Grammar
Phrase
A group of words without a subject and predicate. It can function as a noun, ,an adjective, an adverb, or a verb. They may be prepositional, participial, gerunds, infinitives, and verbs.
Phrases
Groups of words without a subject or predicate that function as a unit
Conjunctions
It is also called a coordinate conjunction or connecting word The conjunctions are: and, for, or, nor, so, yet, but If used at the beginning of the second indpendent clause a comma is needed. It is always before the coordinating conjunction
separate adjectives
It was a difficult, stubborn animal.
Compound sentence
Made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating (and, but, for, or, so, yet) or correlative (either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also) conjunction or a semicolon.
Compound Noun
Made up of two or more words used together as a single noun. like a derivative. It is two words put together to make one word. E.g. toothpaste, seafood, onlooker.
Declarative sentence
Makes a statement.
Modifiers
May describe or limit the meaning of a word or group of words.
Transitive verbs
May take a direct object: Bob BEAT the rug. Some can be used as active or linking verbs
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Meanwhile, Momentarily, Never, Next, Not at all, Not long after, Not long ago, Now, Occasionally, Of late, Often, Often time, On the next occasion, Once, Once upon a time, Past, Periodically, Preceding, Present, Presently, Previously, Prior to, Promptly, Quick, Rarely, Recently, Repeatedly, Right after, Right away, Second, Seldom, Sequentially, Shorty, Simultaneously, Slow, So far, Some of the time, Some time, Soon, Soon after, Soon afterward, Sporadically, Starting with, Subsequently, Suddenly, Temporary, The latter, The next, The final, Then, Thereafter, This instant, Third, To begin with, To conclude, To finish, Today, Tomorrow, Twice, Uncommon, Ultimately, Until, Until now , Usually, When, While, Yesterday
Mild Interjections
Mild interjections show relatively low amounts of emotion and are punctuated with commas Ex. Hey, do your homework
Imperative Sentences
Sentences that give direct commands to someone. Can end with a period or an exclamation point.
prepositions
Show manner, place, time, condition. Usually in phrases followed by noun or pronoun.
verbs
Show state of being or condition
Compound Preposition
Preposition that consists of more than one word.
can
Primarily expresses ability; cannot is used to deny permission.
Possessive Pronouns
Shows possession or ownership Used as both a pronoun and an adjective Ex: my, our, your (singular), your (plural), his, her, its, their
Number
Shows the singular or plural of nouns, pronouns, or verbs.
Passive Voice
Shows the subject as receiver of the action. <A song was sung by her.>
Tense
Shows the time of the action, condition or state of being expressed. The
introduces essential clauses
That
Gerund
The "-ing" form of a verb when functioning as a noun., a form regularly derived from a verb and functioning as a noun
Adjective
The ADJECTIVE describes a thing,
Object of the Preposition
The noun or pronoun that completes a prepositional phrase.
Subject
The noun, pronoun, or main phrase that precedes/governs the main verb.
how?
The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question ____, so focus on these.
Use a hyphen
To join capital letter(s) and numbers in system designators and numerical identifiers.
Use a hyphen
To join single capital letters to nouns or participles. U-boat H-bomb X-height U-turn
figure of speech
a word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of something else and is not literally true
adjective
a word that describes a noun or pronoun
adverb
a word that describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb
Pronoun
a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun.
Verb
a word used to express an action, a condition, or a state of being.
interjection
a word used to express emotion
conjunction
a word used to join words or groups of words
preposition
a word used to show the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word or words in the sentence
indirect characterization
used when a writer depends on the reader to draw conclusions about the character's traits
direct characterization
used when a writer simply states the character's traits, or characteristics
reflexive pronoun
usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves
point of view
vantage point from which a story is told
style
variation in language use based on the formality or informality of the social setting
gerund
verb + ing used as a noun; example: SWIMMING is a good exercise.
Active voice
means the subject is performing the verb.
adjective clause
modifies a noun or a pronoun; majority of these clauses are introduced by relative pronouns such as WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, and THAT; example: She lost the ring THAT YOU GAVE HER.
Non-essential Adj. Clause
modifies noun, "Bobert" set apart from sentence by commas who not essential to meaning of sentence Ex: Bobert, who is nice but a short guy, would like to take Tonie out sometime.
plural
more than one
conclusion
must summarize the main points stated in the body and close smoothly. The conclusion is the last and often neglected part of a
Concrete Nouns
name a person, place, or object that can be sensed through toughing, smelling, tasting, seeing, or hearing., Words for things which are visible and tangible e.g. 'potato', 'house', 'fox', Cookie, pen, pineapples, eyelashes.
Common Nouns
name any person, place, object, or idea., names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas
Understood Subjects
occur in imperative sentences, and (you) is the implied subject.
Capitalize The First Word
of every sentence.
Do Not Capitalize
part of a quotation slogan or motto if it is not capitalized in the original quotation.
fragment
part of a sentence
adverb
part of speech never is a complement
noun or pronoun
part of speech usually a direct object
noun
person, place, thing, idea
appositive
phrase that identifies or gives more information about the subject
infinitive phrase
phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers
participle phrase
phrase that includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects; example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.
prepositional phrase
preposition + noun or pronoun
Indefinite Pronoun
refers to an unknown person, place, or thing. Another, anyone, anything, each, neither , no body, someone, something, both, few, many, serval, all, most, none, some
preposition
relates a noun or pronoun to another word
should
should does also, but it adds a slight coloring of doubt that the
Of
should never be used in place of have.
Possessive pronouns
show ownership and never need apostrophes, E.g. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
interjection
shows emotion but has no grammatical function
plural possessive noun
shows ownership by more than one person or thing; example: my friends' parents
singular possessive noun
shows ownership by one person or thing; example: my aunt's house
Possesive Case Noun
shows ownership of another noun. MUST have an apostrophe. It is diagramed as an adjective.
Prelinguistic stage
silent period with only crying and later cooing and babbline
parallelism
similarity by virtue of correspondence, the use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have similar grammatical form
Infinitive
simple verb form used as a noun, adjective, or adverb and
a
singular noun with a consonant sound Ex: a unicorn
verb phrase
something that contains one main vern and one or more helping verbs
conjunction
something that joins or connects, A word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences (and, but, or, because ).
proper noun
specific person, place, thing
run-on sentence
strings together two or more sentences without clearly separating them; example: This picture is his it is not yours.
Include a ____ and a predicate in every sentence.
subject
Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ____ are the same; example: XAVIER stared at me silently.
subject
Nominative Case of the Noun
subject, predicate noun, noun of direct address., noun in apposition.
s-v
subject/verb agreement, subject/verb agreement s+v+do
noun clause
subordinate clause used as a noun; examples: WHAT YOU SAY is true.
How do you find the Predicate Noun?
take the subject and the verb and ask who or what. The answer to the who or what is the predicate noun if its verb is a linking verb.
Personal Pronoun
takes the place of a name of a person, place, or thing.
pronoun
takes the place of a noun
personal pronoun
takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender; example: singular: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its / plural: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs
pronoun
takes the place of a noun; he, she, you, I, me
Pronoun
takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it
pronoun
takes the place of one or more noun; example: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, it
into
tell about the movement from the outside to the inside
predicate
tells something about the subject; example: One person DESCRIBED HER EXPERIENCE.
future tense
tells that something will happen in the future; uses WILL with the verb; example: Dena WILL LAUGH at the jokes.
indirect object
tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done; example: Jack showed the DOG kindness.
action verb
tells what the subject of a sentence does or did; example: She SLEEPS every day. She SLEPT every day.
pragmatic competence
the ability to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance between speakers and an indirectness required in a given situation
development
the act of improving a prototype outlined paragraph by expanding, enlarging, and refining the state in which facts and thoughts are defined, organized, and communicated to the audience.
onomatopoeia
the use of words with sound that echo their sense
Predicate Noun
the who or What... follows a linking verb. Identifies or renames the subject. It is in the predicate part of the sentence and completes the meaning of the verb. It renames, or defines, the subject., a noun that follows a linking verb. It defines the subject by telling what it is.
Avoid overusing
there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.
TO SHOW RESULTS
therefore
the natural order hypothesis
this hypothesis argures that there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their taget language, and that order transcends, age, the native language, the target language, and the conditions under which the second language is being learned
internal conflict
this takes place within a character's mind. It is a struggle between opposing needs, desires, or emotions
Demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
types of demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
Infinitive form of a verb:
to be, to walk, to see e.g.: I need to work today. I like to work on writing
Use the he/him method
to decide which word is correct.
sentence fluency
trait has to do with sentence length and varied beginnings
ideas
trait of good writing that is concerned with the topic and the information you will include
Transitive Verb
transfers action from the subject to the object.
Intransitive Verb
transfers no action and is followed by an adverb or
coordinate clauses
two clauses that have equal importance. ex. the ice melted. the sun came out. "the ice melted and the sun came out." occur in sentences where there are two or more independant clauses. They're joined together by words like 'and' 'or' 'but' s-v-con-s-v / s-v-do
Predicate Nominative
another name for predicate noun.
scientific approach
another name for the classical theory of formal curiosity, skeptical, objective, and critical thinking of organizations , A testable hypothesis, a reproducible experiment that can be replicated by other scientists, an operationalized definition (observable and measureable) of the concept under study, Observations, Hypothesis, Experiment, Model (Theory), Further Experimentation
most indefinite pronouns
another, anybody, anything, each,
types of indefinite articles
another, each, neither, many, all, more, other, both, either, few, several, any, most, some
Adverbs
answer: how (sloppily), where (here, there) , to what degree (very, hardly), when (now, later, yesterday) e.g.: The cat runs here and there. I painted the house neatly. I am very happy. I want it finished now.
Simple Subject
answers the question: Who or what is doing something in the sentence without any descriptors?
Simple Predicate
answers the question: what is the subject doing? And it must be a verb.
signal
any incitement to action, anything that serves to direct, guide, or warn, a sound or action that sends a message.
types of indefinite pronouns
anything, no one, all, some, several
Object pronouns
are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). ______ ______ are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.
Subject pronouns
are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.
Adjectives
are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.).
Adverbs
are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where.
the input hypothesis
argues that learners progress along the natural order only when they encounter second language input that is one step beyond where they are in the natural order
Compound-Complex
Sentence Types: If the sentence has two independent clauses and a dependent clause, it is compound and it is complex.
Compound
Sentence Types: One sentence contains a subject and verb, and the second sentence contains another subject and verb.
Simple
Sentence Types: Simple sentences are straightforward.
simple sentence
Sentence having only a subject and a verb construction , having few parts, without descriptive embellishment, a sentence having no coordinate clauses or subordinate clauses
Simple sentence
Sentence that has a subject and a verb
Interrogative Sentences
Sentences that ask a direct question. Always ends with a question mark.
Exclamatory Sentences
Sentences that end with an exclamation point.
Run-on sentence
Several thought incorrectly joined are not grammatically correct. Ex. I like to ice skate my brother does not.
Preposition
Shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun to another word in
Demonstrative adjective
THIS automobile
Infinitive (noun and subject of the sentence
TO WALK was his goal. (_____ used as _____)
explanatory words
We worked, standing in the hot field, all day.
What question does the predicate answer and what part of speech can it be?
What happened to the subject? verb
clarity
What he does, does make a difference.
What questions do adjectives ask?
What kind? Which one? How many?
Place I second, and follow it with the singular verb am.
When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor?
Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement
When a pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender (boy/girl) and amount (singular/plural). Ex. Jack did his homework. "Jack" is singular and masculine, and so is "his". If there is not pronoun/ antecedent agreement, the sentence is incorrect
Use a Question Mark
When a question within a sentence is set off by dashes, place the question mark before
WHEN To USE A COLON
When a sentence contains an expression such as following or as follows or is followed by
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb
When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor,
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject,
FORMING:
When a team is forming, members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual to member status, and of testing the
Use a hyphen
When expressing the numbers 21 through 99 in words and in adjective compounds with
Use a comma
When names are reversed. Adams, Angie Middleton, Mary
clause
a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb, a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate, clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
clause
a group of words that have a subject and a predicate; some stand alone; others cannot; example: Everyone should know about medical emergencies.
phrase
a group of words that work together; example: from the kitchen window
Appositive Phrase
a noun in apposition along with its modifiers.
direct object
a noun or pronoun that follows an action verb; they tell or what receives the action; example: I inherited a pet DEER from the former residents of my house. (tells what) or The surgical team asked DR. HABIB to explain the procedure. (tells who)
common noun
a noun that names non-unique persons, places, or things
Object of the Preposition
a noun that relates to another word in the sentence through a preposition., Before setting the table, you should wash your hands. What does the Gerund act as in this sentence
Appositive phrase
a noun that renames or clarifies another noun
Noun in Apposition
a noun that renames, identifies, or explains the noun it follows. It is set off by commas when it renames a proper noun. Assumes or takes the case of the noun it renames., A noun in apposition is a mini definition - added information in the sentence sometimes set off by commas - 2 kinds of appositions: restricitve (needed; no commas) and nonrestrictive (not really needed; has commas)
Indirect Object
a noun that tells to whom or for whom or to what or for what an action is done. It receives the direct object. It comes between the verb and the direct object. It receives the DO and can ONLY appear in the combination with a DO., a word or group of words that tell "For whom am I doing this wonderful thing." It is located between the action verb and the direct object. Ex. Harriet gave her mother a bracelet for her birthday. (Mother is the indirect object.), Comes before the direct object. Tells to whom, for whom the action of the verb is done. (Claire threw JOSEPH the ball)
Noun of Direct Address
a noun used to speak directly to some person or object. ALWAYS separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. Often found in imperative sentences where the subject (you) is understood., the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to ex. Mary, do you..., person being spoken to in a sentence
metaphor
comparison of two unlike objects without using the words like or as
Prescriptive Grammar:
concerned with correct usage
subordinating conjunction
dependent clauses start with what type of conjunction?
Intransitive verbs:
e.g.: sleep (Sleep cannot be transitive.)
Reciprocal pronouns
each other, one another
intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent; adds emphasis to pronoun or named noun; examples: I MYSELF will go.
Past Participles
end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or-n Ex: asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen Used with have to form past tenses Ex: We have climbed. She had ridden.Used with BE to form the passive voice Ex: The floor is being scrubbed. The ball was kicked.
Present Participles
end in-ing used with BE to indicate continuing action or state Ex: I am going. They were laughing.
Gerund
ends in -ing and functions as a noun. <talking, singing>
gerund
ends in -ing and is used as a noun
transfer errors
errors made when acquiring a second language in which a speaker substitutes features of the native language in the new language (ex. an Italian speaker saying "he has cold" for the English "he is cold"
developmental errors
errors made when learning a language based on the speaker's incorrect inference of grammatical rules, for example in acquiring English a learner may say "he goed" instead of "he went"
open punctuation
excludes the comma before the final and, or, or nor.
interjection
a word or a group of words that expresses strong feeling; you can separate an interjection from the rest of a sentence with either an exclamation point or a comma, depending on the strength of the feeling; examples: Whew! That was close! Oh, no!
interjections
a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling; example: WELL, Snoopy is at the typewriter again.
conjunction
a word that joins two words or two groups of words
adjective
a word that modifies a noun or pronoun
adjective
a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun; example: We saw LAZY lions beneath a SHADY tree.
noun
a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea; example: boy, Juan, river, Texas
prepositions
a word that shows a relationship between nouns or pronouns and some other words in a sentence
verb
a word that shows action or state of being
verb
a word that shows action, being or links a subject to a subject compliment
pronoun
a word that takes the place of a noun
Capitalize
all proper names (the official name of a person, place or thing).
learned system
formal instruction in which students engage in forma study to acquire knowledge about the target language
clarity
free from obscurity and easy to understand, clearness in thought or expression, clearness or lucidity as to perception or understanding; freedom from indistinctness or ambiguity. written with precision.
prepositional phrase
gives a sentence detail; begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
personification
giving human characteristics to inanimate objects
Singular
grammatical number category referring to a single item or unit. Ex. person, dog, bone
Plural
grammatical number category referring to two or more items or units. Ex. people, dogs, bones
Compound predicate
Tells two or more things about the same subject without repeating the subject., two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.
Subject
Tells what the sentence is about; the person, place or thing that performs
Predicate
Tells what the subject does or what is done to the subject, or the state of
refer to groups or things
That and which
Demonstrative pronouns:
That is a nice suit. This is a nice suit. These are fine shoes. Those are fine shoes.
whom
For who/whom should I vote?
weak clause
A ____ ____ begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. _____ clauses cannot stand on their own. Examples: Although she is hungry...
Noun Groups (3)
Form (number, gender and case); Function (subject,object, complement, appositive, and modifier); Class (proper, common, concrete, abstract, and collective)
Proper Adjective
Formed from a proper noun.
Noun Clause
Functions as a noun and can be used in 4 ways: 1) Subject of a sentence Ex: What the Chairman proposed was not practical. 2) DIrect obeject of a verb Ex: I hope that you will be promoted. 3) Prediate noun Ex: The rumor was that he had lef the city. 4) Object of a preposition Ex: Give the message to whoever is in the office.
Imperative
A command.
the wrong form for comparison
A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using. To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women."
Tone
A particular style or manner, as of writing or speech; mood., the quality of something (an act or a piece of writing) that reveals the attitudes and presuppositions of the author, the general atmosphere of a place or situation and the effect that it has on people
Prepositional phrase
A phrase consisting of a preposition, its object (usually a noun or a pronoun), and any modifiers of the object. All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M
Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, can have adjectives in the middle, and ends with a noun or pronoun Ex. (Polly-O lives) near Kevin's desk
Subject, Object, or Possessive
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: .
Pronoun
A pronoun takes the position and function of nouns but do not specifically name them Ex. he, she, it, they, him, her, them
Proper Adjective
A proper adjective is an adjective formed by a noun, but act like adjectives and is always capitalized Ex. American, English, Red Sox
Restrictive elements
A word or group of words that are vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are NOT set off by commas: The girl WHO WROTE THE STORY is my sister.
Verb
A word or phrase (was writing, has been sewing) that shows action (writing, sewing) or a state of being (is, are, am, was, were).
Antecedent
A word or phrase that a subsequent word refers back to Ex: I'll give this to Mary if I see her. (HER is the antecedent of Mary)
Compounding
A word that consists of two or more elements that are independent words Ex: Loud speaker, baby sit
Sentence fragment
An incomplete thought is not grammatically correct. Ex. Making his way in the world today.
Verbs
Expresses action or state of being of the sentence. There are six: Transitive Verbs, Intransitive Verbs, Linking Verbs, Auxiliary or Helping Verbs, Principal Verbs, Irregular Verbs.
Past Perfect Tense
Expresses action which began in the past and was completed in the past.
Present Perfect Tense
Expresses action which began in the past but continues in the present or is completed at the present.
Past Tense
Expresses action which is completed at a particular time in the past.
Present Tense
Expresses action which is happening at the present time, or which happens continually, regularly.
Future Perfect Tense
Expresses action which will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the future.
Future Tense
Expresses action which will take place in the future.
Sentence
Expresses one complete thought with one subject and one verb; either or
Extreme Interjections
Extreme interjections show relatively large amounts of emotion and are punctuated with an exclamation mark Ex. Hey! Do your homework
Coordinated Conjunction
FANBOYS = For + And + Nor + But + Or + Yet + So
Subject+Verb+Pronoun (Prepositional Phrase) / s+v+pn (pp)
Follow Action Verbs and Receive the action of the verb She sent me a postcard, Follow action verbs and precede DO, s+v+pn (pp) / s+v+do "goats have cages that surround them."
Indefinite Pronouns
General pronouns that do not have a definite antecedent Ex: anyone, someone, all, anybody, somebody, each Note: those ending in -one and -body are singular
adverb; If it can have an -ly added to it, place "how" there.
Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.
titles
George, Sr., was 16 when he finished college.
appositives
George, my cousin, jumped through a hoop.
Imperative sentence
Gives a command or makes a request.
Possessive adjective
HER jacket, THEIR house...
adverbs
How things are done the adverbs tell,
Adverb
How things are done, the ADVERBS tell,
What questions do adverbs ask?
How, when, where, to what extent
an adverb
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light pink color looks nice on you.
an adjective
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? This book is light, not heavy.
a verb
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? We light the fire with a match.
an interjection
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "well"? Well, I don't know the answer.
a conjunction
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "when"? When you graduate, you will get a job.
Voice
Indeicates wether the subject is acting or being acted upon.
Universal Grammar (UG)
Noam Chomsky/Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: belieft that language acquistion was innate--not acquired.
Object
Noun or pronoun that is affected by the verb. <The man read the
The Noun Family
Noun, Pronoun, Adjective
Antecedent
Noun, phrase or clause to which a pronoun refers or replaces.
complete predicate
all the words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING A SECRET.
complete subject
all the words in a subject; example: MY TWO OLDER BROTHERS stared at me silently.
Use an em Dash (—)
To emphasize or restate a previous thought.
Use an em Dash (—)
To emphasize single words.
Use parenthesis
To enclose a nickname or a descriptive expression when it falls between a person's first
Use parenthesis
To enclose enumerating letters or numerals within a sentence.
Passive Voice
One can change the normal order of a sentence so that the subject is being acted upon. This voice may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. i.e. fish are eaten by the cat.
Auxiliary Verb
One helping verb.
dare
Originally a modal only, it is now used primarily in negatives or
may
Originally meant "have the power" (compare the noun might).
ought
Originally the past tense of owe, but now it points to a present or future
Use parenthesis
To enclose explanatory material (a single word, a phrase or an entire sentence) that is
Use a period
To end declarative and imperative sentences.
Use a Question Mark
To express doubt.
Subordinating conjunctions
although, as, as if, after, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, though, unless, when, whenever, while
Participial phrase
an -ing or -ed verb form used as an adjective
Gerund phrase
an -ing verb form used as a noun
gradable adjective
an adjective that can occur with qualifiers
Object Pronouns
Used as objects Can be direct objects Can be indirect objects Can be the objects of prepositions Are said to be in the object case Ex: me, us, you (singular), you (plural), him, her, it, them
predicate adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.
Predicate Adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject., an adjective that follows a linking verb and describes the subject of a sentence; includes forms of taste, look, feel, smell, appear, seem, and become; example: I look TIRED, but I feel FINE.
predicate adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of a sentence; example: A freshly baked pie is DELIGHTFUL to the eye and nose.
proper adjective
an adjective that is formed from a proper noun; example: Africa --> African; Scotland --> Scottish
superlative adjective
an adjective used to compare three or more items; example: This is the HOTTEST day of the year.
comparative adjective
an adjective used to compare two items; example: Today is HOTTER than yesterday.
linguistic insecurity
an anxious desire to be correct sometimes felt by speakers who believe their language does not always conform to SAE
hypercorrection
an attempt to be overly "correct" resulting in the production of language different from the standard ("between Harlan and I" instead of "between Harlan and me")
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events, a belief that can guide behavior, a tentative theory about the natural world, , a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations,
Chronological
the science that deals with determining details and events, arranges speech topic according to the sequential order in which events or steps occurred When you use this pattern, you discuss events, problems or processes in the sequence of time in
whom
use as an object pronoun; example: To _____ am I speaking?
The acquistion-learning hypothesis
two systems of language acquistion that are independent but related: the acquired system and the learned system
acquired system
unconscious aspect of language acquistion; speakers are less concerned with the structure of their utterances than with the act of communication meaning
split infinitive
use an adverb to avoid these; example: (incorrect: I wanted to SLOWLY SEE the city. / correct: I wanted TO SEE the city SLOWLY.)
who
use as a subject pronoun; example: _____ is not going?
Semicolons
used to link independent clauses that do not contain conjunctions Use to avoid a comma splice Ex: I am going home, I intend to stay there. (There is no conjunction here) In this example, a semicolon needs to be placed in between the words HOME and I.
