HD 1130 - Chapters 7 Onwards
Authoritative parenting
**associated w/ best outcomes for children Encourages children to be independent but still places limits + controls on their actions Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed Associated with children's social competence and prosocial behaviors
Malnutrition in low-income families
- 11 million preschool children experience malnutrition - One common nutritional problem is iron deficiency anemia **EXERCISE SHOULD OCCUR DAILY-- 1 hour of rigorous, 3 hours of generalized moving around
Obesity prevention guidelines for children
- >/ 5 servings of fruits and vegetables - Two hours or less of screen time - Minimum of 1 hour of physical activity - Zero sugar-sweetened beverages
Leading causes of death and illness
- Accidents (unintentional injuries-- ex: cognitive and physical development not aligned-- suffocations, car accidents) - Congenital malformations - Malignant neoplasms (usually only in early childhood - Homicide Children in poverty have higher rates of all of these as well as ASTHMA Children exposed to smoke in home are more likely to develop asthma and high blood pressure
Characteristics that might cause childhood maltreatment
- Parenting stress - Substance abuse - Social isolation - Single parenting - Socioeconomic difficulties 1/3 of parents who were abused themselves go on to abuse their own children
Child maltreatment
- Physical abuse - Child neglect - Sexual abuse - Emotional abuse (psychological/verbal/mental injury) The context: - no single factor causes this - A combo of factors: culture, family network size, developmental characteristics likely contributes
Adult year consequences
- Physical ailments - Mental problems - Sexual problems
Controversies in Early Childhood Education - Curriculum controversy
- There are those who advocate for a child-centered, constructivist approach and developmentally appropriate practices - There are also those who advocate for an academic, direct-instruction approach Many early childhood education programs include both Comparing both: Academic approaches pressure young children to achieve, don't provide chances to actively construct knowledge, and don't focus on cognitive and socioemotional development Competent early childhood programs should focus on socioemotional (including play) and not exclusively on cognitive
Parents daily life
- Typically more satisfied with lives than non parents - Feel relatively better on a daily basis and have more positive feelings towards children + daily activities Juggling work + childcare can be challenging and good parenting takes time + effort
Developmental consequences of abuse
- poor emotional regulation - attachment problems - problems in peer relations - difficulty in adapting to school - other psychological problems (depression, delinquency, etc.) - Biological consequences (ex: stress hormone rise) Linked to diminished cognitive development and school engagement Increases risk of adolescent engagement in violent romantic relationships, delinquency, sexual risk taking, and substance abuse (linked to increase in adolescent suicide ideation, plans, and attempts)
CHAPTER 7 - PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Average growth of early children
2.5 in and 5 to 10 pounds per year Boys SLIGHTLY larger than girls on average At this point, the bodies become longer, so the proportions of head size to the rest of the body become more normal. Slim down and trunks of body lengthen
Divorce statistics
40% of children born in married parents in the US will experience their parents' divorce
Physical activities
A central component of the self in early childhood "My name is Mark and I am fast and can jump far" Children's self-descriptions tend to be unrealistically positive-- a self-protective feature-- and tend to confuse ability + effort Self-esteem = HIGH because they are not comparing themselves to others (only the past self) A better basic understanding of emotions in early childhood enables children to develop a more advanced understanding of others' perspectives
First mapping
A process in which young children learn the connection between a word and its referent quickly, only after limited exposure Exposure to words on multiple occasions over multiple days results in more successful word learning than the same number of exposures in a single day( basically hesring It more helps)
Authoritarian parenting
A restrictive. punitive style to parenting •Child is to follow directions and respect parents' work and effort •Allows little verbal exchange •Associated with children's social incompetence and a higher level of aggression
How can morality be shaped by behavior?
