Government Final Exam

Texas Secretary of State

The chief election officer of the state. This is the highest ranking office that is subject to appointment by the state governor.

Voting Age Population

(VAP)-This is defined as the number of persons eighteen and over in a state or voting jurisdiction such as a county, city or school district. This is a preferred method of measuring voter turnout because it discounts variations in state voter registration requirements but is still flawed because it does not discount people over 18 not eligible to vote. This measurement usually results in the lowest turnout rates.

Blanket Primary

A few states used to allow voters to vote for any candidate from any political party during the same election. The use of the Blanket primary has been struck down by the US Supreme Court. Previously, the only states that used a blanket primary were California, Washington and Alaska.

Party Caucus

A meeting of party members to nominate candidates for a minor political party.

State Voter I.D. Laws

A new movement at the state level in Red (Republican) states to require voters to show a valid photo identification to vote in order to prevent in person voter fraud at the polls has gained strong momentum, though evidence of in person voter fraud is extremely rare. Texas is among the Republican states to adopt Voter I.D. requirements to cast a vote, though a federal judge in Texas has declared the law to be unconstitutional. The ruling likened these type of laws to those common back in the Jim Crow days when Texas was at the forefront of developing means to deny or obstruct access to the polls for certain groups of citizens, typically the poor and minority groups.

Focus Group

A panel of average citizens who are used by political consultants to test ideas and words for use later in political campaigns.

Filing Fee

A payment to the government required to get a candidate's name on the primary or general election ballot.

Write-in Candidate

A person whose name is not on the ballot but who has indicated is willing to stand for election as a write in candidate.

Alienation

Along with apathy, a similarly effective informal barrier to voting is alienation. Though different from apathy, the result is the same; low turnout. Alienation refers to the condition where a citizen has given up on political participation because of a lack of influence in the political process. A feeling of powerlessness prevails over people who feel alienated from the political system. Feelings of being an outcast, not accepted by the mainstream population as a legitimate participant in our democracy can result in people abandoning hope of being a fully functioning member of the political process.

Party Column Ballot-

Also known as the Indiana Ballot, all candidates running for all political offices are listed by party affiliation. All Republicans are listed from the highest ranking office to the lowest ranking office and the same goes for Democrats and any other political party that is qualified for the ballot. This ballot tends to make it easier for voters to cast a party line (straight ticket) vote.

Office Block Ballot

Also referred to as the Massachusetts Ballot, the office block ballot identifies candidates based on the political office being voted for, not by the party being represented. For example, all candidates for the office of US Representative are listed under the office being chosen with each candidate identified by name and party. This method requires voters to specifically chose a candidate for the office being chosen and tends to encourage split-ticket voting.

Property Requirements for Voting

Among the earliest formal barriers to voting in the U.S., property requirements in all states kept working class, lower income Americans from voting during the early history of the U.S. To qualify to vote, a citizen had to have a certain level of wealth in the form of income, land, slaves or other forms of wealth in order to vote. The use of property requirements to vote was eventually ended during the Jacksonian era of 1830s and 1840s, as working class White men were slowly accepted as part of the electorate.

Independent Candidate

An independent candidate is a person who appears on a ballot without a political party designation.

Why is turnout greater in national elections?

Another paradox of voting is that people pay the greatest attention to and participate the most in elections that are national in outcome (presidential and congressional elections) and in which they have the least amount of influence, and participate the least in the local elections (city, county and school board) that have the greatest impact in their daily lives. Media coverage in national issues and elections trump coverage of local and regional issues and candidates. Most money also go to the national elections over local races.

Registered Voters

Citizens who are enrolled on a state's official list of voters. Once enrolled a person remains on the list so long as the person cast's a vote at least once over a two year period. A color coded voter registration form is mailed to the person registered that is good for a two year period. As a measurement of voter turnout, voter turnout is higher among registered voters than it is for the VAP or VEP measurements.

Gender Restriction

Gender restrictions to voting were ended with the passage of the 19thamendment in 1920. The long struggle by many women's rights organizations was successful in winning the voting franchise for all women.

McCutcheon v FCC (2013)

Here the US Supreme Court, in a 5-4 decision, declared that aggregate contributions to a political campaign by individuals or corporations violate the first amendment guarantees of free speech.

