HDFS 2200 Adulthood and Aging
multiple threshold model
proposes that individuals realize that they are getting older through a stepwise process as aging-related changes occur affects of aging on identity: each age related change brings potential of a new threshold to be crossed identity accommodation tends to have more negative effects on the individual
descriptive research designs
provides information about age differences but does not attempt to rule out social or historical factors can be qualitative or quantitative EX: observations, surveys, interviews, case studies, cross sectional
research design
qualitative- changes over time consistency is not expected quantitative- determined before study begins. uses single method
researcher involvement
qualitative- high (researcher is participant) quantitative- limited (controlled to prevent bias)
research purpose
qualitative- in-depth understanding theory building quantitative- describe, predict, and test theory
focus of research
qualitative- understand and interpret quantitative- describe, explain predict
sample design
qualitative-purposive quantitative- probability
sample size
qualitative-small quantitative-large
Reliability
reliable if it yields consistent results every time it is used
digestive disorder of the mouth and esophagus
swallowing can become difficult as a result of dry mouth or tooth decay a stroke, dementia, or neurodegenerative diseases can lead to swallowing difficulties the esophagus and lower esophageal sphincter become weaker as we age - these changes do not seem to contribute to the greater likelihood of heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) in older adults
Ageism origins
terror management theory- seeing older adults reminds us that we're going to be old and die someday modernization hypothesis- assumption that older adults can no longer be productive multiple jeopardy hypothesis- older adults who fit more than one discriminated- against category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations
fluid intelligence***
the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and to identify patterns
life course perspective
The progression of a person's life events, shaped by society's views of what is appropriate and expected to occur in connection with particular ages. social clock - sets age norms and expectations
Programmed aging theories
aging and death are built into the hard-wiring of all organisms and part of their genetic code lifespans are this long for a specific reason good genes gone bad theory- aging genes take over in post-reproductive years and lead to the destruction of the organism replicative senescence- loss of ability of the cells to reproduce
internal consistency
indicates whether respondents answer similarity on comparable items
ethical issues
informed consent- awareness of study procedures, risks, and benefit debriefing- information at study's completion about its true purpose suggest resources- provide information relevant to participants experiences. right to withdraw- participant can withdraw without penalty confidentiality- participant will not be identifiable in published reports and data will be securely stored
Weight
fat-free masses (FFM) decreases Body mass index (BMI) increase In later years, weight deceases due to loss of bone and muscle though some still grow obese
longitudinal
study of changes across age in one cohort at a time
cross-sectional
study of cohort differences at one time of measurement
causes of blindness
include age-related macular degeneration (ARMD) and glaucoma.
title
(in the upper half of the page, centered) Name Affiliation (university, etc.) Course title and number
page header
(use Insert Page Header) Title flush left Page number flush right
Normal amount of cognitive decline
******Crystallized intelligence - knowledge or experiences accumulated over time- remains stable with age fluid intelligence - tends to decline Memory - to be discussed later Attention - simple or focused attention tends to be preserved Language - verbal abilities tends to remain the same Reasoning/Problem Solving - May take extra time Speed of Processing - May take extra time
Problems of longitudinal research
-separates personal aging from historical EFFECTS -expensive and difficult -results may take years -attrition issues -practice effects -tests become outdated
problems in cross-sectional research
-studied at only one time -looks at age differences and not age changes -reflects current social and cultural influences -issues with comparable measures for older/younger adults -how to divide the sample?