Relative Pronoun
used to relate to another noun in the sentence Ex. The chef WHO won the proze studied in Paris Who, whom, whoever, whomever, that, which
gerund
verb acting like a noun; ends in -ing
participle
verb acting like an adjective ends in -ing or -ed
except
verb or preposition, omitting or
Present Perfect Tense
verb tense that describes an action that began in the past but continues til the present. Ex. Have heard, Has played, Has run
Past Perfect
verb tense that describes an event completed in the past prior to another event. Ex. Had heard, Had played, Had run
Simple Present Tense
verb tense that describes present action or condition. Ex. Hear, Play Run
Present Progressive Tense
verb tense that shows action in progress. Ex. Am hearing, Is playing, Are running
helping
verb that helps the main verb express action or a state of being
linking
verb that links the subject with the predicate
action
verb that shows action
past tense
verb that tells something that happened in the past; example: Dena LAUGHED at the jokes.
present tense
verb that tells something that is happening now; example: Dena LAUGHS at the jokes.
verb tense
verb that tells the time of the action or being
transitive
verb that transfers the action of the subject to a word in the predicate
Auxiliary or Helping Verb
verb used with another verb to form voice
Gerund:
verb with -ing attached to it - functions as a noun e.g.: I like running. Thinking is my favorite thing to do.
accept
verb, receive
Simple Past Tense
verbe tense that shows completed action Ex. Heard, played, ran
Irregular Verb
verbs that form past tense and past
predicate
what the subject is doing; always a verb
direct object questions
what, whom
Close Apposition
when a noun in apposition is closely related to the word it follows. It is not set off by commas.
Predicate adjectives
when adjective follows a state of being verb e.g.: He looks sick. He seems tired. She is joyful. She is nice.
style shifting
when the speaker adapts language use to the formality or informality of the situation ("goodbye" as opposed to "see ya!"
antecedent
when using pronoun, the noun to which it refers; example: HE heard. NICHOLAS heard. // pronouns should agree with number and gender; example: NICHOLAS heard a LIBRARIAN tell STORIES.
Never drop the -ly from an adverb
when using the comparison form.
adverb questions
when, where, how, to what degree
introduces nonessential clauses.
which
subject
who or what is doing the action in a sentence; always a noun
Interrogative pronouns
who, what, when, where, how
Relative pronouns
who, whom, whose, what, which, that
Relative Pronouns
who, whom, whose, which, that
subject
whom or what the sentence is about; example: One PERSON described her experience.
Use on
with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence
Use singular verbs
with most indefinite pronouns
Use a singular verb
with sums of money or periods of time.
complement
word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb
prefix
word part added to the beginning of a word
suffix
word part added to the end of a word
verb
word that shows action or state of being
pronoun
word that takes the place of a noun
conjunction
words that connect clauses, phrases, or words (FANBOYS)
Prepositions and conjuctions
words that connect.
Adjectives and adverbs
words that describe or modify., Adjectives describe things (nouns and pronouns) and adverbs describe action (verbs).
monitor hypothesis
illustrates how the acquired system is affected by the learned system: when second language learners monitor their speech, they are applying their understanding of learned grammaer to edit, plan, and initiate their communication
Internal transitions
improve the flow of sentences, within a paragraph are one or more related words that show the relationship between ideas
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
Capitalize The First Word
in the salutation and complimentary closing of a letter.
Determiners: Definite determiners
include the definite article the, demonstratives (this, those, etc.), possessives (his, John's), question words (which), and quantifiers (all, etc.)
Determiners: Indefinite determiners
include: a(n) and numerals like two, and many.
Definite Pronouns
includes I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and all of their forms.
intransitive verb
includes all linking verbs and any action verbs that do not take an object; example: My friends CRIED.
closed punctuation
includes the comma before the final and, or or nor.
gerund phrase
includes the gerund, its object, and its object's modifiers; WRITING A BEST SELLER is the goal of every novelist.
Indefinite Pronouns
includes words like someone, no one, each, anyone, and
Relative Pronouns
includes words like who, whom, which, that.
TO RELATE THOUGHTS
indeed
adverb clause
is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
Preposition
is a word (or goup of words) that shows the relationship between its object (a noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and anouth word in the sentence.
subject complement
is a word or group of words that follows a linking verb and renames or describes the subject., the name of a grammatical unit that is comprised of predicate moninatives and predicate adjectives, The word or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes the subject or the sentence by either renaming it or describing it
Adverb
is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adjective
is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or a pronoun.
Verb
is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, and so on). Definition. A Subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb.
Verb Phrase
is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.
prepositional phrase
is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words in between: example: Who lives IN THAT HOUSE?
helping verb
is not the main verb in a phrase; are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer; includes any forms of TO BE
will
is the common future auxiliary used in the second and third persons. In addition it is used with special emphasis to
object of the preposition
is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition; example: The sands of the BEACH were white.
The Subjunctive
is used after the following expressions:
The Subjunctive
is used after the following verbs: to advise (that) to ask (that) to command (that) to demand (that) to desire (that) to insist (that) to propose (that) to recommend (that) to request (that) to suggest (that) to urge (that)
object pronoun
is used as a direct/indirect object in a sentence; example: Rebecca gave ME a gift.
An
is used when: a singular noun begins with a vowel Ex: an elephant
conjunction
joins a words or groups of words; can be AND, OR, or BUT; can be used to combine sentences; example: Janet lives in Austen, AND Elizabeth lives in New York.
linking verb
joins the subject and the predicate
receptive language
language that is spoken or written by others and recieved by an individual, that is listening or reading (decoding or getting meaning from spoken words or written symbols)
synthetic language
language that uses large numbers of bound morphemes and often compbines strings of them to form a single word.
analytic language
language that uses very few bound morphemes--prefixes and suffixes and inflections or grammatical endings of nouns
cognitive language
language which is received, processed into memory, integrated with knowledge already integrated, and made a part of the knowledge of the individual from which new ideas and concepts can be generated. It is part of the creative process that shapes the thought of each person
Principal Verb
last verb in a verb phrase.
TO COMPARE IDEAS
like
informal writing
like may be used as a preposition and in what kind of writing, as a conjunction.
external transitions
link separate paragraphs together within the body of your communication.
relative pronoun
linked group of words preceding noun or pronoun; examples: who, which, that
preposition
links nouns and pronouns to the rest of the sentence
conjunction
links words or groups of words
conjunction
links words, phrases and clauses FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
coherence
logical and orderly and consistent relation of parts, quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle, a principle demanding that the parts of any composition be so arranged that the meaning of the whole may be immediately clear and intelligible, easy to understand
object pronouns (list)
me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Both adjectives and adjective phrases or clauses can...
modify a noun
Both adverbs and adverbial phrases or clauses can...
modify a verb
body
must be an effective sequence of ideas that flow logically in a series of paragraphs, the heart of your message. It includes your main ideas about your subject and supporting details under each main idea. typically consists of several paragraphs. The total number of paragraphs (and overall length of the body) will depend on your purpose and subject. As a general rule, write a separate paragraph for each main idea—you might confuse your reader if you have two or more main ideas in a single paragraph. In a longer communication, you may find it necessary to use more than one paragraph to cover one main point or idea.
introduction
must capture your audience's attention, establish rapport and announce your purpose. sets the stage and tone for your message. Although the content and length of
clause
must have a subject and a verb; 2 types of clauses - independent and dependent
Intensive pronouns
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Abstract Nouns
name a quality, a condition, or an idea. refer to intangible, nonphysical entities. They cannot be sensed through hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, or touching. Represents a feeling and is intangible., Names we have for ideas, emotions, qualities, processes, occasions and times. Invisible and tangible. e.g. 'joy', 'gentleness', 'wedding',
Proper Nouns
name particular people, places, objects, or ideas. They ALWAYS begin with a capital letter!!, Has 2 distinctive features; 1) It will name a specific item. 2) It will start with a capitol letter, no matter where it is in the sentence.
proper noun
names a particular person, place, thing, or idea; example: Amelia Earhart, Chicago, Katmai National Park
abstract noun
names an idea, quality, action, or feeling
common noun
names any person place, thing or idea; example: pilot, city, park
plural noun
names more than one person, place, or thing; example: principals, switches, communities, toys, leaves, roofs, radios, potatoes, feet, sheep
singular noun
names one person, place, or thing; example: principal, cafeteria, stereos
concrete noun
names things you can see and touch; examples: pizza, kitten, diamond
Transition
needed for coherence
predicate nominative
noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Lassie has been a CELEBRITY for decades.
predicate nominative
noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames the subject; example: Susan B. Anthony was an early FEMINIST. (noun) / It was SHE who led the woman's suffrage movement to victory. (pronoun)
direct object
noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb; tells who or what receives the action; example: Bobby loved his PARENTS.
Abstract Noun
nouns that name qualities rather than material things.
sentence fragment
occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause., a sentence missing a subject or verb or complete thought, when one or more of the three parts of a complete sentence is missing.
Capitalize The First Word
of direct questions and quotations placed within a sentence even if quotation marks
Capitalize The First Word
of every sentence fragment treated as a complete sentence.
Capitalize The First Word
of items shown in a list (using numbers, letters, or display dots) when a complete
main clause
past/imperfect subjunctive, perfect subjunctive
logical order
pattern of organization used for an expository essay
chronological
pattern used for a narrative essay
compare/contrast
pattern used for an essay about the beliefs of one program versus the beliefs of another
present / present participle
play / (is, are, am) playing --> adding -ing used with form be
past / past participle
played / (have, has, had) played --> adding -ed or -d with form have
Demonstrative pronoun
points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea Ex. THAT car is the one I want. This, that, these, those,
demonstrative pronoun
points out particular person, place, or things
indefinite pronoun
points out person, places, or things, but less clearly;
three degrees of adjectives
positive, comparative, superlative
Sometimes the complete ____ and simple ___ are the same; example: Everyone SMILES.
predicate
Use a ____ and a subject in every sentence.
predicate
adjective phrase
prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun; examples: The killer whale is a species of PORPOISE. (tells what kind of species) or That whale WITH THE UNUSUAL MARKINGS is our favorite. (tells which whale)
adverb phrase
prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb; examples: The porpoises performed WITH EASE. (tells how) or Shows begin ON THE HOUR. (tells when)
infinitive
present tense of a verb preceded by the word TO; it may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; example: TO EXERCISE is a healthful habit.
interrogative pronoun
pronoun that asks a question; examples: who, whom, whose, what, which
intensive
pronoun that emphasizes a noun or another pronoun and is not needed for the meaning of the sentence. ends in -self or -selves.
reflexive pronoun
pronoun that ends in -self or -selves
interrogative
pronoun that introduces a question
relative
pronoun that introduces a subordinate clause
indefinite
pronoun that may or may not be already named
personal
pronoun that names the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about,
reflexive
pronoun that refers to, or reflects on, the subject of the sentence and ends in -self or -selves. necessary to the meaning of the sentence
possessive
pronoun that shows ownership
object pronouns (definition)
pronouns used for objects
subject pronouns (definition)
pronouns used for subjects
Nonstandard (American English)
pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar that differs from what is in dictionaries and prescriptive handbooks
nonfiction
prose writing that deals with real people, events, and places without changing any facts
Grammar Rules
rules about correct spoken or written language
complex
s-lv
command
sentence that does not need a subject because the subject is understood to be you - the person being commanded
declarative
sentence that makes a statement; uses a period; example: Janelle is painting a picture of an imaginary place.
direct object
sentence with an indirect object has a...
Appositive
set off by commas classifies the noun, "Tonie" Ex: Tonie, a Greek girl, is looking for a Greek man to marry.
demonstrative adjective
tells which one; examples: this, that, these, and those
Simple Subjects
tells who or what is doing the verb., The simple subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun that names the person, place, or thing the sentence is about:
past perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb HAD
present perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb HAVE and HAS
future perfect
tense with the past participle and helping verb WILL HAVE
function
the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group, the special purpose something is used for, The kind of action or activity proper to a person, thing, or institution; the purpose for which something is designed or exists; role.
definite article
the adjective "the"
indefinite article
the adjectives "a" or "an"
Sentence patterns
the arrangement of independent and dependent clauses into known sentence constructions-such as simple,compound.complex,or compound-complex, s-v, s-v-o, s-lv- adjective complement, s-lv - subject complement
gender
the classification of English nouns and pronouns as masculine, feminine, or neuter based on the sex of the person or thing referred to or on the conventional alignment of sex to inanimate objects
lexicon
the complete stock of words known by any speaker
internal logic
the cultural beliefs that give a context to a behavior, custom, or artifact, What happens in the story makes sense in the story, the rules which will govern the film in question-- usually established at the beginning of the movie
Standard Written English
the edited variety of language appropriate for use in writing; also known as Standard Edited English
parts of speech
the eight kinds of words in English
plural verb
the expression "a number" is followed by a ____.