Citizens United v FCC (2010)

Here the US Supreme Court, in a 5-4 decision, declared that corporations, like a person, have first amendment rights of free speech and therefore cannot be restricted is the amount of money they can contribute to a political candidate or campaign.

Age Restriction

In 1971, the 26th amendment lowered the voting age from twenty-one years old to eighteen years old. Originally, the voting age was lowered to eighteen by an amendment to the Voting Rights Act in 1970, but that move was struck down by the US Supreme Court when Oregon challenged that move on the grounds that it was a violation of state sovereignty.

Buckley v Valeo (1976)

In this case the US Supreme Court declared in a 5-4 decision that contributing money to political campaign is equivalent to free speech and is therefore protected by the first amendment.

Felony Conviction & Voting

Persons convicted of a felony lose their right to vote but can recover that right upon completion of their sentence and upon request to have the right reinstated.

White Primary

Shortly after the grandfather clause was outlawed, the White Primary came into use in Texas in 1917 and then spread to all other ex-confederate states. Under the White Primary, Blacks could only vote in the Republican primary elections. The Democratic primary elections was reserved for White voters only. From 1874 to 1978, all ex-confederate states were part of the "Solid South" which only supported conservative (Jim Crow) Democrats for all elective offices. Again, this formal barrier to voting was effective in preventing Blacks from having any impact in the outcome of elections in the South. The use of the White Primary continued until it was outlawed by the US Supreme Court in 1944 in the case of Smith v Allwright.

Majority v Plurality

Some elections require a candidate to win a clear majority of popular votes in order to win. In this case, a candidate must get at least 50.1% of the total popular votes. Other elections only require a candidate to win a plurality of the vote, which means a candidate can win the election with less than a majority of the vote as long as that candidate has the most votes among all candidates for a specific office.

State Voter Registration Requirements

Some state require voters to register with the state in order to be qualified to vote in any local, state or federal election. No state can require a residency requirement to register to vote longer than thirty days. Texas uses a thirty day residency requirement and a two year voter registration cycle with color coded voter registrations identification cards.

Closed Primary

States that have a closed primary election require voters to register their party preference in order to participate in their political party's primary election. The election is closed off to voters that are not registered to the political party in question.

Open Primary

States that have an open primary allow all voters regardless of party affiliation to vote in the nominating election.

National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (Motor Voter Act)

The Motor Voter Act made it possible for people to register to vote at the same time people renewed their driver's license.

Literacy Tests

The use of literacy tests to qualify to vote in state and federal elections became the norm in the Southern US in the post-reconstruction period and lasted well into the second half of the twentieth century. It use disenfranchised many citizens who would have otherwise been eligible to vote. The use of literacy tests as a prerequisite to vote was banned by a 1970 amendment to the Voting Rights Act.

Informal Barriers to Voting (Self Imposed)

These barriers or restrictions to voting are not set by law but instead are self-imposed by individuals or groups though practices and habits that become custom and tradition that limit political participation and in particular voting among identifiable groups in society. Apathy and alienation are the two most effective informal barriers that people erect to avoid political participation by voting. Groups affected the most by informal barriers tend to be those that need the assistance of government the most, such as the poor, the young and ethnic and racial minorities.

Formal Barriers to Voting (Set by Law)

These barriers or restrictions to voting have been set by law either at the national or state levels and have existed during different time periods in history. Most have been eliminated over time and as a result do not constitute the most effective barriers to voting.

Special Elections

These elections differ from statewide elections in that they are either non-partisan races or are elections to fill vacancies to elective office. Non-partisan elections are typically those of municipal government and of school board trustees. These elections normally occur in the Spring to separate them from state and national issues and usually result in lower turnout among voters. Another type of special election is one where a vacancy in an elective office requires a special election to fill in the office until the term expires. Members of the state legislature and state judges who vacate an office prior to the end of their term have the office filled by special election.

General Elections

These elections occur in the Fall (usually in November) and pit candidates representing all political parties against each other. These elections typically have the greatest voter turnout comparison to other elections.

Primary Elections

These elections occur in the Spring and allow voters to choose candidates to represent their political parties in the general elections. Turnout in these elections is typically lower than in the general election.