Four Principles of Adult Development and Aging
1. Changes are continuous over the lifespan: meaning individuals remain the same even though they change Changes in life build in a cumulative fashion ( as we grow we build off of experiences when younger) Identity changes- mother, grandmother, employee (we also hit a point where you are the same person, but your numerical age goes up) Socioeconomic changes (when we are young we are poor as you grow you will get a job) 2. Only the survivors grow old: meaning aging individuals are increasingly self selected The people that live longer can escape threatening events in their early years. Example -car accidents, deadly diseases survivors principle- Illnesses and events shorten your lifespan 3. Individuality matters- people vary within and between age groups: Principle of individuality= as people age, they become increasingly different from each other Inter-individual differences- differences between people Intra-individual differences (within you)- variations in performance within the same individual ( working out, getting a job and changing financial status) Intra-individual differences are multidirectional 4. Normal aging is different from disease: intrinsic aging processes are different from those associated with disease What is considered "normal aging" ? Primary aging- normal changes over time that occur due to universal, intrinsic, and progressive alteration in the body's system, Secondary aging- changes over time leading to impairment dire to disease rather then normal aging. Tertiary aging- individuals experience a rapid loss of functions across multiple areas of functioning. Optimal aging- age related changes that improve the individuals functioning. Exercising, healthy diet, sociality
smell and taste
1/3 of older adults suffer from a form of olfactory impairment - by 80 almost 1/2 have no ability to smell caused by intrinsic changes as well as disease, injury and exposure to toxins cigarettes and dentures play an important role cognitive changes associated with loss of smell sensitivity nevertheless, there are ways to maximize the enjoyment of food including expanded food choices, planning meals, and being able to socialize
old age
65-74 young-old 74-85 old-old 85-99 oldest-old 100-109 centenarians 110+ super centenarians
Aging as an independent variable
Age is not a true independent variable! Studies on aging are never true experiments because age can't be manipulated or randomly assign to a particular age group. Cannot say that aging 'causes' people to produce certain dependent variables (scores, results, behaviors, etc.) bad independent variable- because it cannot be manipulated or changed
aging in place
Aging in place- describes a person living in the residence of their choice, for as long as they are able, as they age Maintains a higher quality of life if they are living where they want Is linked with independence Aging impacts safety of living independently due to: Vision problems, reduced mental processing, hearing issues Decreased strength, increased risk of falls, decreased mobility Increased risk of illness.
Other types of memory
Auditory memory = memory for what you hear Rehearsed by repeating material over and over again Visuospatial memory = memory of what you see Episodic buffer = recall information that you already have in your long-term memory by bringing into working memory Central executive = integrates other components Allocating cognitive resources to a particular task
APA General Formatting
Be typed and double-spaced printed on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11") Use 1" margins on all sides Use 12 pt. Times New Roman font Include a page header (title) in the upper left-hand of every page and a page number in the upper right-hand side of every page
Functional age
Biological age- heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels, muscle and bone strength Psychological age- reaction time, learning ability, memory, intelligence Social age- parental/grandparental status, work role, retirement
biopyschosocial model
Biological: Physiological factors Genetics Psychological: Cognition Emotions Personality Sociocultural: Social context History culture
Changes in the bladder
Bladder wall changes - elastic tissue becomes tough and the bladder becomes less stretchy - cannot hold as much urine as before The bladder muscles weaken Blockage of the urethra: in women this can be due to weakened muscles that cause the bladder or vagina to fall out of position (prolapse) in men the urethra can become blocked by an enlarged prostate gland
APA reference page
Center the title (always titled "References") at the top of the page. Do not bold it. Double-space reference entries Flush left the first line of the entry and indent subsequent lines Order entries alphabetically by the authors' last names Invert authors' names (last name first followed by first name initials (e.g. Smith, J.Q.) Alphabetize reference list entries the last name of the first author of each work Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title of an article, and proper nouns. Capitalize all major words in journal titles Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays
digestive system
Changes are relatively minor in the esophagus, stomach, and lower digestive tract, and reflect overall health status Fecal incontinence affects less than 4% of those 65+ and can be controlled with behavior and diet Lifestyle factors play important roles
respiritory diseases
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Chronic bronchitis = defined by the presence of chronic coughing and phlegm for 3 months per year for two or more years and is generally assessed by standardized questionnaires Emphysema = part of the syndrome of COPD; pulmonary function (changes in lung volume and reduced diffusion capacity) x ray evidence from bullae formation, hyperinflation of the chest and (with the us of CT scans) the presence of characteristics changes in lung architecture all may contribute to this diagnosis
Cognitive changes with aging
Cognitive decline can occur within healthy adults as well as those who are chronically-ill Age-related slowing is evident on attentional tasks such as trying to remember a telephone number when someone tells you Cognitive slowing is thought to be a contributing factor in elderly people's higher rate of automobile accidents per miles driven Age hinders attention - making it difficult to multitask The ability to keep multiple pieces of information in mind at the same time peaks around ages 18-20 Highly variable - exact nature of decline depends on the individual and type of memory
Cardiovascular disease continued
Coronary heart disease = disease of the blood vessels supplying the heart muscles Cerebrovascular disease = disease of the blood vessels supplying the brain Peripheral heart disease = disease of blood vesels supplying the arms and legs Rheumatic heart disease = damage to the heart muscle and heart valves from rheumatic fever, caused by streptococcal bacteria Congenital heart disease = malformations of heart structure existing at birth Deep vein thrombosis & pulmonary embolism = blood clots in the leg veins which can dislodge and move to the heart and lungs; tied to heart attacks and stroke
Contrasting Life Course Theories
Disengagement theory= the normal course of life is for older adults to loosen their social ties Criticism- disrespectful to older adults Activity theory- older adults are better adjusted when they remain involved in their social roles If forced to give up roles, older adults lose sense of identity Continuity theory= the individual's personality determines whether activity or disengagement is optimal Depends on specific individual
construct
Does the rest measure the construct accurately Examples: does IQ=brain power?