According to behavioral and social cognitive approaches, the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior Moral behavior view: the situation also influences behavior Cognitive factors = important in the child's development of self-control
Purpose of emotional development
Allows them to try and make sense of other people's emotional reactions and control their own Young child's growing awareness of self is linked to feeling an expanding range of emotions experience MANY in the course of a day
Conscience
An internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior Children who are SECURELY ATTACHED are more likely to internalize parents' values and rules Other aspects of parent and child relationships that contribute to children's moral development include: •Relational quality •Parental discipline •Proactive strategies •Conversational dialogue
How can we combine ZPD with teaching approaches?
Assess the child's Z P D(the zone of proximal development DIFFERS between children) Use the child's Z P D in teaching Use more-skilled peers as teachers Place instruction in a meaningful context Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas It's an environment that fosters more of a sense of a community rather than individualistic lessons
Fine motor movement at this stage
At 3: still clumsy At 4: more coordination At 5: perceptual-motor coupling at is improved 4 and 5 year olds can now detect boundaries between LETTERS
When do children develop an increased appreciation of the mind?
At 5 to 7 years, children develop a deepening appreciation of the mind itself rather than just mental states They can see the mind as an active constructor of knowledge They realize the same event can be open to multiple interpretations
Autobiographical memory development. What is it?
Autobiographical memory involves memory of significant events and experiences in one's life In some areas (remembering a story, a song, or interesting event or experience), young children have been shown to have reasonably good memories **this increasingly recall events as occurring at a specific time and location **narratives = more rich in detail This usually picks up from 3-4 because prior to 3, there's childhood amnesia
Centration and Conservation (another part of the preoperational stage)
Centration: a centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others EX tallness of water glass: Kids move water from shorter glass to taller; they think that taller has more water even though it's the same amount Conservation: the awareness that altering an object or substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Ex: cutting a BIG sandwich into two does not mean that there is now MORE of the sandwich. The child does not understand that a whole sandwich has been manipulated. He believes that the properties of then have changed.
The 6 Vocal principles describing childhood vocabulary development
Children learn the words they hear most often Children learn words for things and events that interest them Children learn words better in responsive and interactive contexts than in passive contexts Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning (can ask people, etc;) Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered (using proper grammar and within context of a sentence) Ex: "I like ice" shows to the kid that ice is a NOUN --> better understanding of meaning
Developmental outcomes?
Children of divorced facilities do show poorer adjustment (risk grows w/ multiple divorces) But, majority do not have significant adjustment problems One study found that 20 years later, 80% of children concluded that divorce was the right decision for their parents
When children begin to understand others
Children start perceiving others in terms of psychological traits (not just physical) They also begin to develop an understanding of joint commitments As they approach their third birthday, collaborative interactions increasingly involve obligations to a partner Young children = not as egocentric as depicted in Piaget's theory (they actually do have much more awareness-- shown by research)
Vygotsky's views on child language & thought
Children use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasks Young children also use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior Private speech refers to this use of language for self-regulation When they gain the skill to act without verbalizing, they have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech Private speech plays a positive role in development--Kids saying stuff out loud is very important for their development; as kids get older, they stop talking out loud and do it more in their heads (private --> inner)
Universal preschool education
Critics of the idea argue it is more important to improve preschool education for disadvantaged children
Phonology and Morphology in early childhood
During the preschool years, most children become: - Sensitive to the sounds of spoken words - Capable of producing all the sounds of their language Beyond two-word utterances = knowledge of morphology rules! - Plural + possessive nouns - Appropriate verb endings - Prepositions, articles, and forms of to be - Evidence of change comes from overgeneralization - Foots(instead of feet) or goed(went)
Childhood obesity
Eating behaviors are strongly influenced by caregivers' BEHAVIORS (ex: what they eat, influence, etc;) Categories for obesity, overweight, and at risk for overweight are determined by BMI US has second highest rate of childhood obesity
Differences in the parental approaches
Emotion-coaching: monitor emotions closely - View negative emotions as opportunities for teaching - Assist them in labeling emotions - Coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions Emotion-dismissing: view their ole to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions - Linked to toddlers' lower emotional competence
Mother's socialization strategies
Encourage daughters to be obedient and responsible; and restrict daughters' autonomy
What contributes most to height differences here?