Paradoxes of Voting

These represent irrational, puzzling aspects of the electorate and their participation (or lack of) habits.A. Why do people vote at all? People get a sense of accomplishment and pride of civic engagement when they vote though, often their vote has little or no impact.B. Who can vote but doesn't? Historically, people of low income, people of minority racial or ethnic background and young people less than twenty-six years old vote in much fewer numbers than other not in these categories. It seems that groups, like the poor, the minority, the young (those marginalized by economic and socio-political forces) who have the most to gain vote the least and have the least amount of influence.

Voting Eligible Population (VEP)

This classification for measuring voter turnout eliminates those persons over eighteen who still cannot vote (such as those not meeting residency requirements, felons, non-citizens or the mentally incapacitated) and thus presents a clearer and more accurate assessment of voter turnout.

Political Participation

This comprises all acts of civic involvement on issues relating to politics and governance at any or all levels of government. Acts of political involvement (political activism) that include voting, campaigning in favor or against a candidate or a political issue, signing a petition, attending public meetings, writing editorial opinions or views on issues in the media, attending a political rally or a town hall meeting, etc.

Grandfather Clause

This formal barrier to voting was enacted in all ex-confederate states after the adoption of the use of literacy tests kept many White citizens from voting. It allowed a man who could not pass a literacy test to vote as long as that man had a grandfather who was eligible to vote prior to the passage of the 15th amendment in 1870. Prior to the passage of the 15thamendment in 1870 no Black man could vote anywhere in the U.S. Therefore the grandfather clause was a very effective tool in keeping Black men from voting despite the 15th amendment. The grandfather clause remained enforceable until it was struck down by the US Supreme Court in 1915.

Inconvenience (Early Voting & Voting By Mail)

This informal barrier to voting is used by folks who feel that it is inconvenient to vote when election day is held during a weekday during working hours from 7 am to 7 pm. People who choose to vote on election day are forced to take time off from work to vote or have to vote before or after work or vote during lunchtime. IT is an unrealistic complaint because early voting is allowed throughout the state and people can vote absentee, by mail if out of state or can vote from hospital if hospitalized or from jail if on misdemeanor charges or awaiting trial.

The US Civil Service Commission was created in 1883 in response to the assassination of President James Garfield. Its purpose is to restrict the use of patronage as the primary factor in the selection of employees for government jobs. Job selection is to be based on merit (education and experience) and not by political loyalty. This helps create a efficient and trained federal bureaucracy that is politically neutral. Today over 90% of all government employment is based on merit. Political Party Organization-Please know the difference between the temporary and permanent political party organization. The temporary political party organization is composed of voters, delegates to conventions, and campaign workers who are active in party politics during elections. The permanent political party organization is composed of precinct, chairpersons, county, state and national party executive committees who continue to do political party work between elections. They organize meetings, develop party platforms of issues, and recruit candidates for political office. Patronage-This term refers to the practice of granting political favors and political appointments to jobs in government on the basis of political loyalty to the elected politician in of doling out rewards for loyalty and victory. This is likened to the Spoils System which dictated that to the victor went the political spoils to be able to reward supporter with the spoils of office and power. Presidents are able to appoint approximately 10% of the federal workforce to persons based on their support and loyalty to the person elected. Many times these appointment go to persons with little experience or expertise in the job they are given and instead the appointment is based on how much money a person contributed to the election of the victor. This is not a good way to govern. This system of federal employment was synonymous with Andrew Jackson and his brand of Jacksonian Democracy. Know what the Motor Voter Law is about. It was a federal law that sought to increase voter registration by allowing persons who are renewing the driver's license registration to register to vote at the same time. This is allowed in Texas. Third Parties in the US-There is information provided on what third or minor political parties do well and what they do badly in the discussion of Two-Party Politics in the US on the previous study guide. Please review that information.