how to prevent skin aging
Don't smoke Avoid artificial tanning Use sunscreen (UVA/UVB 30+)
Natural experiments
Done in everyday environments- experimenter has no control over any variables Strengths: Reflects real life behavior, Less experimenter bias, Can be used in unethical situations (can observe things that may occur that aren't controlled that are unethical) Limitations: More expensive, Time consuming, No control over variables, Can't replicate study EX: policy changes such as smoking ban
Field experiments
Done in everyday environments- experimenter manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting Strengths: Reflect real life behavior, Less experimenter bias Limitations: Less control over variables, Difficult to replicate, May not be generalized Example: bystander effect questionnaires and surveys. we can still create a scenario where we can study certain variables
dysthermia
Dysthermia = disruption in the body's ability to regulate its temperature Hyperthermia = elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates Hypothermia = medical condition that occurs when your body loses heat faster than it can produce heat
Levinson's adult developmental phases
Early adulthood is broken down into two stages → novice phase and culminating phase Novice phases Early adult transition - individuals aged 17-22 Job, starting planning life, graduation, legal age Entering the adult world - individuals 22-28 Jobs, real world Age-30 transition - individuals 28-33 Culminating phases: Settling down - individuals aged 33-40 Starting career, family Midlife transition - individuals aged 40-45 Midlife crisis? These stages are only a guide for development, not set in stone! There exists a double standard of aging, where older men are seen as "distinguished" and older women are viewed as "over the hill".
emerging adulthood
Emerging adulthood 18-29 years of age Transition prior to assuming the full responsibilities associated within adulthood Time of exploration What makes you an adult? Physical development Legal time points (drinking, driving ages) Paying bills Marriage Social expectations Being independent Maturity
changes in sleep patterns
Everyone requires 7-9 hours of sleep a night Midlife adults with sleep problems often are under stress Physical conditions also play a role including obesity, activity, and alcohol use Older adults have more disrupted sleep due to more frequent awakenings and less efficient sleep patterns Medical illness can disrupt sleep including those involving joint pain, cancer, lung disease, heart disease, and digestive disturbance Changes in the bladder can interfere with sleep Sleep apnea interrupts sleep, a condition found more often in older adults with certain illnesses Exercise can offset these symptoms and is prescribed by sleep specialists!!
Interviews
Explores complex relationships in situations that don't lend themselves to restrictions, assumptions or quantitative methods Strengths: Accurate screening, Capture of verbal and nonverbal cues, Capture emotions and behaviors, Increases participant focus Limitations: High cost, Small sample size, Manual data entry, Interpreter coder issues (people may ask questions differently) Example:semi-structred or open-ended interviews
hearing loss
Exposure to excess noise is the most common cause of hearing loss. Also caused by noise exposure, tinnitus (ringing in ears) can also interfere with hearing
what is normal in aging?
Eye trouble (around age 40) cataracts (around age 60) Hearing loss (around age 60) Decrease in strength or stamina due to loss of muscle tissue High blood pressure (aging allows vulnerability to some medical conditions) Memory loss (not Alzheimer's)
growth of cognition in early adulthood
Growth of the frontal lobe is completed in the early 20s cognitive Growth can be simulated by major events in ones life (birth of a child, increase in responsibility especially important in regard to judgement and planning without these skills its difficult to be goal oriented or develop abstract reasoning
health expectancy vs morbidity
Health expectancy- number of years person can live in good health Morbidity- burden of lifetime illness
how to exercise in older age
How could older adults be encouraged to exercise on a regular basis? Breaks at work, use it as a reward, make it fun, educating about exercise, make good habits What are the risks of bone loss in adulthood?