Ethnic origin Nutrition (malnourished v nourished) Growth hormone deficiency: absence of growth hormones produced by the pituitary gland to stimulate the body to grow
Factors that can influence theory of mind
Executive function and prefrontal cortex functioning Language development Socioeconomic status Children with autism have difficulty developing a theory of mind
Birth order significance
Firstborn children: described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled Only children = often achievement-oriented Birth order by itself shows limited accuracy in predicting behavior
Piaget's Preoperational Stage
From about 2-7 years old Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings They form stable concepts and begin to reason In this stage, children do not yet perform operations: reversible mental actions that allow them to do mentally what they formerly did physically **EVERYTHING IS MUCH MORE PHYSICAL THAN MENTAL First time kids start doing pretend/and symbols; they can use logic/reason for the first time
Social role theory
Gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men
Fathers' socialization strategies
Give more attention to sons and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development
Brain change at this time
Growth slows during early childhood-- 95% of adult volume by 6 years BUT development has not ended Myelination: nerve cells = insulated with a layer of fat cells-- speed and efficiency of signals The brain at this time undergoes rapid, distinct spurts of growth (especially in the FRONTAL LOBES)
Moral reasoning + the two stages of morality according to Piaget
Heteronomous morality: (4-7 yrs): justice and rules are conceived as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people - Believes in immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment = given out immediately and automatically Autonomous morality: older children = aware that rules + laws = created by people, and that when judging an action, one should consider the actor's intentions as well as consequences
Characteristics that enhance young children safety
Individual characteristics •Social skills and emotion regulation •Impulse control Use of personal protection Family/home characteristics •Child management and parenting skills •Parent protective behaviors •Home safety equipment School/peer characteristics •Home/school partnerships •Absence of playground hazards •Injury prevention and safety promotion policies/programs Community characteristics •Positive activities for families •Active surveillance of hazards •Effective prevention policies
Erikson's Initiative v Guilt stage INITIATIVE
Initiative- children use perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen - Try new activities and experiences w/ out fear and failure - Lean what they can and cannot control - When mistakes = made, they dont feel guilty but understand they just need to try again - Develop ambition, direction and purpose
Moral development
Involves the development of thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions w/ other people
Early precursors of childhood literacy and academic success
Language skills Phonological and syntactic knowledge Letter identification Conceptual knowledge of print conventions and functions
What makes children advance pragmatically?
Learn culturally specific rules of conversation and adapt their speech in different settings Learn about extended discourse (general rules about how to converse, how much is too much information, how long should answers be, etc;) Learn politeness and are more sensitive to the need to adapt their speech in different settings TIMING & SPEECH: - As they get older, they become increasingly able to talk about things that are not here and not now (things in future, somewhere else, etc;) Preschooler can tell you what they want for lunch tomorrow Around 4 to 5 years of age, they learn to change their speech style to suit the situation
How accurate is childhood LONG-TERM memory?
Long-term recall of information has as much to do with memory as it does on the skills and motivations of an influential "interviewer" There are age differences in children's susceptibility to suggestion (preschoolers = more susceptible to suggestion than older children) There are individual differences in susceptibility (some preschoolers may be highly influenced by an interviewer's suggestions while others may not be) Interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children's reports about highly salient events (can be motivation for a child to make a false report-- also depends on the way in which questions are asked-- neutral tone or not, for example) The accuracy of eyewitness testimony is dependent on type, number, and intensity of the suggestive techniques experienced **Research shows there's great variability in the strength/accuracy of memory within an age group.