Do Not Capitalize
the first word of a sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence unless
Do Not Capitalize
the first word of an independent clause after a colon if the clause explains, illustrates
theme
the idea about life revealed in a work of literature
interlanguage
the language form produced by speakers acquiring a second language that combines linguistic features from both their native and their new languages
3rd person limited
the narrator zooms in on the thoughts and feelings of just one character in the story
object of the preposition
the noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase
indirect object
the noun or pronoun that receives the direct object
Antecedents:
the person or thing that defines the pronoun in a sentence e.g.: Joe worked in the post office and he enjoyed it. (Joe is the antecedent.)
Prepositional Phrase
the preposition, its object, and its modifiers
characterization
the process of revealing the personality of a character in a story
rhyme
the repetition of accented vowel sounds and all sounds following them in words close together in a poem
alliteration
the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words
function
the role a word or phrase plays in a sentence
pragmatics
the rules for social language
infinitive
"to" followed by the base form of a verb
Parts of Speech
(Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection)
USE AN APOSTROPHE
- to create possessive forms of certain words
Intensive Pronouns
-self or -selves pronouns that are used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun Ex: I myself agree with that idea.
Reflexive Pronouns
-self or -selves pronouns that reflect back to a word used previously in the sentence Ex: I am almost mad myself.
When to use a comma
1. In a series 2. With a long introductory phrase (not a short phrase, unless it includes a verb form being used as another form of speech: "When eating, Mary..." or "Having decided to leave, James...") 3. To separate sentences with two main ideas 4. To separate an introductory subordinate clause: "Whenever I can, I try to..." 5. To slow the flow of the sentence: appositives, interjections, direct address, tag questions, geographical names and addresses, transitional words and phrases, parenthetical words and phrases, unusual word order) 6. With nonrestrictive elements 7. To set off direct quotations or contrasting elements. 8. In dates
Steps to find out what the prepositional phrase modifies
1. Locate the preposition 2. Look at the word to the immediate left. 3. What does the prepositional phrase tell about (modify) that word? 4. What question does it answer? ADJ-Noun/ADV-Verb 5. Is it modifying a noun or a verb? 6. If the prepositional phrase does not tell about the word to its left, then look at the verb. **It is always possible to insert the preposition "to" or "for" before the IO without changing the sense of the sentence.
evaluating theories
1. Parsimony: As simple as possible.
Introductory clause
A dependent clause that introduces an independent clause., main clause + subordinating conjunction
Clause
A group of related words containing a subject and a verb
Independent clause
A group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate that can stand alone., has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought
Dependent or subordinate clause
A group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but they cannot stand alone It depends on some more information that is not expressed
When to use the articles: A and An
A is used with: a singular noun beginning with a consonant Ex: a car
Noun
A noun is a person, place, thing or idea. Ex. house, bone, grass
Nouns and pronouns
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like "he", "which", "none", and "you" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
Direct Address
A noun which interrupts like an interjection because it names the person being talked to: It can be mild or extreme and will be punctuated accordingly Ex. Chris, do your homework Chris! Do your homework!
Noun
A person, place, thing, or idea Answers the questions "what" and "who"
Noun
A person, place, thing, or idea.
Apostrophe
A punctuation mark used to show possession and contractions Ex. life's pleasures, life's good
Use a Question Mark
A question mark is placed inside the closing quotation mark only when it applies to the
Declarative Sentence
A sentence stating a fact or argument without requiring response. It makes a statement and ends in a period.
Declarative
A sentence that ends with a period.
Interrogative
A sentence that ends with a question mark.
-ly word
A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.
Adjective clause
A subordinate clause that functions as an adjective
Expletive
A swear word OR a word considered as regularly filling the syntactic position of another., a word or phrase conveying no independent meaning but added to fill out a sentence or metrical line
Collective
A type of noun that describes a group of nouns as a singular unit. Ex. gaggle of geese, murder of crows
Common
A type of noun that is not specific; not a name. Ex. dog, dogs, people
Proper
A type of noun that is specific; a name. Must be capitalized. Ex. Charlie, Chicago, California
Action Verb
A verb that expresses either physical or mental activity.
Gerund
A verb that has been made into a noun by adding-ing Ex: I love working out as long as I have my music with me.
Transitive verb
A verb that requires an object to be grammatical.
Grammar
A way of thinking about language and the architecture of the human mind.
Intensifier
A word (especially an adverb) that indicates and usually increases the degree of emphasis or force to be given to the element it modifies., a class of words, generally adverbs, used to modify gradable adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or -ed participles, e.g. very, completely, quite.
Verb
A word expresses action or a state of being.
Nonrestrictive elements
A word or group of words that are not vital to the meaning of the sentence. These are set off by commas: My sister, THE GIRL WHO WROTE THE STORY, has always loved to write.
Pronoun
A word that can replace a noun. Ex. I, you, who, one, any, myself...
Adverb
A word that limits or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Ex. Herman walks QUICKLY. Jane colors VERY WELL. Billy out the cat OUTSIDE EARLIER. (OUTSIDE modifies "put" with regard to location; EARLIER modifies "put" with regard to when it happened)
Conjunction
A word that may connect words, phrases, and clauses.
Adjective
A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun Can be used as a subject complement Answers the questions "which one," "what kind," and "how many" The presence of an adjective implies the presence of a noun or pronoun Ex: The red car
Adverb
A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Collective Noun
A word that names a group. Is a noun that is singular in form but refers to a group of people or things. E.g. Tables, chairs, cupboards etc. are grouped under the collective noun furniture. Could be a Groups of people - army, audience, band, or a Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump., noun that represents a group of persons animals or things family flock furniture ect, names a group of people, places, or things.
Preposition
A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word.
Pronoun
A word used in place of a noun.
Pronoun
A word used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns.
Conjunction
A word used to join words or groups of words.
Adjective
A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.
Verb
A word which expresses action or state of being.
subordinating conjuction
AFTER, IF, SINCE, UNTIL, WHETHER, or WHEN connects the two clauses into one sentence; example: The senators left the capitol AFTER THE SESSION WAS ADJOURNED.
verb transitive
ALWAYS an action verb; is typically followed by a direct object
Accept v. Except
Accept= verb meaning to receive or to agree. Ex: He accepted their praise.
Action Verb
Action verbs show action Ex. He smells
Adverbs
Actively Aggressively Anxiously Ardently Articulately Assertively Avidly Boldly Competitively Compulsively Creatively Decisively Eagerly Energetically Enterprisingly Enthusiastically Expeditiously Exuberantly Feverishly Fiercely Forcefully Frantically Impulsively Incisively Interactively Intensely Powerfully Promptly Prosperously Provocatively Quickly Relentlessly Restlessly Spiritedly Spontaneously Swiftly Tenaciously Vigorously Vigilant
Use an apostrophe to create possessive forms of nouns and abbreviations used as nouns.
Add 's to singular or plural nouns that do not end with an s. Add 's to singular nouns that end with an s.
Three types of dependent clauses
Adjective clause Noun clause Adverbial clause
Use a Question Mark
After an independent question within a larger sentence.
introductory clause
After the team won the championship, they celebrated at Pizza Hut.
Use a comma
Before for used as a conjunction.
Common Modal Verbs:
Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Ought to, Shall, Should, Will, Would
Subordinate/Dependent Clause
Cannot stand alone as a sentence (fragment) not a complete thought Ex: Ireland is my favorite country, a place where I would love to live one day.
Independent clause
Clause that contains both a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
CLICHÉS
Clichés are expressions that have lost their impact because they have been overused. Strive for originality in your choice of words and phrases.
may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence
Collective nouns such as team and staff
have to
Commonly substitutes for must. It is a stronger expression of necessity.
The -tion Family
Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection
Conjunctions
Conjunctions join the words together,
conjunctions
Connect words, phrases, sentences, ideas
3 types of sentences
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative
Intransitive Verb
Expresses action (or tells something about the subject) without the action passing to a receiver.
Transitive Verb
Expresses action directed toward a person place thing or idea.
Sentence Types: Complex
If the sentence has an independent clause and a dependent clause, it is complex.
To or For
If the words to or for actually appear before the noun, that noun cannot be an indirect object. In this case the noun is the object of the preposition. "I mailed to you a copy of the letter.", acknowledge, What 2 prepositions (in English) go before the noun in an indirect object?
plural verb.
If two nouns are joined by and, they typically take a
Parsing a Noun
Part of speech,
Decision briefing
Purpose is to produce an answer to a question or obtain a decision on a specific problem.
Colon
Signals the reader that a list, explanation, or restatement of the preceding will follow. It is like an arrow, indicating that something more is to come. Information preceding this mark should be a complete sentence.
4 sentence structures
Simple Compound Complex Complex-compound
Noun Number
Singular or Plural
Article
Small set of words used with nouns to limit or give definiteness to the
might
Sometimes functions as simple past tense of may. <He said he might
could
Sometimes the past tense of can. <We could see the Big Dipper
if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So,
Ignore them
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. ____ what to these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb?
Subject Pronoun
Subject pronouns show the subject of a sentence Ex. I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Prepositional phrase
The preposition and its object form a _____________. Ex. Bill drew a circle AROUND THE SUBJECT. (AROUND is the preposition, SUBJECT is the object of the preposition)
preposition
The preposition stands before
Are singular and require singular verbs
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are ___ and require ___ __-. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Stem
The root or main part of a word to which inflections or formative elements are added
nonrestrictive phrase
The students, trying to pass the test, studied long into the night.
Diction
The style of speaking or writing as dependent upon choice of words., the articulation of speech regarded from the point of view of its intelligibility to the audience, clearness of speech
Use a period
To end an indirect question or a question intended as a suggestion or otherwise not
Use a comma
To prevent confusion or misreading.
USE A COLON
To separate an introductory statement from explanatory or summarizing material that follows when there is no coordinating conjunction or transitional expression. (Capitalize the first word of the expression that follows the colon if it is the dominant element and is a complete sentence. For additional details, see the "Capitalization" section.) Living in base housing has many advantages: People can walk to work, shopping is convenient, and there are organized activities for the children. The board consists of three officials: a director, an executive director, and a recording secretary.
Use a Semicolon
To separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but,
Use a Semicolon
To separate items in a series that contain commas (when confusion would otherwise
Use a comma
To separate repeated words.
Use an em Dash (—)
To set off a nonessential element when the nonessential element contains internal
Use a Comma
To set off explanatory dates, addresses and place names; use a what? The change of command, 1 October 1996, was the turning point.
Use a comma
To set off names and titles used in direct address.
Use parenthesis
To set off nonessential elements when commas would be inappropriate or confusing and
Use a comma
To set off statements such as he said, she replied, they answered, and she announced.
require a singular verb
Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor
require a singular verb
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor
after
Two spaces ___ the em dash at the end of a sentence that breaks off abruptly (rule 10)—
Then
Use ____ to answer the question when.
Than
Use ____ to show comparison.
Verb
Verbs show action and state of being Ex. run, running, am,
Use a hyphen
When dividing a word at the end of a line. When in doubt about the proper place to divide
refers to people
Who
Use an em Dash (—)
With quotation marks. Place the dash outside the closing quotation mark when the
USE A COMMA
With the coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, or nor when joining two or more
Use a comma
With titles following personal names. (Jr. and Sr. are set off by commas; 2d, 3d, II,
Noun; singular verb, plural verb
With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the ___ in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the preposition is singular, use a ___. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a ___.
Interjection
Word used to express emotion.
Appositive
Word, phrase or clause preceding or renaming a noun.
Interjections
Words inserted to show emotion: Wow!, Ouch! Hey!
Modifier
Words or groups of words that limit or describe other words.
modifiers
Words that describe a noun that can include adjectives, verbs and nouns themselves, adjectives and adverbs are also known as
Interjection
Words used to express emotion or surprise (ah, alas, great, hooray, help,
would
Would still indicates
interjection
Wow, that was amazing.