identity
How does identity impact memory? Over-the-hill = memory begins to go downhill in adulthood Accomodation = process of making changes in identity in response to experiences that challenges current view. May believe society's negative stereotypes about aging and suffer more severe age effects than people who maintain positive views of abilities using identity assimilation Assimilation = interpretation of new experiences in terms of a persons existing identity.
parts of the endocrine system
Hypothalamus = located in the brain; produces hormones that control other structures in the endocrine system amount of these regulating hormones stays about the same, but the response by the endocrine organs can change as we age Pituitary gland = located in the brain; reaches its maximum size in middle age and then gradually becomes smaller; it has two parts: the back portion stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus The front portion produces hormones that affect the thyroid gland (TSH), adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes, and breasts
APA in-text citation
In-text citations help readers locate the cited source in the References section of the paper. Whenever you use a source, provide in parentheses: The author's name and year of publication For quotations and close paraphrases, provide the author's name, year of publication, and page number of that quote For more information on citing direct quotations, check the Purdue Owl website. You should not be using any direct quotations in any of your papers!
cardiovascular system
Includes heart and arteries that circulate blood through the body and veins that bring blood back to the heart Over time, walls of the left ventricle lose ability to contract as a result of the accumulation of plaque Heart rate monitors and exercise are important! Estimated 83.6 million American adults have 1 or more types of CVD Of these 42.2 million are estimated to be over 60 years of age About 66% of CVD deaths occur in people aged 75 and older
In text citation example
Introduce references with signal phrases: According to Kachru (2005)... Kachru (2005) argued that... This study found that X and Y occurred (Kachru, 2005). Using two or more works for the same sentence need to be in alphabetical order: (Kachru, 2005; Smith, 2008) When there are more than two to five authors: (Kachru, Smith, & Hilliard, 2005) When there are more than five authors: Type it out the first time using all authors' last names, and then use et al. (Kachru et al., 2005)
Psychometric Criteria: Validity
Less used forms of validity: Convergent validity- needed to determine that one measure relates to another measure that are theoretically similar CES-D measure= depression symptoms Discriminate validity- demonstrates that a measure does not relate to other measures- that they have no theoretical relationship STAI measure does not equal depression symptoms
life expectancy vs lifespan
Life expectancy- average length of life for people born in a particular time interval. Lifespan- maximum age for a given species
key concepts of the lifespan approach
Life span perspective- emphasizes continuity of development from childhood to old age Contextual influences- life span change is a function of nature and nurture, influences of both genetics and environment Developmental science- need to look at multiple factors in development, usually step wise Geriatrics- the medical specialty in which aging is the main focus.
other digestive disorders
Liver - becomes less able to metabolize medications so it is more susceptible to damage Gallbladder - produces less bile, leading to gallstones Pancreas - does not seem to change much with age
long-term memory
Long-term memory = repository of information that is held for a period of time ranging from several minutes to a lifetime Includes processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval Contains information that includes the recent past and information from a long time ago
Presbycusis
Loss of ability to hear high-pitched tones
endocrine system
Made up of organs and tissues that produce hormones Metabolism slows over time, beginning at around age 20
control beliefs
Memory controllability = Example: the extent to which individuals believe that memory decline is inevitable with age Older people who rely heavily on identity accommodation are more likely to hold negative beliefs about ability to control their memory as they age
self-efficacy identity balance
Memory self-efficacy = form of self-efficacy that refers to the confidence you have in your memory; the degree to which you feel that you can successfully complete a memory task. Example: if you believe that you have a poor memory, you are less likely to remember something
reproduction in aging for men
Men experience a slightly decreased level of testosterone andropause = age-related declines in testosterone erectile dysfunction = increases with age in adulthood lower testosterone levels more likely in men who are diabetic or obese testosterone supplements are in increasing use, promoting these bodily functions just because a man has trouble becoming aroused, doesn't mean he has ED
Five levels of environment interact on the individual: Bronfenbrenner ecological perspective
Microsystem= setting in which people have their daily interaction and which therefore have the most direct impact on their lives. Examples: friends and family Mesosystem= interactions that take place among two or more microsystems Examples: school, neighborhood Exo-system= environments people do not closely experience on a regular basis but still impact them Community, extended family Macro-system= includes the larger social institutions ranging from a country's economy to its laws and social norms Examples: policy, economics, society, culture and nationality Chronosystem= changes that take place over time
nature and nurture combination
Nature- growth in childhood regarded as a clock- like process that reflected the unfolding of the individuals genetic makeup Someone's height Nurture- child's development- dependent on environment the parents provided How you are raised, friends you choose to be with
the limbic and nervous system
Nervous system = the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body Limbic system = a complex of nerves and networks in the brain; involves basic emotions, instincts, and mood; part of the nervous system
influence on development in 3 categories
Normative age graded influences- cultural norms Ex. age norms (when you graduate from college, get married) Normative history graded influences- events that occur to everyone within a certain culture or geopolitical unit and include scale occurrences Ex. world wars, economic trends, events like 9/11 Non- normative influences- random idiosyncratic events that occur throughout life Car accident, fire
What defines age?