Gross motor skills at preschool
More active than they will ever be at any later period in the life span (lots of energy) Gross motor skills require an effort to stay upright and move around at age 3: simple movement; hopping, jumping, running at age 4: athletic movements at home and school at age 5: hair-raising stunts in gyms and playground equipment Problems with accidents: cognitive development w/ decision making does not necessarily catch up to adventurous physical desires at this time
Recent changes in family dynamics (working parents)
More than 1 in every 2 US mothers w/ a child under age 5 is in labor force Children of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender than children w/ nonworking mothers Effects of working parents involve father as well (normally need 2 incomes to raise child) The nature of parents' work has more influence on development than WHETHER the parent works outside of home Poor working conditions = associated with less effective parenting
Gender policing
Often occurs on the playground More rigidity for boys than girls
Puppet example
One puppet told the child she believed the drawing was a duck, while another puppet told the child he believed the drawing was a rabbit. Before the age of 7, children said that there was one right answer and that it was not okay for the two puppets to have different opinions.
Indulgent parenting
Parents are highly involved w/ their children but place few demands or controls on them - Children never learn to control their own behavior and ways expect to get their way - May be egocentric and have difficulty with peer relations bc. of this - Children rarely learn respect for others - They may eb domineering and noncompliant
Why do parent-child relations less likely to enhance moral reasoning?
Parents have the power and children do not, since rules are handed down in an authoritarian manner (right and wrong = more black and white) Learn more nuanced forms of morality from peers (have to decide things for themselves sometimes)
Emotions & Peer Relations
Play a role in success of child's peer relations Moody and emotionally neg. children are more likely top experience rejection, whereas emotionally positive children are more popular Higher emotion regulation is linked to greater peer success, while frequent anger projection lowers social competence
Regulation of emotion in children
Plays a role in children's ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face w/ others Parents = describes as taking EMOTION-COACHING or EMOTION-DISMISSING approach to helping with this The ability to modulate emotions benefits children's in their relationships
What contextual factors affect this?
Poverty and parenting quality
How quickly does syntax and semantics skill develop?
Preschool children show a growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered Vocabulary development is dramatic Between 18 months to 6 years learning a new word every waking hour Know about 14,000 words by 1st grade
Development in expressing emotions
Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions During the early childhood years, pride and guilt become more common These = influenced by parents' responses to children's behavior (ex: you should feel bad about biting your sister")
Sleep at this stage
Recommended: 10-13 uninterrupted Problems: narcolepsy, insomnia, nightmares Sleep problems linked with negative outcomes: - Attention problems - Worse school readiness - Being overweight - ADHD Problems w/ sleep can also come from more screen time
How is attention still deficient? How can it be improved?
Salient (often focused on most STRIKING attention grabbers, even if they may not be particularly relevant) versus relevant dimensions Planfulness (leads to improved attention) As children are better able to understand their environment, they can sustain attention for longer periods Advances in comprehension and language development are particularly significant
How this is tested w/ the Sally box experiment
Sally has a basket and Anne has a box is shown to children. Sally places a toy in her basket and then leaves. While Sally is gone and can't watch, Anne removes the toy from Sally's basket and places it in her box. Sally then comes back, and the children are asked where they think Sally will look for her toy. Children are said to "pass" the false-belief task if they understand that Sally looks in her basket first before realizing the toy isn't there.(if they don't pass, they think that sally's gonna look in the box bc they think sally knows what they know)
The role of short-term memory in information processing
Short-term memory increases during early childhood The retention of information over time is central to cognitive development In short-term memory, individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal The memory-span task assesses short-term memory using a short list of stimuli—usually digits—presented at a rapid pace, after which subjects are asked to repeat the list **digit span memory increases until about adult age and then levels out, with steepest increase near age 7.
