout the world. Deliveries can be tracked using vehicle tracking systems, helpiong the growth of global production entowrks to be maaged. The internet and social networks: Since the 1960s, connectivity between people and palces has grown exponentially. By 2014, 5 billion 'likes' wrre being registered globally everyday.

What is globalisation?

The process by which people, culture, finace, goods and information by which people , culture, finance , goods and information transfer between countries with few barriers. The increasing interconnectedness between countries across the world. -Developments in technology have massivelyr educed the time it takes to trade and communicate globally. Developments in transport have also reduced actual travel times. -This process is called Time-Space Compression, and it has led people to refer to a 'shrinking world'. -Countries choosing to invest and manufacture overseas come mainly from North America, Japan and europe as well as oil-rich billionaires. -China, India and South East Asia have become manufacturers for the world. -India also provides financial and IT support services for HICs. -Outsourcing and relocation processes often change to where costs are even lower (such as Vietnam and Bangladesh). MEanwhile, much of Sub-Saharan Africa remains detached and isolated, with little economic influence.

Causes of rural-urban migration:

Urban Pull facotrs: -employment. -education and schooling -better healthcare Rural push facotrs: -poverty -resource scarcity -Agricultural mdoernisation also reduced the need for rural labour. 'Shrinking world' technolgoy: -Rural dwellers are gaining knowledge of the outside world and its opportunities. Satellites, TV and radio 'swith on' people inr emote and impoverished rural areas. aS poor individuals in arica and Asia beging to use inexpensive mobile devices, knowledge is being shared. -Also transport, such as South America's famous trans-Amazon highway have removed intervening obstacles to migration . -Megacities in low income and middle income countries have grown especially rapidly. Sao Paulo gains half a million new reidents annually from migrtion. New growth takes palce at the fringes of the city where shanty hosuing is built by the incomers. Often built on dangerous hill slopes. CENTRIPETL MIGRATION: Movement of people directed towards the centre of urban areas -To deal with such influxes, some have to build on the greenbelt sites. .

Mobile phones:

-In 2005, 6% of Africans owned a mobile phone. By 2015 this had risen mroe than ten fold to 70% due to falling prices and the growth of provider companies, such as Kenya's Safaricom.

Globalisation shift:

-In the 1970s and 1980s the global shift began - the mvoement of manufacturing from Europe and theUSA to many Asian countries. Countries such as Japan and South Korea- then China and India - became major players in the globalised economy. These factors accelerated this global shift: -Individual Asian countries allowed overseas companies access to their markets. -TNCs sought new areas for manufacturing e.g. China. and for outsourcing services .e.g India. -FDI began to flow into emegring or re-emerging Asian countries.

Cultural landscapes and diversity:

-glocal cultures develop where global processes exist at a local level -ethnic enclaves gain their own identity, where street furniture, road names and cuisine add to the city's multicultural character and strengthen cultural diversity.

Cultural exchanges:

Information technology and digital communications spread ideas and products faster than ever, which influences how people consume goods and services. Music/TV/Films made by TNCs now combine with migrations of people to create cultural mixes/hybrids -5 companies now own 90% of the global music market. -In some ways, globalisattion is the 21st century term for 'cultural imperilism' . Previous generations called it 'westernisation ' 'americanisation 'or 'modernisation'. As the global economy draws people together, rbands such as coca cola become globally famous. Forbes calculates the brand value of 500 top companies, the top 3 are all tech companies.

Terms:

Post accession migration: The flow of economic migrants after a country has joiend the EU. Diaspora: The dispersion or spread of a group of peopel from their oringinal homeland. Crude birth rate: The number of live births per 1000 people per year.

Cultural traits:

language, religion, tradition, food, clothing.

Cultural diffusion and the media:

-cultural difference are often expressed through language -as the ownership of the global broadcasting, film and music industries becomes ever more concentrated into the hands of large TNCs, the use of an increasingly common vocabulary is starting to erode cultural diversity. —- this is known as the GLOBAL HOMOGENISATION of culture - with everywhere becoming the same

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

An international organization linking together the 10 most important countries of Southeast Asia. -Total of 600 million peopole. -Founding high-income countries include Singapore an the emerging economies of Malaysia , Philippines and Indonesia. -ASEAN have worked to elimiante tariffs in favour of free trade. The enlarged ASEAN market has helped Indonesia's manufacturing indutries to thrive, while the Philippines has gained a global reputation for its call centre services. ASEAN is now expected to develop further into a single market called the ASEAN EConomic Community which will operate similarly to the EU and my ultimately allow free movemnt of labour and capital. It also promtoes peace and stability: its members have pledged to not have nculear weapons.