This information will describe some prominent third or minor political parties of the past and of recent times. The Populist Party (1870s-1892)-This was a rural, farmers and ranchers movement active in the late 1800s that sought to regulate railroad and banks prices of shipping agricultural products to markets. Much of their political platform was absorbed by the Democratic Party. They also supported the breakup of monopolies in industry. The Socialist Workers Party (1870s-Present)-This was an urban, immigrant, working class political movement meant to protect workers safety and wages and working conditions against rapacious business owners. Much of their political platform was absorbed by New Deal Democrats. The Bull Moose Party (Progressive) 1912-1940s)-Teddy Roosevelt used his Bull Moose Platform of government and business reform to campaign for the Presidency in 1912. It split the Republican Party and allowed the Democrats to elect Woodrow Wilson to the Presidency. Again, much of their progressive agenda was adopted by the Democratic Party in the form of government regulation of business and anti-trust legislation. The Dixiecrats (State Rights) Party (1948)-Strom Thurmond, Governor of South Carolina ran for the Presidency as an anti-Civil Rights, pro-Jim Crow Segregationist in 1948. He was later elected to the US Senate and became a Republican after years of being a Southern Democrat. The American Independence Party (1960s)-George Wallace, Governor of Alabama ran for the Presidency three times as a Pro-Jim Crow Segregationist and Anti-Civil Rights Candidates. He was shot in Baltimore, Maryland and survived. The Libertarian Party (1970s-Present)-This third party was organized in Denver, Colorado in 1972 as a right wing (conservative) political movement bent on the protection of civil liberties and limited government. The Reform Party (1990s-Present)-Ross Perot, Texas billionaire, used this platform to run as a right-wing conservative who favored reforming trade policies of the US. The Green Party(1970s-Present)-This left wing, liberal, pro-consumer rights and environmental protection movement launched in Europe as a anti-nuclear weapons and power movement and found support in the US with the candidacy of Ralph Nader for President. It is still active in national politics today. Know the difference between Labor Intensive Campaigning and Capital Intensive Campaigning. Labor Intensive Political Campaigns require lots of persons to do door to door block walking to advertise their candidates and issues. Capital Intensive Campaigns are money driven by the sale of ads on media.

Apathy

This is an informal barrier to voting that is very effective in keeping voter turnout low in Texas and in many other states. Texas has a history of very low turnout in voting which is similar in other ex-confederate states. Apathy is a self-imposed condition where citizens do not care to inform themselves of political issues and candidates and refuse to participate in the electoral process. Ignorance is bliss to many who do not see it in their interest to participate politically, other than to cast their uneducated opinions.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

This major piece of legislation was a landmark achievement of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s along the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This law allows the federal government to monitor state and local elections and intervene with enforcement of the law in elections where voting irregularities are reported. It also requires that any changes in election laws in states with a history of voter discrimination have the changes approved by the federal government (pre-cleared) before they take effect. An amendment in 1970 banned the use of literacy tests, lowered the voting age to 18 (later overturned by the US Supreme Court), provided for the use of bilingual ballots, and set a maximum residency requirement for voting in federal elections of thirty days. It has been renewed by Congress periodically

Party Raiding

This occurs when members of one political party vote in another party's primary with the purpose of supporting a weaker candidate so as to weaken that party's strongest candidate.

Crossover Voting

This occurs when voters leave their political party and vote in another party's primary election.

Preclearance (VRA 1965)

This provision of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 required states with a history of voter discrimination to have the federal government pre-clear (approve) any changes to elections laws before they took effect. Under the map approved in 1965 most southern ex-confederate states were required to abide by this provision. The US Supreme Court struck down the old map in 2012 and requested that Congress create a new map based on recent information concerning efforts to denying access to the polls.

Voter Turnout

This term refers to the proportion of people who cast a ballot in an election.

Poll Tax

This was tax required to be paid by voters in state and federal elections for much of the history of the U.S. This represented a formal economic barrier to voting that created a serious burden to low income citizens hoping to exercise their right to vote. The poll tax normally amounted to less than $10 per year but many times was required to be paid within a specific time period of less than a month early at the start of a new year in order to qualify to vote in any election that year. Those that missed the window of opportunity to pay the tax forfeited their right to vote for the whole year. The 24th amendment to the US Constitution banned the poll tax for voting in federal elections in 1964 and the US Supreme Court outlawed the poll tax in state and local elections in Harper v Virginia (1966).

Voter Turnout in Texas

Voter turnout is among the lowest in the US. Typical of a state with a legacy of discrimination towards minority groups when it comes to voting and typical of most states in the southern U.S.

Run-Off Elections

f no candidate for a political office wins a clear majority of the popular vote, a run-off election between the two top candidates occur shortly (usually about a month) afterwards. This does not apply to the election of the US President.