The role of attention in info processing
The ability to focus mental resources on select information improves significantly in the preschool years Around the first time their attention span is getting strong; they can sit through a 30 min tv show
Theory of mind and the development of awareness of mental states
The awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others From 18 months - 3 years, children understand three mental states: Perceptions Emotions Desires From 3 to 5 years, they come to understand false beliefs - Not everybody has the same beliefs or ideas and sometime their beliefs or ideas are not true (they don't know the same things as other people, other people may say one thing but believe other things). **understanding that others do NOT know what you know
Psychoanalytic theory of gender (Freud)
The preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent
Vygotsky's Zone of proximal development
The range of tasks too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance Children think and understand primarily through social interaction (IN CLASSROOM SETTINGS ESPECIALLY: those who are more advanced help the less advanced) Closely linked to this idea is scaffolding—that is, changing the level of support and instruction provided: As competence increases, less guidance is given (almost like riding a bike)
Self-understanding
The representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions - describe the self by physical or material characteristics - "Angela is my sister and she is different than me because I have a bike and she doesn't." (hyperaware of possessions) BUT as they get advance in this stage they start to finally describe themselves with personality traits **Increased awareness reflects young children's expanding psychological sophistication
Co-parenting
The support that parents provide one another in raising child Children = at risk when: - Poor parent-parent coordination - Undermining of the other parent - Lack of cooperation and warmth - Disconnection with one parent
Example of these
They cannot understand that their perspective is different from others; ex. The sidewalk tried to trip me; why did the tree let go of their leaves also believing DOLLS see everything they see (combination of the 2)
Effects on development
Unclear if harmful to development - Some argue that when it is used in a calm, reasoned manner, children's development benefits - As with other research on parenting research = correlational If physical punishment is used, it must be - Mild - Infrequent - Age-approrpriate - Used in context of positive relationship
Strategies for using books
Use books to initiate conversation Use what and why questions Encourage children to ask questions about stories (get them interacting with the book, check comprehension) Choose some books that play with language (ex: rhymes)
Executive attention
a good predictor of self-regulation It involves.. Action planning Allocating attention to goals Error detection(when something isn't right or they make a mistake) and compensation Monitoring progress on tasks Dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
What is Vygotsky's overall approach? What are the criticisms that have surfaced?
a social constructivist approach: an approach that emphasizes the social contexts of learning and asserts that knowledge is mutually built and constructed - Not specific enough about age-related changes - Does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to cognitive development - Overemphasized the role of language in thinking/cognition
Montessori approach
children are given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities Fosters independence and cognitive skills Critics suggest it deemphasizes verbal interaction, restricts imaginative play, and may not allow for creativity and for a variety of learning styles
Gender schema theory
children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture Schema: cognitive structure, a network of associations building perspectives - Gender schema: organizes world in terms of female and male
Intuitive thought substage
children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to many questions (4-7-- especially age 5.)
Social cognitive theory of gender
children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of others' words and actions
Project Head Start (for Disadvantaged Children)
compensatory program designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for success in school Head Start programs are not all created equal, however Improved parenting engagement and skills are linked to children's success Evaluations support the positive influence of quality early childhood programs - In terms of both the cognitive and social worlds of disadvantaged young children
Executive function
consists of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex In early childhood, it involves advances in: - Cognitive inhibition - Cognitive flexibility - Goal-setting - Delay of gratification (resisting temptations) Mischel and colleagues' studies using the "marshmallow experiment" linked delay of gratification in preschool with later academic success, coping, and competence
Where do the most deaths and illnesses of young children occur? What is the leading cause?