End a sentence with a preposition
You may ___ a sentence with a preposition.
external conflict
a character struggles against some outside force. This outside force may be another character or society as a whole.
grammatical feature
a characteristic of a subclass of words that determines how it may be used
mass noun
a common noun that cannot be easily separated into countable units; examples: water, sand, gold, cement, air
logical consistency
a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretical statements, a measure of how well data features represent real-world features, in particular with respect to topology, Theories should make sense, be clear, and not contradict.
Determiners: Quantifier:
a determiner that expresses a number or amount - functions as a modifier of a noun or pronoun. Examples: All (All are welcome; All these people) Five, Many, Some
Determiners: Demonstrative:
a determiner used to indicate spatial, temporal, or discourse location. It functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun. Examples: These Those, This, That
regional dialects
a form of speech associated with a geographic area or region
social dialects
a form of speech used by a group within a society characterized especially by the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and/or gender of the speakers
adjective
a form-class word (describe or modify another person or thing in a sentence)
adverb
a form-class word (modifies any part of language other than a noun)
verb
a form-class word having an {-s} affix in the third person singular and an {-ing} affix in the present participle form
sentence
a group of words that express a complete thought; must have a subject and predicate
count noun
a noun that can be preceded by a number
appositive
a noun that identifies or explains the noun or pronoun it follows; usually set off by commas; example: Robert Miller, the JUDGE, sentenced the criminal to prison.
antecedent
a preceding occurrence or cause or event, the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers., The word or phrase to which a pronoun refers
grammar
a way of thinking about language
modifier
a word or phrase whose function is to give grammatical or lexical information about another word in the sentence
common prepositions
about, behind, above, across, as, after, between, beyond, beside, despite, during, for, inside, in, near, off, outside, onto, opposite, around, against, along, at, before, below, beneath, but, by, down, except, from, into, like, out, over, of, opposite, past, toward, under, upon within, since, through, until, underneath, with
Conjunctive adverbs
accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, still, therefore...
transitive verb
action verb followed by a noun or pronoun that receives the action; example: I KNOW the story.
types of verbs
action, linking, helping, phrases
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is a proper noun or the pronoun I.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is each line in a poem. (Always follow the style of the poem, however).
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is expression after the colon is a complete sentence that is the dominant or more
A linking verb
agrees with its subject, not with its complement.
in
already inside
Subject pronouns
are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.
When this, that, these, and those
are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.
Appositive phrases:
are offset with commas, further describe nouns eg: Mr. Dobbs, our teacher, is here. That car, a brand new Toyota, is what I want.
These and those
are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there."
This and that
are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. This points to something nearby while that points to something "over there."
dependent clauses
are used as nouns or modifiers, are incomplete sentences and cannot stand alone grammatically; they are sometimes called subordinate clauses; those that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs are known, respectively, as adjective, noun, and adverbial clauses, clause the known as a fragment sentence when alone, contains a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. (subordinate clause)....starts with words such as: although, before, because, so that, when, while, so, that
common linking verbs
be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become, am, are, is, was, were, am being, can be, have been
Use a
before consonant sounds
Use an
before vowel sounds
Noun clause as Predicate Nominative
begins with "what" follows "is" (linking verb) Ex: Running on pavement is what my doctors told me not to do.
TO CONTRAST IDEAS
but
collective noun
common noun that names a group with more than one member; examples: jury, brigade, staff
types of adjectives
common, proper, compound, articles, indefinite articles
types of nouns
common, proper, compound, collective
a, the, an
commonly used articles
expressive language
communication through speaking, writing, and/or gestures, that is, selecting words, formulating them into ideas, and producing them through speaking, writing, or gesturing (encoding or the process of expressive language). Expressive language involves word retrieval, rules of grammar (syntax), word and sentence structure (morphology), and word meaning (semantics).
compound subject
consists of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by one of these conjunctions: and, but, or, for or nor. Some compound subjects are plural; others are not.
participial phrase
contains a participle and acts as an adjective; examples: They arrested the man DRIVING THE CAR.
subordinate clause
contains a subject and a predicate, but does not express a complete thought, and cannot stand alone; often begins with a subordinating conjunction, such as AFTER, ALTHOUGH, BECAUSE, BEFORE, IF, SINCE, WHEN, or WHILE; example: People became more sensitive to pollution problems AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.
dependent clause
contains a subject and a predicate, but doesn't express a complete thought or stand alone; example: AFTER THEY LEARNED ABOUT TOXIC WASTE.
Complex Sentence
contains one main clause and at least one
verb phrase
contains the main verb and helping verbs
form
denotes the part of speech of a word or the makeup of a grammatical structure
Adjective clause
dependent clause used as an adjective *begins with relative pronouns or where or when
correlative conjunctions
either and or, neither and nor, not only and but also
semantic feature
elements of meaning (like human/non-human, animate/non-animate) that affect how words can be combined
verb phrase
helping verb + main verb
whoever
him + he =
whomever
him + him =
indirect object
is a noun or a pronoun that follows an action verb; example: The vet sent ME a reminder to bring my dogs in for their shots.
Among
is used for three or more.
preposition
links a noun or pronoun to the rest of a sentence
article
most commonly used adjectives
Noun
names a person, place,thing, or idea.
Nonun clause as Indirect Object
noun clause "whatever" "whatever I want" = noun + verb Ex: I'd like to order whatever I want tonight.
Nominative or Objective Case of the Noun
noun in apposition.
sentence constructions
parallelism
spatial
pattern used for an essay about the structure of a cell
common noun
person, place, thing, feeling, idea
Subject-Adjective-Verb
s-ly-v; Subject-Adjective-Verb;she also needs, S strongly recommend, linking verbs link the subject with a word that compliments th subject, if the word is a noun it is called a predicate noun (if adjective, a predicate adjective)
compound sentence / s-v-c-s-v
s-v-con-s-v; a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions
Subject-Verb-Object /s-v-o
s-v-o; subject does the action, verb transfers it to object, and object receives it, E.g. I like rice., in this type of sentence the subject does the action to someone or something, which is the direct object,Verb will be a transitive verb in the active voice. I bought a coat. She invited him.
exclamatory
sentence expresses strong feeling; uses an ! point; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene!
imperative
sentence gives a command; uses a period; example: Think about all the uses for artwork.
interrogative
sentence that asks a questions; uses a ? mark; example: Who could ever create a more imaginative scene?
possessive pronoun
shows ownership or possession of something; example: Jerome is learning about HIS ancestors.
substantiated
supported or established by evidence or proof, verified, to give substance or form to; proved true with evidence, verified, , Backed up
hypothetical situation
supposed for the sake of argument, an example., tells what would happen if something else were to happen first, uses past subjunctive: if clause (si + past subjunctive) result clause (conditional) What if....
Do not capitalize
systems of government or individual adherents to a philosophy; compass directions or seasons
Determiners, Determiner
term for an element preceding a noun in a noun phrase. EXAMPLE: the, that, two, a, many, all, etc.
Communicative Competence
the ability to use a language appropriately for a variety of social and cultural circumstances
Textual Competence
the ability to use language for a variety of purposes, such as stories, conversations, and letters
Passive Voice
the action is performed by an unknown agent. Ex. The papers were carried to the desk.
decision making
the cognitive process of reaching a decision, evaluating alternatives and making choices among them, The process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats by analyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.
formal style
the language used in public speech, such as lectures, sermons, writing, and political addresses
resolution
the last part of a story when the character's problems are solved and the story ends
climax
the most emotional or suspenseful moment in the story
main verb
the most important verb in a phrase
noun
the name of a person, place or thing
Parse
to describe a word by stating its part of speech, form, and syntactical relationship in a sentence. To examine closely or subject to detailed analysis, especially by breaking up into components., analyze syntactically by assigning a constituent structure to (a sentence), to separate (a sentence) into parts and describe the funciton of each
Use a comma
to separate three or more parallel words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
different from
to tell about differences
Infinitive phrase
to+verb used as an adjective, adverb, or noun
organization
trait concerned with the order in which you present your ideas
voice
trait concerned with the personality of the writer
word choice
trait concerned with using specific nouns and vivid verbs
compound subject
two or more simple subjects with the same predicate; example: JON congratulated the actress. STACY congratulated the actress. --> JON and STACY congratulated the actress.
compound subject
two or more subjects doing the same predicate
run-on sentence
two sentences improperly combined into one sentence
A pronoun as a predicated noun
use verb to-be ("is") can be reversed "The person who prank called us is she." uses subjunctive case ("she") Ex: She is the person who pranked called us.
When referring to health
use well rather than good.
subject pronoun
used as a subject or part of a the subject in a sentence; WE are ready to go.
Participle
used as an adjective and acts as a modifier in present (-ing),
participle
used as an adjective; it is a form of a verb used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun; example: The RUNNING water was moving dangerously fast.
Interrogative Pronoun
used to ask a question Who, whom, which, what, whose
Future Tense
verb tense that shows an action that will or will not happen in the futrure. Ex. Will hear, Won't play, Will runn
Past Prgressive Tense
verb tense that shows past action that took place over a period of time. Ex. Was hearing, Were playing, Was running
Present Perfect Progressive Tense
verb tense to describe an action that began in the pas, continues to the present and may continue into the future. Ex. Has been hearing, Have been playing, Has been running
Future Perfect Tense
verb tense to express an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future. Ex. Will have heard, Will have played, Will have run.
intransitive
verb that does not transfer the action of the subject to a word in the predicate
participle
verb that functions as an adjective; example: A RUNNING horse galloped down the road.
Verbs
words that show an action or state of being.
qualifier
aka - intensifier, a structure-class word
noncount noun
aka - mass noun, a noun that ordinarily can not be preceded by a number or the determiner a/an
Case
Forms that nouns and pronouns take when they fit into different
Nouns of Multitude
another name for Collective Nouns
must
Expresses necessity or obligation. It is somewhat stronger than should.
the natural order hypothesis
1. second language learners produce single words 2. they strong words together based on meaning and not syntax 3. they begin to identify elements that begin and end sentences 4. they begin to identify different elements within sentences and can rearrange them to produce questions
nominative, objective, and possessive.
3 Types of Cases of the noun
numbers
65,000,390
How many basic parts of speech are there?
8
Preposition
A preposition states position, time, and relationship Ex. above, before, of
initials
Bush, George W., was the President of the United States.
PERFORMING
By this stage, the team has settled its relationships and expectations. They can begin performing—diagnosing and solving problems, and choosing and implementing changes. At last team members have discovered and accepted each other's strengths and weaknesses, and learned what their roles are. The team is now an effective, cohesive unit. You
Conjunction
Conjunctions join together clauses, words, sentences, phrases Ex. after, although, as, because, before, even though, rather than, if
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that behave like conjunctions but are punctuated differently Ex. however, therefore
Conjunction
Connects individual words or groups of words.
adverbs
Describe, limit or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
adjectives
Describe, modify, or limit nouns
adjective complement
Describes direct object, describing what it has become or been called.
Adjective
Describes or limits a noun or pronoun.
Adjective
Describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. i.e. a, an, the
8 types of adjectives
Descriptive Limiting Possessive Demonstrative Interrogative Articles Numerical Comparative and Superlative
Intransitive verbs
Do not require an object: The chorus WAS SINGING as they entered the building.
NORMING
During this stage, members reconcile competing loyalties and responsibilities. They accept the team, team ground rules (or "norms"), their roles in the team, and the individuality of fellow members. Emotional conflict is reduced as previously competitive relationships become more cooperative. As team members begin to work out their differences, they now have more time and energy to spend on the project. Thus, they are able to at last start making significant strides.
correlative conjunction
EITHER/OR, NEITHER/NOR, BOTH/AND join pairs of ideas
Ask who or what before the verb
Finding Subjects
Analyze Purpose and Audience
Focus and understand your audience knowledge
FOCUS Principles
Focused - Address the issue, the whole issue, and
Appositive
Follows a noun to add more detail.
interruptions
He looked, well, a little dazed.
Helping Verb
Helps the main verb express action or a state of being.
Contrasting elements
Her intelligence, NOT HER BEAUTY, got her the job. Your plan will take you a little further from, RATHER THAN CLOSER TO, your destination. It was a reasonable, THOUGH NOT APPEALING, idea.
Conjugation of Verb: to be
I am You are He is She is it is We are You are They are One is
series
I like chicken, beef, and bacon.
join 2 independent clauses
I ran up the hill, but he fell down it.
common pronouns
I, me, mine, my, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, she, him, her, his, it, them, them, their, theirs, its
subject pronouns (list)
I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
like
In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than ____ as the conjunction.