Global flows and global networks:

Capital: -At a global scale, major capital flows are routed daily through the world's stock markets. A range of businesses , including investment banks and pension funds, buy and sell money in different currencies to make profits. In 2013, the volume of these foreign exchange transactions reached US $5 Trillion per day. Commodities: -Valuable raw materials such as fossil fuels, fod and minerals have always been traded between antions. Flows of manufactured goods have multiplied in size in recent years, fuelled by low production costs in China and even lower-waged economies, such as Bangladesh and Vietnam. In 2015, global GDP fell just short of US$80 trillion in value. Of this, around one-third was generated by trade flows in argicultural and industrial commodities. Information: -The internet has brought real-time communication between distance places, allowing goods and servixes to be bought at the click of a butto Social networs have ballooned in size and influence, with Facebook gaining 1.5 Billion suers by 2015. On demand TV has increased data usage further. Information is stored in enormous ;server farms; such as the Microsoft Data Centre in Washington State and Facebook's data centre in Lulea, sweden (where cold temperatures reduce the cost of cooling the hard drives.) Tourists: -Many of the world's air passengers are holiday makers. Budget airliens have brought a 'pleasure periphery' of distant places within easy reach for the moneyed tourists of high-income nations. Increasingly, people from emerging economies travel abroad too, using budget airlines such as Air Asia and East Africa's Fastjet. Chian is now the world s biggest spender on international travel, with 120 million outbound trips made in 2014. Migrants: -The permanenet movement of people still faces the greatest number of obstacles due to border controls and immigration alws. As a result, most governments have a 'pick and mix' attitude towards global flow: they embrace trade flows but attempt to resist migrant flows unless there is a special need ( such as Qatar's encouragement of Indian construction workers_. Despite restrictions, hwoever, record flows of people are recorded every year. The combined number of economic migrants and refugees worldwide reached almsot one-quarter of a billion in 2013. The same year, around US $500 billion of remittances were sent home by migrants. -The combined effect of these global flows has been to make places interconnected. One result of this is the increased interdependency of places.

Urban worlds:

Mega cities are cities with over 10 million. Worl cities are cities with major influence such as London or New York.

Dependency theory:

Staes that Underdevelopment is mainly caused by the peripheral position of affected countries in the world economy. Typically, underdeveloped countries offer cheap labour and raw materials on the world market. These resources are sold to advanced economies, which have the means to transform them into finished goods. Underdeveloped countries end up purchasing the finished products at high prices, depleting the capital they might otherwise devote to upgrading their own productive capacity. The result is a vicious cycle that perpetuates the division of the world economy between a rich core and a poor periphery.

Individual national governemnts:

The UK: -In the 1980s, the UK conservative government developed 2 strategies: -Tax breaks (subsidies): These have encouraged a numebr of large overseas financial institutions to relocate to London eg Cnaary Wharf. -Grants and subsidies: These have encouraged foreign companies to lcoate new manufacturing plants in the UK e.g. Toyota in Derbyshire. China: -After decase of economci and politcal isolation the gov declared an 'open door' policy to international business in 1978: -Companies from europe and the USA quickly saw the advantages of out sourving and relocating to one of Southern China's four Special Economic Zones, alter known as Export Processing Zones. -These zones offered tax incentives and huge pools of cheap labour. Since then, China's economy has grown rapidly.

Sustainability:

The ability to keep in existence or maintain. A sustainable ecosystem is one that can be maintained. Economic sustaibiltiy: individuals and communities should have access to a reliable income over time. Social sustainability: All individuals should enjoy a reaonsable quality of life. Environmental sustainability: No lasting damage should be done to the environment ; renewable resources must be managed in ways that guarantee continued use.

Spatial division of labour:

The common practice among TNCs of moving low-skilled work abroad (or 'offshore') to places where labour costs are low. Important skilled management jobs are retained at the TNC's headquarters in its country of origin.