countries with high poverty rates A dramatic increase in deaths has resulted from HIV/AIDS, especially in poor countries
Important aspects of sibling relationships
emotional quality (intense positive and negative emotions = expressed), familiarity and intimacy, considerable variation Approximately 80% of Americans have siblings Conflict = a dimension of most sibling relationships, bit so are helping, sharing, teaching, playing, emotional support and rivalry When there is conflict, parents frequently do nothing at all
Child-centered kindergarten
emphasizes education of the whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development Experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking, and listening
Sustained attention
focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment Also called vigilance Kids being able to sit and watch tv
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children and the uniqueness of each child Age-appropriateness and individual-appropriateness The emphasis is on creating settings that encourage active learning and reflect children's interest Focus on the process of the learning, not the content Generalizing about DAP is challenging because it is an evolving concept, and individual programs vary Recent changes give more attention to sociocultural factors, the teacher's involvement, and to what degree academic skills should be emphasized
Neglectful parenting
lack of parental involvement in the child's life Associated with social incompetence in children along with poor self-control, low self-esteem, immaturity, and alienation In adolescence, it may contribute to truancy and delinquency
Animism
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Piaget's Preoperational Stage symbolic function substage
the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. Between about 2 and 4 years of age. Children's thought is still limited by egocentrism and animism
Egocentrism
the inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's
Broader context
•Authoritative parenting conveys the most benefits to the child and to the family as a whole •With some exceptions, the evidence links authoritative parenting with competence on the part of the child across a wide range of ethnic groups, social strata, cultures, and family structures-- depending on family structures, authoritarian style MAY be adaptive to some children (depends on type of families) •In some ethnic groups, aspects of the authoritarian style may be associated with more positive child outcomes •An emphasis on requiring respect and obedience can in some cases encourage the development of a self and an identity embedded in the family
How demonstration of emotional understanding changes
•Children's understanding of emotion is linked to an increase in prosocial behavior •Between 2 to 4 - Considerable increase in words used to describe emotions •Learning the causes and consequences of feelings (what happens when I start to experience this emotion?) •By age 5, children begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people •Most children show more ability to reflect on emotions and a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions according to social standards
Biological influences of gender
•Chromosomes •Hormones •Play a key role in the development of sex differences •Estrogens influence the development of female physical sex characteristics •Androgens promote the development of male physical sex characteristics •Evolution •Adaptation during human evolution produced psychological differences between males and females
Moral feelings
•Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by Freud's psychoanalytic theory •Children form the superego—the moral element of personality—in part to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment •Although Freud's ideas are not backed by research, emotions and guilt can motivate behavior •Other emotions also contribute
Gender, Gender identity, Gender ole, Gender typing
•Gender: the characteristics of people as males and females •Gender identity: the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the age of 3 •Gender role: a cultural set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel •Gender typing: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
GUILT
•Guilt - shame over failing to complete a task successfully, provoking irritation, or feeling embarrassed over attempting something •Children who experience guilt interpret mistakes as a sign of personal failure and feel that they are "bad." •Resists trying new things for fear of failing
Treatments effective in reducing child maltreatment
•Home visitation that emphasizes improved parenting, coping with stress, and increased support for the mother (by social workers) •Parent-infant psychotherapy that focuses on improving maternal-infant attachment •Social support and coping skills are important
PEER influences at this time (how they operate in groups)
•Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior •Preschoolers prefer socializing with the same gender - Girls' groups: smaller, but tightly knit - Boys' groups: larger but less close relationships •Boys are likely to associate in larger clusters than girls are •Boys tend to play more competitively, while girls tend to engage in "collaborative discourse"
Punishment
•Physical punishment is outlawed in 41 countries •Some reasons for avoiding harsh punishments are that they: •Present an out-of-control model (can signal to child that the parents have lost some sort of control over the situation) •Can instill fear, rage, or avoidance (may harm parent-child bond) •Focus on what not to do, rather than what to do •Can be abusive •Most child psychologists recommend handling misbehavior by reasoning with the child and explaining consequences for others
Further thoughts
•The parenting styles do not capture the themes of reciprocal socialization and synchrony •Children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children **it is a RECIPORICAL relationship where both parties actually influence each other •Many parents use a combination of techniques; and two parents may have different styles •Some critics argue the concept of parenting styles is too broad •Much of the research has involved mothers, not fathers •Especially in traditional cultures, fathers have an authoritarian style and mothers a more permissive, indulgent style
Current developmentalist thoughts on thus
•Today, many developmentalists believe both positive feelings and negative feelings contribute to children's moral development •When these emotions are strongly experienced, they influence children to act in accord with standards of right and wrong