Use an Exclamation mark
In parentheses within a sentence to emphasize a particular word.
Use an em Dash (—)
In place of a colon for a strong, but less formal, break in introducing explanatory words,
a preposition
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "at"? Class starts at 8:00.
Preposition
Links a noun, pronoun, or gerund to other words (direction, time, place, etc.)
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs behave very differently from normal verbs. A good way to remember them: You use "not" to make modal verbs negative. EXAMPLE: He should not be late.
Adjective
Modifies a noun; a describing word.
nouns
Name people, places, things, ideas.
Collective Nouns
Names a group Ex: flock
Nouns
Names a person, place, thing, action or abstract idea. <woman, office,
Descriptive adjective
Names a quality of an object: BLUE notebook
Common Nouns
Names generic persons, places, things, or ideas Are not capitalized Ex: pen
need
Not originally a modal auxiliary, need is now used to mean have to.
8 Parts of speech
Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb Conjunction Preposition Interjection
Numerical adjectives
ONE ticket, SECOND half of the game
Verbals
Past and present participle forms of the verbs that act as nouns or
8 Types of Pronouns
Personal Relative Interrogative Demonstrative Indefinite Reciprocal Intensive Reflexive
modifier
Place a ___ as close to the word it describes; example: (incorrect: The man looks like a spy WITH THE HAT. / correct: The man WITH THE HAT looks like a spy.)
near the words they modify.
Place modifiers
The Adjective Degrees
Positive- not modified Ex: hot, good, fun Comparative- used to compare two or more nouns and/or pronouns Uses either "-er" or "more", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, better, more fun Superlative- expresses the highest or a very high degree of the quality of what is being described Uses either "-est" or "most", BUT NEVER BOTH!! Ex: hot, best, most fun
Possessive Pronouns
Pronouns that attribute ownership. i.e. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
Conduct Research
Remember: information must be objective
shall
Shall expresses futurity in the first person;
verbs
Show action
interjections
Show emotion, mild or strong
STORMING
Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. You may ask yourself, "What was I thinking?" The team members begin to realize the task is different and more
Pronouns
Substitutes for a noun.
demonstrative
THAT book is the best book I have ever read!
Preposition
The PREPOSITION shows relation,
nonrestrictive clauses
The gym, which was made in 2002, is now the center of the athletic complex.
Participial phrase (adjective)
The horse WINNING THE RACE belongs to me. (_____ used as _____)
addresses
The house was located on 342 Ameswood St., Kaneohe, Hawaii 96796.
interjection
The interjection shows surprise,
identify the subject of a sentence, determine whether it's singular or plural, and then choose a verb in the same number and keep it near its subject.
The key to avoiding most problems in subject-verb agreement is to
Present Perfect
They have walked. Consists of a past participle with "has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present.
Simple Present
They walk. Occasionally used to talk about scheduled events in the near future, i.e. the train leaves tonight at 6.
Simple Past
They walked. Used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Controlling topic
The point the writer makes about the topic., what the author wants you to know or understand about the topic, clarifies the author's focus
Future Perfect
They will have walked. Designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.
Active Voice
The subject performs the action denoted by the verb. i.e. the cat eats the fish.
apostrophes
The superscript sign ( ' ) used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, and abbreviations.
Prepositional phrase (adverb)
The team ran ACROSS THE FIELD. (_____used as _____)
Predicate
The verb that expresses the action being performed by the subject; what the noun in the sentence modifies.
Use a hyphen
Use a hyphen when two or more proper names are combined to form a one-thought
Use a hyphen
Use a hyphen with words and phrases that are combined to form a unit modifier
Use a Question Mark
Use a question mark before a closing parenthesis only when it applies solely to the
Use a comma
Use a what, After introductory words such as yes, no, or oh?
Fragments Caused by Verbals
Verbals are verb forms that act as other parts of speech. They can easily trick a writer into mistaking a phrase for a sentence b/c they like verbs, but do not act as verbs. Rember: An-ing word by itself can never act as the verb of a sentence. To qualify as a verb, it must have an auxiliary word such as have, is, or were. An infinitive, such as to run, to go, and so on can never act as the verb of a sentence. Fragment: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office. That was one possible response. Correct: To send the ringleaders to the principal's office was one possible response.
singular verbs
When either and neither are subjects, they always take ?
mythology
a story that explains something about the world and typically involves gods or other super human beings
subjunctive
a mood that represent an act or state (not as a fact but) as contingent or possible, uses different form of the past and present to express matters of urgency, formality, possibility, or speculation, ie. "If I WERE...", setting up a hypothetical situation
the 3 articles
a, an, the
common articles
a, and, the
Linking Verb
acts as an equal sign connecting the subject and the
interjection
added to a sentence to convey emotion
expanded
adding details to sentences to make them more clear and more interesting
positive adjective
adjective used when no comparison being made; example: This is a HOT day.
articles
adjectives 'a,' 'an,' and 'the'
Comparative Adjective
adjectives used to compare two things. Usually using the suffix -er and the word 'than'. i.e. faster than or slower than
parts of speech
adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs
comparative adverb
adverbs such as lower, nearer, more slowly; faster, more seriously
simple predicate
is the main word or words in a predicate; example: Everyone in my house IS KEEPING a secret.
forms of be:
be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being
summery
belonging to or characteristic of or occurring in summer
simple subject
is the main word or words in a subject; example: My two older BROTHERS stared at me silently.
clincher
concluding sentence; restates the paragraphs main idea. It may also summarize the paragraph's main points, reveal and insight the writer has gained or suggest a course of action., a point or fact or remark that settles something conclusively, Wrap Up Entire Paragraph
subordinating conjunction
connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however
conjunction
connects words or word groups
simile
comparison of two unlike objects using like or as
Independent clause
can stand alone without the rest of the sentence has subject and predicate Ex: Pudding face jumped for job, as Tonie and Megan wlaked through the doorway.
Determiners: Article:
class of determiners that identify a noun's status. (The, A, An)
independent, main
clause can stand alone as a complete sentence
dependent, subordinate
clause has a subject and predicate, but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
adjective
clause modifies a noun or pronoun
adverb
clause modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb
compound sentence
combines two or more simple sentences; can be joined by a comma and connecting words such as AND, OR, or BUT...or by a semi-colon; example: A crater can be formed by a bomb, or it can be formed by meteorite.
examine
consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning, question closely, put to the test, as for its quality, or give experimental use to, Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue, Consider in detail and subject to an analysis in order to discover essential features or meaning.
gerund phrase
consist of a gerund and related words; example: SWIMMING IN THE LAKE is a good exercise.
complex sentence
consist of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
Compound Sentence
contains two or more main clauses and no
Indefinite Article
is the most commonly used adjective and is used before a noun that names a nonspecific person,place, thing, or idea.
nonrestrictive clause
is descriptive or explanatory and can be omitted without changing the essential meaning; example: My father, WHO WAS COACHING THE BASEBALL TEAM, met us at the ballpark.
Definite Article
is the most commonly used adjective and points to a specific person, place,thing, or idea.
four kinds of sentences
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory
Common Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of either maile or female sex.
Feminine Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of the female sex., includes most words that refer to females. Examples: actress, she, miss
Masculine Gender Nouns
denotes nouns of the male sex., All nouns naming individual male persons., Refers to persons or animals that are male. (He, him, his)
Noun clauses
dependent clause used as a noun *begins with relative pronouns or when, where, whether, why, how
Adverb clause
dependent clause used as an adverb *begins with a subordinating conjunction
direct object
follows a transitive verb (active verb); can be nouns, pronouns; a simple formula is subject + verb+ who? what = direct object
two-word stage
follows the holophrastic stage
intermediate development stage
follows the telegraphic stage
Use a singular verb
for a compound subject that is preceded by each or every.
subordinating conjunctions
if, as, since, when, because
TO SHOW TIME
immediately
concrete
noun that can be perceived by any one of the senses
abstract
noun that names a feeling, quality, or idea
proper
noun that names a specific person place or thing that begins with a capital letter
possessive noun
noun that shows ownership or possession
common
noun used often and is usually not capitalized
advice
noun, counsel given, an opinion
Proper Noun
nouns that are capitalized and name specific persons,
Collective Noun
nouns that are singular in form but plural in meaning;
Concrete Noun
nouns that can be seen or touched. <table, book>
To compare two things
we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women."
To compare more than two things
we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all."
to describe one thing
we would say poor, as in, "She is poor."
independent and dependent clauses
what are the two types of clauses???
adjective questions
what kind, which one, how much, how many
Infinitive phrase
A clause containing an infinitive as its main or only verb form., phrase that includes the infinitive, it's objects, and the objects modifiers, consists of an infinitive and its related words, such as modifiers and complements
Dependent clause
A group of words with a subject and a verb, but one that cannot stand alone as a sentence., a clause in a complex sentence that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and that functions within the sentence as a noun or adjective or adverb, A fragment
Verb Phrase
A main verb and at least one helping verb.
Noun
A word or word group that is used to name a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Verb
A word that expresses action, state, or a relation between two things. Function as the main elements of sentences.
Article
A word that is linked to a noun and identifies it as such.
Conjunctive adverb
An adverb that indicates the relationship in meaning between two independent clauses., A type of adverb that creates logical connections between independent clauses which is introduced by a semi colon; and followed by a comma ,. List of them include: Therefore, However, Instead, Rather, Meanwhile, Consequently. Ie... xxxxx; meanwhile, he narrated a film.
Linking Verb
Connects the subject to a word or word group.
Conjunction
Connects words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (FANBOYS).
Compound subject
Consists of two or more subjects joined by a conjunction and having the same verb., two or more subjects joined together usually by "and" or "or" that share a common verb, consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a coordinating or correlative conjunction and that have the same predicate/verb
Main Verb
Expresses the action or state of being.
Abstract Noun
Names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic. you cannot sense, it is the name we give to an emotion, ideal or idea. They have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste them. The opposite of this type of noun is a concrete noun. E.g. adoration, dexterity, sadness, wit.
Concrete Noun
Names of an object that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. names things that we experience through our senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste. Most nouns are are these types of nouns. E.g. Cats, dogs, tables, chairs, buses, and teachers are all concrete nouns. The opposite of this type of noun is an abstract noun.
Demonstrative Pronoun
Points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea (this, that, these, & those).
Articles
The most frequently used adjectives (a, an, & the).
Proper Noun
The name of a particular person, place, thing or idea. Proper nouns are always capitalized, e.g. the Civil War, Monday, or Potter.
Antecedent
The word that a pronoun stands for.
Object
Words that receive the action of transitive verbs.
Noun
a word which names a person, place, object, idea, or quality., a word that can serve as the subject or object of a verb
Possessive Case of the Noun
adjective.
Compund Subjects
consist of two or more words joined by a coordinating conjunction or correlative conjunction., usually plural.
Neuter Gender Nouns
denotes nouns with no sex., refers to things, places, ideas, or qualities that are neither male nor female
Compound Nouns
made up of two or more words. Some are written as seperate words, some are hyphenated, and some are written as one word., consists of two or more words used together as a single noun that can be separate words, one word, or a hyphenated word.
Gender of Nouns
masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common
Number of Collective Nouns
singular in the number if the group is considered a single unit.
Nouns and Pronouns
words that name., A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Functions as a subject, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, adjectiveds or an adverbs. Ex: Late last year our NEIGHBORS bought a GOAT. A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. Use pronouns like "he", "which", "none", and "you" to make sentneces less cumbersome and less reptitive. Ex: YOU are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
noun
form class word (person, place, or thing)
end rhyme
rhymes at the end of a line
internal rhyme
rhymes within lines
Active verb
Expresses action done by its subject: Jane FELT the prickly bush.
a noun
In this sentence, which part of speech is the word "light"? The light is on.
before or after
No space ___ __ ___ an em dash (—) or en dash (-) within a sentence.
Principal or Principle
"A princi"pal at a school is your pal, and a principle you believe is a rule"
"Good" and "Well"
"I did good on that test" is incorrect because "good" is an adjective, but it is describing a verb. "Well" should be put instead because it is an adverb and therefore is valid to describe a verb.
emphasis
"It may be those who do most, dream most." - Stephen Leacock
Its vs. It's
"Its" shows possession, but no apostrophe is needed because its is already a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction for it is. Ex. Its own phone, it's a phone
he
= who
him
= whom
strong clause
A ___ ___ can stand on its own.