Numerical age- not the best way to describe age Experiences- your experience can be shared with others in your age group Attitude- the way we think and perceive age, our social realm (the older we become- whether we have fewer or more friends)
issues with body temperature control
Older adults at greatest risk of dying from dysthermia Less able to adjust internal body temperature to outside conditions For hyperthermia, older adults with heart disease are particularly vulnerable For hypothermia, risks to older adults seems to reflect impaired ability to maintain core body temperature Changes in sweat output also contribute, as do thinning of the dermal layer of the skin
Jeanne Louise Calment
Oldest documents human of 122 years old
Other approaches
Organismic model- heredity determines the course of development throughout life (nature side of debate) Mechanistic model- behavior changes gradually over time, shaped by outside forces that cause them to adapt to their environments (nurture side of debate) No clear stages; development is smooth; depends on new experiences Interactionist model- genetics and environment interact and individuals shape their own environment
changes in the kidney
Overall amount of kidney tissue decreases Number of filtering units (nephrons) decreases = filter waste material from the blood Blood vessels supplying the kidneys can become hardened - causes the kidneys to filter blood more slowly
somatosensory system
Part of the sensory system concerned with the conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, position, movement, and vibration
urinary system continued
Prevalence of daily incontinence ranges from 12% in women ages 60-64 and 21% in women 85+ Overactive bladder and incontinence may be associated with psychological problems including symptoms of depression, difficulty sleeping, and various forms of sexual dysfunction Embarrassment and concern over having an accident People often believe that bladder dysfunction is a normal part of aging - less likely to seek treatment Medications are available
COPD
Progressive disease that makes it hard to breathe Can cause coughing that produces a large amount of mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness and other related symptoms Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD Less air flows in and out of the airways: airways and air sacs lose elastic quality walls between many of the air sacs are destroyed walls of the airways become thick and inflamed airways make more mucus than usual, which can clog them Globally, COPD is underreported
Diversity in Aging
Race/ ethnicity Culture Identity Disability Socioeconomic status Religion
slowing down age related changes
Reducing stress- high stress levels impair learning and memory Maintaining good health- possible interactions between medications, absence of disease etc Staying mentally-stimulated- engaging in challenging cognitive tasks protects against declines in thinking and risk of developing Alzheimer's disease Using active strategies- facilitating memory by following a routine, using external techniques (calendar, pill box) and taking more time to actively process new information.
urinary tract infection
The infection can occur at different points in the urinary tract including: cystitis = an infection in the bladder pyelonephritis = an infection of one or both kidneys ureters = the tubes that take urine from each kidney to the bladder are only rarely the site of infection urethritis = an infection of the tube that empties urine from the bladder to the outside
respiratory system
Respiratory muscles lose ability to expand and contract the chest wall Lung tissue is less able to expand and contract Avoid or quit smoking Regulate body weight-obesity related to poor respiration Exercise -strengthens the muscles of the chest wall
muscles bones and joints
Sarcopenia - progressive age-related loss of muscle declines in speed and strength retention of muscle strength increased risk for falling, limits mobility, and reduces QOL Loss of bone mineral content bone remaining - old cells are destroyed and replaced by new cells Heavier people lose less bone Bone loss is greater in women Environmental factors - climate that have sharp changes in season Extreme cold bad for bones. Loss of articular cartilage by 20s and 30s, articular cartilage starts to degenerate joints don't benefit from constant use ergonomics = working efficiency in one's environment
appearance
Skin first signs of aging appear in your 30s Skin later becomes translucent Skin becomes less flexibility over times Wrinkles Age spots Nails become more yellowed, thicker, and ridged Bone loss in the face Teeth Photo-aging
Age clocks
The internal sense of timing of physical and social events, determine the various life stages through which adults pass Although people age at different rates, the majority of Americans, reinforced by social norms, pass through a series of predictable periods. Specific stages that break down adult development have been developed by Daniel Levinson where the young adult years are referred to as the "peak years"
What is APA style
The American Psychological Association (APA) citation style is the most commonly used format for manuscripts in the social sciences. APA regulates: Stylistics (point of view, formatting, etc.) In-text citations References
vision and response time
The amount of time it takes to respond to events in the environment once they are detected is typically slower amongst older adults. Visual changes among aging adults include problems with reading speed, seeing in dim light, reading small print, and locating objects. This is why they have more difficulty driving! Vision and sensory degeneration are directly linked to quality and safety of driving.
Photo aging
The effects of photo-aging on the skin are clearly seen under UV light. Most likely from sun damage UV rays of the sun accelerate processes of cross-linking Cigarette smoking also causes skin damage
urinary tract infections continued
The following increases your chances of developing a UTI: Diabetes Advanced age and conditions that affect personal care habits Problems emptying the bladder completely Having a urinary catheter Bowel incontinence Enlarged prostate, narrowed urethra, or anything that blocks the flow of urine Kidney stones Staying still for a long period of time Pregnancy Surgery or other procedure involving the urinary tract
Archival Research
Use existing resources containing data relevant to a question about aging Strengths: No additional data collection required, Rare instances can be studieid Limitations: No causality, Records not avaiable, Can't be manipulated, Data collected by nonscientists Correlational (at best) EX: searching already-existing databases (ex U.S census, NIH illness database
reference
Using a source from a journal: Author, A. A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number (issue number), page numbers. Using a source from a website: Author, A.A., & Author B.B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Website. Retrieved from URL. Any other source formatting can be looked up on the Purdue Owl website:
criterion
Whether the test score accurately predicts performance on indicator measure
Stereotyping
Why does society stereotype older individuals? What are some of these stereotypes? Stereotype threat = people perform in ways consistent with negative stereotypes of the group to which they see themselves Older person's self-identification as "old" contributes to lower memory test scores
reproduction in aging women
Women have decreased levels of estradiol and other estrogen hormones after menopause there is a range of possible symptoms (e.g. hot flashes), but not clear how related to physiological change genitals undergo a number of changes that can interfere with sexual intercourse bones, cardiovascular disease, and memory may be affected by estrogen decreases (e.g. low bone density, higher risk of heart attacks)
working memory
Working memory = keeps information available and active in consciousness Use when you are trying to learn new information or remember information that you had learned previously that you are trying to recall Assess working memory: assign a task like to memorize a phone number. Then participate in another activity that prevents continued rehearsal of the phone number. Follow up after some time and see if the person can remember the phone number.