Predicate Nominative
"place" describes "my apartment" follows linking verb, "is" Ex: My apartment is a place that is small and cheap.
telegraphic stage
(about 28 months) when the child may omit syllables in words, substitute sounds, and use only a pivot word with other words--much like a telegram
autobiography
(form of nonfiction) a __________ is a story that the author writes about his/her own life
biography
(form of nonfiction) a ___________ is a story that the author writes about someone else's life
phoneme
(linguistics) one of a small set of speech sounds that are distinguished by the speakers of a particular language
Collective Nouns
(nouns of multitude) name a group of persons, places, or objects gathered together into a unit.
Reflexive pronouns
- myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.
linking verb
1. shows state-of-being
pragmatics
1. using language appropriately for different social situations 2. changing one's language according to the listener's needs (volume, change in vocabulary) 3. following rules for conversing with others, such a taking turns, staying on topic, not standing too close, and rephrasing when necessary
paragraph structure
1: topic sentence, 2-4: supporting details, 5: clincher, a framework that brings order and purpose to a group of sentences, intro-clincher, thesis statement
Noun
A word which is the name of something: a person, place, thing, or idea.
Antecedent
A word, phrase, or clause that is replaced by a pronoun or other substitute later in the same (or a subsequent) sentence., the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers, someone or something that went before; something that provides a model for something that came after it
Articles
A, AN, THE
verb intransitive
ALWAYS a linking verb; is typically followed by a predicate adjective or predicate noun; acts like an equals sign
Introductory Prepositional Phrase
ALWAYS modifies the verb!!, Throughout the house, an eerie light shone., one or more prepositional phrases at the beginning of a sentence. *things you can do to a box in terms of location
coordinating conjunction
AND, BUT, and OR join ideas that are similar; remember to place a comma before you write sentences; example: Craig gets in trouble, BUT he usually gets out of it.
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Abruptly, After, After a few days, After a long time, After a short time, After a while, After that, Afterward, All at once, All of the time, All the while, Always, As long as, As soon as, At first, At last, At length, At present, At that time, At the beginning, At the end, At that onset, At the same time, At this moment, At times, Before, Begin, By now, Just then, Last, Last of all, Lastly, Later, Later on, Later that day, Little by little,
Restrictive appositive
An appositive that cannot be omitted from a sentence without affecting the meaning.
Nonrestrictive appositive
An appositive that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.
Prepositional Phrase
All together, the proposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. , preposition + noun or pronoun, A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers. PP-O-M
Adjective
An adjective describes nouns or pronouns and answers three questions about them: amount, type, and which one is being referred to Ex. blue, seven, high
Participle
An adjective that refers to participation in the action or state of the verb; a verbal form used as an adjective. The past form ends in "-ed" and the present form ends in "-ing.", Verb that can be used as a adjective. *Present ends in -ing*-----*Past ends in ed.-d,-t,-en,-n (The TERRIFYING movie was rated "R", a verb form that is used with auxiliary verbs to indicate certain tenses, a type of verb that acts as an adjective
Adverbs
An adverb describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb and answers three questions about them: how, when, and where Ex. Yesterday, extremely, toward
Appositive Clause
An appositive clause is a group of words that gives more information about the noun. When these clauses are separated and made to look like sentences you get sentence fragments. Fragment: Hilda nearly fainted when she opend the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes. The contest she had been entering faithfully for twenty years. Correct: Hilda nearly fainted when she opened the letter from Publisher's Clearing House Sweepstakes, the contest she'd been entering faithfully for twenty years.
Object Pronoun
An object pronoun shows the object of a sentence Ex. me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Plural subjects take plural verbs and singular subjects take singular verbs
Another way to state this rule using grammatical terms is "Subjects and verbs must agree in number."
Common Noun
Any noun which does not name any particular person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are not capitalized. This type of noun begins with a lowercase letter unless it is at the beginning of a sentence. For example: man, girl, boy, fish, ant, snake,
And
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by ___?
Interrogative sentence
Asks a question.
Use an Exclamation mark
At the end of a sentence or elliptical expression (condensed sentence, key words left out)
Sentence completeness
Avoid fragments and run-on sentences. Recognize sentence elements necessary to make a complete though and proper use of punctuation.
Comparative and Superlative adjectives
BIGGER house, ROUNDER shape, HOTTER weather BIGGEST house, ROUNDEST shape, HOTTEST weather
Degrees of Adjectives
Base (1) Ex. High, Thick, Beautiful, Bad;
Use an em Dash (—)
Before summarizing words such as these, they, and all when those words summarize a
introductory phrase
Before the bell rings, students drink from the water fountain.
Use an En Dash (-)
Before the source of a quotation or credit line in typed material (use an en dash in
Use a Semicolon
Before transitional words and phrases (accordingly, as a result, besides, consequently, for
dialogue
Bob said, "Hi."
Conjunction
CONJUNCTIONS join, in many ways,
indicate Time, Order, and Sequence.
Commence, Commencing, Concurrently, Consequently, Continually, Currently, Cyclically, Directly, During, Earlier, Embark, Eventually, Every time, Final, Finally, First, Following, Following that, Former, Formerly, Frequently, From this point, Generally, Gradual, Henceforth, Hereafter, Heretofore, Immediately, In an instant, In awhile, In conclusion, In the end, In the first place, In the future, In the last place, In the meantime, In the past, In the second place, In turn, In frequently, Initial, Instantly, Instantaneously, Intermittent,
Conjunctions
Connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences (and, or, but, nor).
Complex sentence
Contains a dependent clause and an independent clause. Ex: Because I do not feel well, I will not be attending the concert.
Dependent clause
Contains a subject and a verb and does NOT express a complete thought.
Clause
Contains a subject and a verb. It may be independent or subordinate (dependent).
Complex-compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ex. I am going to town, and Bill is going when he gets his car repaired.
Conjunctions:
Coordinating Correlating Subordinating and, but, nor, for, or either/or both/and neither/nor when since because
Intensive Pronoun
Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.
Every one is two words when the meaning is each one.
Everyone / Every one?
Indefinite pronouns:
Everyone is here. Everybody is here. No one is here. Nobody is here.
Everyone is one word when it means everybody.
Everyone or Every one?
Determiners: Examples
Examples with determiner phrases in italics: a little dog, the little dogs (indefinite or definite article) this little dog, those little dogs (demonstrative) my little dogs, their little dog (possessive adjective) Sheila's little dog, the Queen of England's little dog (noun phrase + 's) every little dog, each little dog, some little dog, either dog (quantifying)
Personal pronouns
I, you, she, she, it, we, you, they, them, us, my, mine, me, your, yours, her, hers, its, our, ours, us, their, theirs
use which to introduce the next clause
If this, that, these, or those has already introduced an essential clause, you may do what to the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential?
nearest it
If two nouns are joined by or, nor, or but, the verb should agree in number with the
dangling modifier
If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous ___., A phrase or a clause, which says something different from what is meant, because words are left out. Place modifiers near the words they modify!
Use an En Dash (-)
In a compound adjective when one element has two words or a hyphenated word.
Use an em Dash (—)
In place of commas to set off a nonessential element requiring special emphasis.
be to
Indicates future events but hints at uncertainty. <He is to have that
Active Voice
Indicates that the subject of the verb is acting - doing something.
Passive Voice
Indicates that the subject of the verb is being acted upon.
Tense
Indicates time.
Use an em Dash (—)
Instead of parentheses when a nonessential item requires strong emphasis (dashes
Interjections
Interjections are words that express emotion and are separated from sentences by punctuation Ex. Hey, No, Yes
Interrogative Pronoun
Introduces a question.
Relative Pronoun
Introduces a subordinate clause (who, whom, whose, which, & that).
Interjection
Is included in a sentence in order to commincate strong emotion or suprise.
set off dates
January 1, 1900, is when Excel begins to calculate dates.
Subordinating conjunction
Join subordinate clauses with main clauses: although, after, because, if... BECAUSE he was better, Billy went home from the hospital. ("Billy...hospital" is the main clause; "Because...better" is the subordinate clause.
Subordinate Conjunction
Joins dependent clauses together Ex. after, although, as
Coordinate Conjunction
Joins independent clauses and equals together Ex. for, and, yet, so, but, or
Coordinating Conjunction
Joins words or groups of words that are used in the same way.
Coordinating conjunction
Joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
do not use extra prepositions
Just do not do what to prepositions when their meaning is clear?
Four-Level Analysis
Level 1: Parts of Speech Level 2: Parts of the Sentence Level 3: Phrases Level 4: Clauses
verbs
Link subjects to complements
Linking Verb
Linking verbs link nouns to adjectives Ex. He smells like fish
Adjective
Modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words Usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies Ex:The small boat foundered on the win dark sea. A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
Adverb
Modifies a verb or an adjective.
Adverb
Modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Tells how, when, where, why, how often, and how much.
Demonstrative Adjective
Modifies adjectives (this, that, these, & those).
Adjective
Modifies or limits a noun or pronoun. Answers the questions which one, what kind, and how many.
Adverbs
Modifies or limits a verb, adjective or another adverb and answers
Essential Adj. Clause
Modifies the noun, "cookies": that clause is essential to sentence Ex: The cookies that I made were put in the refrigerator by Dr. Jones.
compound
Mother-in-law, skyscraper, Eiffel Tower: two or more nouns put together
Abstract Nouns
Names ideas, qualities, and emotions Ex: freedom
Proper Nouns
Names specific persons, places, and things Are capitalized Ex: Chicago
Concrete Nouns
Names tangible objects Ex: table
contrasted elements
Playing soccer, not volleyball, requires a lot of running.
Possessive Pronoun
Possessive pronouns show possession Ex. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs
compound predicate adjective
Predicate adjectives sometimes contain more than one adjective. These are called ____. example: The job applicant seems HONEST and RELIABLE.
compound predicate nominative
Predicate nominatives sometimes contain more than one noun. These are called ____. example: Mahatma Ghandi was a Hindu religious LEADER and a social REFORMER in India.
assumptions
Premises for which no proof or evidence is offered., opinions and beliefs, often unstated, that direct our choice of ideas, support, writing strategies and language, the taken-for-granted notions of how something should be
Person
Pronouns that denote the speaker (first person; I, we), the person spoken
Demonstrative Pronouns
Pronouns that point to specific things. i.e. this, that, there, and those. (this, these refer to things near the speaker. that, those refer to nouns further away)
Informative briefing
Purpose is to keep listener abreast of the current situation and supply specific information.
Indefinite Pronoun
Refers to a person, a place, a thing, or an idea that may or may not be specifically named.
Personal Pronoun
Refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person).
Reflexive Pronoun
Refers to the subject and functions as a complement or an object of a preposition.
Preposition
Relates a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence. (Anywhere a squirrel can go)
pronouns
Replace nouns
Pronoun
Replaces a noun or a noun phrase with a very general reference.
Limiting adjective
Restricts the meaning or indicates quantity or number.
Singular subject takes a singular verb Rule
The Basic Rule of Subject and Verb Agreement states a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb. Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.
Interjection
The INTERJECTION cries out, 'Hark!
Verb
The VERB means action, something done -
Help Clarify Meaning
The additional comma specified in closed punctuation may?
Parts of Speech
The basic building blocks of language: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs,
parenthetical elements
The boy, as slow as ever, marched into class.
singular verb
The expression "the number" is followed by a___?
Superlative Adjective
The extreme degree of comparison of adjectives. Used when comparing three or more things. Usually using the suffix -est, or the word 'most'. i.e. most beautiful, or highest
Infinitive
The most basic form of a verb; does not specify the subject., the uninflected form of the verb, to + verb, a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.
Antecedent
The noun or pronoun being replaced by the pronoun in question Ex. Jack did his homework. "Jack" is the antecedent because it is replaced by "his".
Antecedent
The noun which the pronoun refers to or replaces. Each pronoun must agree with the antecedent in number, person, and gender.