digestive disorders of the large intestines
a loss of muscle strength can result in diverticulosis = small pouches that bulge outward through weak points in the intestinal wall undigested food take longer to move through the large intestine, leading to constipation polyps and colon cancer are more common in older adults, although it is unclear what effect age has on the development of these benign (not cancerous) and malignant (cancerous) growths
terminal decline
a type of selective attrition, individuals gradually lose cognitive abilities as they draw closer to death
SOC model Continued
adults attempt to perserve and maximize the abilities that are of most importance and put less effort into maintaining those that are not People begin to reduce efforts in one area to focus on more success in another EX: when aerobic exercises becomes too difficult, people may switch to yoga
accumulated damage
all external; exposure to toxins, sun rays, harmful foods, pollution Over time these factors can lead to tissue damage, allowing the body to fall behind on cellular repair
limbic system, prefrontal cortex
area involved in planning and encoding information in long-term memory (along with temporal cortex) experiences major effects destruction of the anterior 2/3 results in deficits in concentration, orientation, abstracting ability, judgment, and problem-solving ability destruction of the orbital (frontal) lobe results in inappropriate social behavior executive functioning (higher-order thinking)
limbic system- hippocampus
area responsible for consolidating memories becomes smaller with increasing age, though plasticity is possible Alzheimer's disease = hippocampus is one of the first regions in the brain to suffer damage
simple correlational designs
as hostility increases so does blood pressure, but we cant conclude one causes the other. their may also be a third, unmeasurable variable that influences the relationship
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
at certain points in life, a persons biological, psychological, and social changes come together to influence our personality epigenetic principal- the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages stages are programmed and built into us individuals may confront psychosocial issues an "off-time fashion"
Piaget's cognitive- development theory
attempted to explain processes underlying children's growth or cognitive abilities hypothesized the existence of a set of underlying processes that allowed children to eventually achieve understanding and master the physical world
Random error theories continued
autoimmune theory-aging is due to faulty immune system, immune system attacks bodys own cells error theories- mutations acquired over organisms lifetime leads to malfunctions of body cells error catastrophe- the extinction of an organism as result of excessive mutations
exercise
can offset these trends (and can boost well-being)
cellular aging
cells age based on the number of times they have replicated. Cells can replicate about 50 times before they cannot be copied accurately anymore, leading to issues in replication (benign tumors)
sequential research designs
consists of different combinations of variable age, cohort, and time of measurement types: cohort-sequential, time-sequential, cross-sequential Example: sequences of studies like cross-sectional study (carried out twice over a span of 10 years)
Multiple correlational designs
control for confounds other than age- variables can be added into analyses that the researcher suspects may be linked with age allow investigations of causality- paths can be drawn from one variable to another, and their significance tested provide ways to examine change over time- can use statistical methods that model changes in growth.
height
decreases across adulthood- especially in women Due to loss of bone material content in the vertebrae
Validity
does the test measure what it's supposed to measure?
memory that declines
episodic memory- long-term memory for events source memory- recalling sources of learned information; memory for time and place in which events occurred false memory- recalling memory that did not occur prospective memory- memory that involves remembering to perform planned action or intention at appropriate time
Memory that does not decline with age
flashbulb- recall of important and distinctive events that stand out from other memories of past events semantic memory- ability to recall word meaning or factual information procedural information- recall of actions involved in particular tasks autobiographical memory- episodes recollected from individual's life based on combinations of episodic and semantic memories reminiscence bump- older adults have increased recollection for events that occurred during adolescence and early childhood lifespan retrieval curve: birth to 5 (childhood amnesia- don't really remember) 16-25 (reminiscence bump- older persons have better memory of younger events) and end of reminiscence bump to present (period of forgetting) during changes in identity and self, memory storage increases.
Ageism
form of stereotyping based on age that can have many negative consequences
Surveys/Questionnaires
gain information about a sample that can be generalized to a larger population typically through short-answer or multiple-choice questions strengths: Efficient data collection, Attitude or opinions can be measured Limitations: NO causal conclusions, Self-report is difficult to verify, Biased samples, Low response rates Example: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) or the CED-S
niche-picking
genetic and environmental factors work together to the influence the direction of a child's life. One regard that the Children pick out their 'niche' (area in which they develop their talents or abilities) Have a parent who is really into sports, it might encourage their child to play that sport their parents love, but they ultimately have the choice
test-restest
giving the same test on two or more occasions to assess whether respondents receive similar scores
Hair
graying of hair Thinning of the hair Androgenetic alopecia (baldness) Dependent on genetics also Why do people in Western society place value on having a tanned appearance?
age
how many years (or months) the person has lived change within the individual
Epigenetics
how nature and nurture interact
identity process theory
identity- favorable view of the self threshold experience- normal changes/illness identity assimilation- interpret new experiences in terms of a person's existing identity identity accommodation- make changes in identities in response to experiences that challenge current view of self identity balance- self- efficacy
Independent variable
in an experimental study, the factor that the experimenter manipulates (time length of intervention)
Dependent variable
in an experimental study, the factor that the experimenter observes (sub scales measures)
Communication strategies for talking to older adults
look directly at the person make sure the other person is in enough light turn down background noise don't chew gum or food keep your voice low enunciate carefully do NOT talk to them as if he or she were a child provide context so the listener knows what you're talking about note whether the other person is responding to you maintain positive and patient attitude
somatosensory system- touch
loss of ability to discriminate touch perhaps as high as 1% per year hands and feet more affected than lip and tongue practical consequences include loss of ability to grasp, maintain balance, perform delicate handiwork, and speak
refractive errors: myopia
loss of ability to focus on far objects
presbyopia***
loss of ability to focus on near objects
loss of balance
loss of balance is one of the main factors responsible for falls, which in turn, can lead to institutionalization and death previous falls also increase risk of later falls falls can create a fear of falling, which in turn, increases the risk even more further exacerbated by dizziness and vertigo
somatosensory system- pain
lower back pain is a chronic problem for as many as 12% of older adults pain can interfere with cognitive performance current older adults may be stoic- pain becomes chronic so they endure it without showing pain or complaining pain is associated with obesity preferable to use non-medical methods to control pain which carry no risk of abuse
Urinary system
older adults likely to have slower excretion rates of chemicals from the body hypertrophy in men- enlargement of the prostate urge incontinence- individual experiences sudden need to urinate and may leak urine stress incontinence- individual unable to retain urine while engaging in some form of physical exertion overactive bladder- need to urinate more frequently
Laboratory Studies
participants are tested in systematic fashions using standardized procedures, often involving some type of task strengths: easier to replicate, control of independent variable and extraneous variables Limitations: Produces unnatural behavior, Difficult to generalize findings, experimenter bias EX: randomized controlled trials from cancer drugs.
reciprocity principal
people influence and are influenced by the events in their lives Example: you influence decisions your friends make which, in turn, influences you. IT can lead to changes in your own behavior and attitudes Decisions that you have made and where you are in life are influenced by prior life events Relates to effect you have on your environment- you affect the people around you
selective attrition
people who drop out of longitudinal studies that are not representative of the sample
Cognitive- development theory continued
schema- mental structure used to understand the world assimilation- fit a new experience into an existing categories accommodation- changing schemas in response to new information equilibrium- when assimilation and accommodation are perfectly balanced what seems out of character for a specific individual?
correlational research designs
shows the extent of a relationship between two variables can be negative or positive strength is indicated by how close it is to 1 or -1 cannot prove causality!!
support for programmed theories
species have different lifespans ability to identify and conrol aging genes would change nature of aging biologically- shown that the ceasing of cell division can lead to abnormal growth and lessening telomere length
digestive disorders of the small intestine
the small intestine does not seem to dramatically change with age it does become less able to absorb certain vitamins and minerals (such as vitamin D, vitamin B12, and calcium) bacterial overgrowth can occur as well, which can cause diarrhea and unintentional weight loss in older adults
processing speed***
the time it takes for an individual to complete a mental task neurons and myelin sheath
Hormonal Aging
usually occurs in childhood and adolescents as well as menopause for women Hormone levels fluctuate, leading to acne dry skin and menopause in later life
random error theory
wear and tear- body acquires more damage as it is exposed to daily wear and tear from the environment the human body is not built to last forever cross linking- the idea that aging can damage cells that make up connective tissue (can create stiffness or pain) free radical- aging happens because cells cumulate free radicals (atoms with an unpaired electron in outer shell) that cause damage over time
Practical fall prevention strategies
wear proper eyeglasses use prosthesis while walking (e.g. walker, cane) install balance aids in the home become trained in taking care while walking get shower chair or bath bench install hand-held shower head sit while grooming have sturdy step stools if needed in kitchen keep the cellphone handy
Metabolic Aging
when your cells turn food into energy, they also create by products that can be harmful. Process of metabolizing and creating energy results in damage to the body over time. Some believe that slowing the metabolism may lead to slower aging in humans.
content
whether a test accurately asses what its supposed to
Ageism origins continued
why aren't more older adults negatively affected by ageism? age-as-leveler- older adults become regarded as targets regardless of prior status- age takes the forefront of all personal characteristics inoculation hypothesis- older adults, especially women and minorities, become immune to ageism years of discrimination and stereotyping- build up a tolerance upper-income caucasian populations may find it more difficult to accept these stereotypes
digestive disorders of the large intestine
with age, the stomach takes longer to empty into the small intestine, making older adults more vulnerable to ulcers and bleeding from medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) the longer these drugs are in the stomach, the more likely they are to cause these problems the stomach also becomes less elastic and can hold less food, meaning that older adults feel more full quickly
time of measurement
year or period in which a person is tested current influences on individuals being tested
cohort
year or period of a persons birth influences relative to history at time of birth