Good vs. Well
The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb., good is an adjective use good before nouns and after linking verbs to modify the subject use well as an adverb when modifying a verb use the advery well well is used tas an adjective only when describing someone's health
the subject follows the verb
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, The __ ___ ___ __.
Tenses
There are three verb tenses: past, present, and future. Ex. He walked in the park. He walks in the park He will walk in the park
Adverbial Clause
These clauses tell how, when, where, and to what extent an action is performed These clauses also modify: 1) verbs 2) adjectives 3) other adverbs
Past Perfect
They had walked. Designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.
Future
They will walk. "will" or "be going to".
Articles
Three adjectives are articles: "a", "an", and "the". The two indefinite articles are "a" and "an", because when you use them, you are describing a noun or pronoun that is "indefinite", or one of many. When you use "the", you are describing a specific noun or a "definite" one.
dangling participle
To correct a ____, place the participial closer to the word it modifies; example: (incorrect: PLAYING SOLITAIRE, at the table sat a bored young man. / correct: At the table sat a bored young man PLAYING SOLITAIRE.)
mentally complete the sentence
To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
him + him = whomever
To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule:
Simple subject
To find the simple subject, divide the sentence between the complete subject and the complete predicate. Next, cross out all of the prepositional phrases Ex: On Saturday at the Horseshoe, the Ohio Sate Buckeyes played the Michigan Wolverines for a shot at the final game. (The "I" denotes the speraption b/w subject and predicate, and the underline indicates the prespositional phrase. Thuse, "the Ohio State Buckyeyes" is the simple subject.
Use a hyphen
To form compound words and phrases. Some compound words are written as two words
Use an em Dash (—)
To give special emphasis to the second independent clause in a compound sentence.
Use an em Dash (—)
To indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in thought.
Use an En Dash (-)
To indicate inclusive numbers (dates, page numbers, time) when not introduced by the
Use a comma
To indicate omission of words in repeating a construction.
Use a Question Mark
To indicate the end of a direct question.
Use a hyphen
To indicate two or more related compound words having a common base (suspended
Use a hyphen
To join unit modifiers. When you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen.
Use a Semicolon
To precede words or abbreviations that introduce a summary or explanation of what
Semicolons
Use this punctuation to 1. Separate independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction 2. Separate independent clauses separated by a conjunctive adverb 3. Separate items in a series with internal commas
parallel construction
Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called ____? successive sentences or phrases follow the same pattern of wording in order to emphasize and idea, repetition of a grammatical pattern.
Participles
Used as adjectives Ex: an interesting experience, the surprised researchers
between
for two
be able to
Used instead of can or could to indicate the ability as a fact rather than a
Demonstrative Pronouns
Used to demonstrate Ex: this, these, that, those
Use of a semicolon
Used to indicate a major division in a sentence where a more distinct separation is felt between clauses or items on a list than is indicated by a comma.
Interrogative Pronouns
Used to interrogate (ask) Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what
Subject Pronouns
Used to make subjects Can be subjects of clauses Can be subject complements Are said to be in the subject case Ex: I, we, you (singular), you (plural), he, she, it, they
Relative Pronouns
Used to relate an adjective clause to a main clause Often begin short adjective clauses that interrupt main clauses Ex: who, whose, whom, which, what
Plagiarism
Using someone else's writing as if it were your own. This serious
Parallel structure
Using three or more alike elements, separated with commas, in a sentence., structure in which similar forms of nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts. Maintains balance. e.g. "Lilly likes reading, writing, and skiing" instead of "Lilly likes to read, write, and go skiing"
Use more or most in front of the words.
Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use ___.
Linking verb
Verb followed by an adjective: Bill FELT dizzy.
The Verb Family
Verb, Adverb
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs that are used with a principal verb that are characteristically used
Interrogative adjective
WHICH cat belongs to you?
Gerund phrase (noun and subject of the sentence)
WRITING THE BOOK was a pleasure. (_____ used as _____)
look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.
When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause,
No space before. One space after, unless a closing quotation mark immediately follows the comma. No space after within a number.
When using spacing and commas
Interrogative pronouns:
Who are those people? Whose dog is that? Whom is she speaking to? What are they doing? Which one should I buy?
What does a subject answer and what part of speech can it be?
Who or what? noun, pronoun, proper noun
who
Who/Whom wrote the letter? He wrote the letter. Therefore, ___ is correct.
Use an em Dash (—)
With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence abruptly breaks off before the end of a question or exclamation,
Use an em Dash (—)
With a question mark or an exclamation mark: When a sentence contains a question or exclamation that is set off by dashes, put
Use a comma
With afterthoughts (words, phrases or clauses added to the end of a sentence).
Use a period
With certain abbreviations. Most abbreviations today are written without punctuation Ms. Miss [not an Sr. no. [number; could be confused
Use a Question Mark
With elliptical (shortened) questions and to express more than one question within a
Subordination
Words, phrases, or clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on another., the dependence of one syntactical element on another in a sentence
Direct Object
a noun which receives the action of the verb. It must complete the meaning of the verb by receiving the action of the verb or by naming the result of the action. **MUST follow an action verb unless the sentence is inverted., the object that receives the direct action of the verb, a word or group of words that name the receiver of the action. Ex. New Yorkers take the subway. (Subway is the direct object), receives the action of a verb. It answers the question whom? or what? after an action verb
Absolute phrase
a noun+participle combination grammatically isolated from the sentence
noun
a person place thing or idea
noun
a person, place, thing or idea
meter
a poem or song's rhythmical pattern. The pattern is determined by the number and types of stresses, or beats, in each line
Adjective phrase
a prepositional phrase used as an adjective
Adverb phrase
a prepositional phrase used as an adverb
indefinite pronoun
a pronoun that does not refer to a specific, person, place, thing, or idea; examples: everyone, everything, everybody, anybody, many, most, few, each, some, someone, all, nothing, nobody, and no one
fiction
a prose account that is made up rather than true
independent clause
a sentence contains a subject, a verb, and it expresses a complete thought
compound sentence
a sentence that properly combines two sentences into one
Topic sentence
a sentence that states the topic of its paragraph, A sentence, most often appearing at the beginning of a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's idea and often unites it with the work's thesis. The controlling sentence in the paragraph.
frame sentence
a sentence with an empty slot in the position typically occupied by a member of a particular form class
Linguistic Competence
a speaker's knowledge of the phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics of a particular language
informal style
a speech used in casual settings, among friends, etc.
explanation
a statement that makes something comprehensible by describing the relevant structure or operation or circumstances etc., an expression that purports to shed light on some event or phenomenon, A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present or past form. Act of telling and showing why., Discussion that helps clarify a topic or demonstrates how a process works
1st person
a story told by one of the characters. The character uses the first person pronoun "I"
conflict
a struggle or clash between opposing characters or opposing forces
dialect
a subdivision of a language that are related to regional differences and/or social class; may differ in sound (phonology), in vocabulary, and in grammar from the orignal language
dialects
a variant of a language spoken by a group of people sharing the same time (historical period) or space (geographical or social environment)
Standard American English (SAE)
a variety of American English that is widely shared by middle class, urban, educated speakers and most closely resembles the written form of language taught in schools
gerund
a verb ending in -ing and functions as a noun; example: ESTIMATING is an important mathematics skill.
gerund
a verb having the {-ing} inflection and functioning as a nominal phrase
infinitive
a verb that functions as a noun or adjective; the word TO precedes the verb in an infinitive; example: Someday, I would like TO WRITE beautiful poetry.
superlative adverb
adverbs such as lowest, nearest, most slowly; fastest, most seriously
Do Not Capitalize
after a colon if the material cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material following the colon consists of two or more sentences.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material following the colon starts on a new line.
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is material preceding the colon is an introductory word (NOTE, CAUTION,
Capitalize The First Word
after a colon when the word is word is the first word of a quoted sentence.
Capitalize The First Word
after a hyphen when the hyphenated word is followed by a proper noun or
common adverbs (non -ly)
afterward, already, quick, hard, never, today, even, low, rather, tomorrow, how, now, then, yesterday, late, often, almost, back, long, soon, when, here, next, still, where, far, more, slow, too, fast, near, so
omniscient
all knowing point of view. A narrator who can tell the reader everything about all the characters, even their most private thoughts.
coordinating conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Descriptive Grammar:
describes a language - the way that people use it - w/out judging whether the utterance is correct or incorrect
adjective
describes a noun
adverb
describes a verb, adjective, or adverb
adverb
describes a verb; typically ends in ly
the affective filter hypothesis
describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquistion, such as motivation level, self-confidence level, and anxiety
adjective
describes nouns
adjective
describes or modifies a noun or pronoun
Objective Case of the Noun
direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition.
Phrases between the subject and verb
do not change the requirement that the verb must
of
do not use in the place of "have"
types of helping verbs
do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must
irregular verb
does not end with -ed to form the past participle; examples; (is, are, am / was / were) ; (has, have / had / had) ; (do, does / did / done) ; ate, grown, bought, sold, spent, taken, etc.
fragment
does not express a complete thought; example: Tells an interesting story.
positive
don't use two negatives to make a
independent clauses
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence (main clause), clause with a subject and a predicate that expresses a complete thought that make sense by itself, but which are joined by coordinating conjunctions because they are related.
independent clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a simple sentence
sentence
expresses a complete thought; example: My father travels around the country.
interjection
expresses strong emotion or surprise
for and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
fanboys - two independent clauses can be combined with the conjunctions?
adult stage
final stage of language acquistion
TO ADD IDEAS
first, second, next, last, etc.
Use a singular verb
for a compound subject whose parts are considered a single unit
complete sentence
group of words that expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and a verb, contains a subject and a predicate
clause
group of words with a subject and a predicate
Part of speech is determined by
how a word is used in a sentence. A word can be more than one part of speech.
Adverbial phrase
if the prepositional phrase answers when, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions., A phrase that functions as an adverb, a linguistic term for a group of two or more words operating adverbially, when viewed in terms of their syntactic function; a phrase that collectively modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a prepositional phrase; a group of words that act like an adverb; is a group of words telling us where, when, how or with whom an action is done
Adjective Phrase
if the prepositional phrase answers which one, what kind, or how many, and it modifies a noun or pronoun., a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun (begins with a preposition)
No comma is needed
if the sentence has one subject with a compound predicate
predicate
one of the two main constituents of a sentence, involve as a necessary condition of consequence, to declare; to assert; to say something about the subject.
Holophrastic stage
one word communication
Indefinite pronouns
one, any, each, anyone, somebody, all...
nouns and pronouns
other parts of speech that can be used as adjectives
Correlative Conjunction
pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups of words.
adjectives, adverbs, verbs
parts of speech that adverbs modify
four levels of traditional grammar
parts of speech, parts of a sentence, phrases, clauses
direct object
receives the action of the verb
Reflexive Pronoun
refers back to the person to whom the pronoun refers, usually refers to the subject of a sentence; examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves
Plural Nouns
refers to more than one person, place, object, or idea.
Singular Noun
refers to one person, place, object, or idea., shows ownership by one person or thing
Between
refers to two.
Transitive verbs:
require an object e.g.: Chris writes books in the morning.
action verb
shows physical or mental action
preposition
shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence
preposition
shows the relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence; example: I walked ALONG the beach.
plot
the series of related events that make up a story
form class
the set of words capable of changing form through the addition of inflectional and derivational morphemes
number
the singular or plural state of nouns and pronouns
Active Voice
the subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective. Ex. John carried the papers to the desk or John is a thoughtful boy.
foreshadowing
the use of clues to hint at events that will happen later in the story
among
three or more
compound-complex,
two independent clauses and at least one subordinate, A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
compound predicate
two or more predicates for the subject
compound predicate
two or more predicates with the same subject; usually joined by AND or OR; example: We WILL FIND the card catelog or WILL ASK the librarian for help.
run-on
two or more sentences joined together without any punctuation
adverb
words that describes verbs, adjectives, or other -----; answers when, where, how, to what extent; modifies a verb, adjective, or -----; tells how, when, where, or to what extent; example: Our skates move EFFORTLESSLY. (how) or The ice is glistening NOW. (when) *most ----- are formed by adding -ly to an adjective*
negatives
words that mean no; common negatives: no, not, never, nowhere, nothing, nobody, no one, neither, scarcely, barely; use only one in a sentence
Interjections
words that show emotion.
