HDFS 229- LESSON 7
Recovery from Brain Damage
*Children:* Where damage occurs in brain: Area of the brain that is responsible for specific skills or functions (like language or visual perception) Recovery in Children: Recovery is typically *more complete for children* compared with adults with the same type of injury Explanation: If damage occurs to a part of the brain responsible for a specific function, the earlier the damage occurs, the more Plastic the brain is and the more likely another part of the brain can take over the function for the damaged portion of the brain *Adults:* Where damage occurs in brain: Area of the brain that affects more general skills or functions (like IQ or planning) Recovery in Adults: Recovery is typically *better for adults* than for children with the same type of injury Explanation: If the damage occurs to a part of the brain responsible for more generalized skills, then more brain function is compromised and more future development is affected in children. In adults, the development of these generalized skills has already occurred and therefore regaining function of these skills is more likely after such injury
White & Gray Matter
*White Matter* (myelinated brain areas)- Sensory area Motor areas Areas involved in higher-level cognition (language, planning, attention, etc.) *Gray Matter* (unmyelinated brain areas)- Areas involved in balance and coordination, and maintaining homeostasis Areas responsible for basic physiological functions like respiration and circulation, etc.
Breastfeeding- Disadvantages for Baby
-None, if the mother not have any bad "habits" (legal or illegal drugs and/or alcohol), or diseases that can be transmitted through breastmilk -If the mother smokes, the baby will sleep less and may be more irritable after the mother has a cigarette - however the baby still benefits from breastfeeding -It is uncertain as to whether the infant can get *AIDS* through the breastmilk so the advice is typically not to breastfeed if the mother is HIV positive
Breastfeeding- Disadvantages for Mother
-She must avoid any bad "habits" just as if she were still pregnant -If the mother *works*, she may need to express breastmilk for her baby to have while she is gone (this may require break time during her workday and a place to express and store her milk) -*Only the mother can breastfeed*, although if she expresses milk then anyone else can feed the baby the bottle -There may be some *soreness* at first, but if it "hurts" or if soreness lasts more than 2-3 days, it can be quickly remedied by using better techniques for either positioning or latching on (breastfeeding skill is not "innate" so the mother should be taught how to assist the baby to take to the breast) -Possibility of a *breast infection*, especially if the mother is stressed or wears the wrong size bra. This can easily be treated in the early stages at home with a warm compress several times a day. If not caught early, it could require antibiotics which might interfere with breastfeeding In the U.S., numerous studies have confirmed that women who are younger, less educated, and have lower income are least likely to breastfeed *African-American* women are least likely to breastfeed and *Hispanic* women are most likely to breastfeed Women from the *deep south* have the lowest rates of breastfeeding, while women in *Washington DC* have the highest rates of breastfeeding
Breastfeeding- Advantages for Mother
1. lower rates of *ovarian cancer* 2. half the risk of *rheumatoid arthritis* (for mothers who breastfed at least a total of 13 months over their lifespan) 3. easier *bonding* with the infant (due to effect of oxytocin, the hormone that releases the breastmilk and is also important in feeling trust, love, and calmness) 4. lower rates of *post-partum depression* for breastfeeding mothers (probably due to effects of oxytocin) 5. Reduced risk of *heart disease* after menopause and several times lower risk of developing *calcification or plaque* in major arteries 6. lower (to much lower) risk of developing *metabolic syndrome* (risk factors for type 2 diabetes and heart disease) 7. lowered rates of developing *type 2 diabetes* for the mother who has breastfed, with longer breastfeeding reducing risks even more 8. less *abdominal fat* (compared with non-breastfeeding mothers) in middle age 9. babies who were breastfed are *less finicky eaters* (probably because they were used to the ever-changing flavor of breastmilk which reflects the mother's diet) 10. the *stools* of a breastfed infant are not stinky (they do not smell bad as long as the infant has nothing but breastmilk in their diet) 11. breastfeeding is much *less expensive* than formula feeding and breastmilk is all the infant needs for the first 6 months of life 12. Baby is *sick less often* 13. *no prep time* for breastmilk
Nature & Nurture in Motor Skill Development
Accomplishing motor skills is the *result of an interaction between genetically-determined physical growth, coordination of muscle groups, and experience* *Culture and cultural practices also make a difference* The average age of walking for babies in the U.S. is 12 months In *France*, it's 15 months, and in *Uganda* it's 10 months *Cultural practices* (how babies are handled and the expectations parents have for them) make a difference in the acquisition of motor skills Other factors also influence how these skills are acquired Infants in the *Kalahari Dessert in Africa* also walk sooner than infants in the U.S., and like *Ugandan* infants, they are carried in slings for most of their first year Thus, they have few opportunities to build their muscles through physical activity and practice the way most U.S. infants do Rather, being *carried in upright slings* close to the mother's body seems to stimulate African infants' sensory nerves in their chest and trunk, which helps develop the motor cortex of the brain The results of this constant stimulation is a reduced need for opportunities to practice motor skills, since they develop more quickly Infants sometimes have experiences that slow down motor skill acquisitions While baby walkers have fallen out of favor today (because they can pose dangers to babies), for a time they were quite popular Advertisers claimed that they gave infants practice in walking which would help them begin to walk sooner Instead, many parents noticed that their infants were actually walking a bit later than was typical (but still well in the normal range) The impact of culture and experience on infant physical development is important for professionals working with infants to be aware of because these are contexts that can greatly affect infant's development and learning - *CKC 1 & CKC 3*
Neuronal Connections
At the physical level of the brain, development occurs to neurons and neuronal connections *Neurons are brain cells, specialized nerve cells which make up the human brain* *Neuronal connections are connections between neurons that allow for communication between them* *Communication between neurons* is what ultimately *allows us to have reflexes, to control movement, or to have thoughts* Anything the brain does is possible because neurons communicate with each other At birth, the *infant has more neurons than an adult*, but *fewer neuronal connections* Several processes are happening during these first three years of development to change that: 1. Neurons are forming connections with each other, rapidly increasing the number of neuronal connections in the infant's brain. In fact, during this time in development, the number of neuronal connections in the infant's brain will become greater than in the adult brain 2. *Selective cell death* (loss of neurons) and reduction of neuronal connections *("synaptic pruning")* occurs to neurons and neuronal connections that are not used or practiced. For neurons and neuronal connections, *"Use it or Lose it"* is the rule of thumb. Thus, brain cells and connections that are active and strengthened continue to grow more connections, while those without activity lose connections and may die *CKC 1*
Experience
Baby has relatively well-developed senses as well as prenatal experience which prepare him to experience the world Additionally, our developmental history as humans has also prepared him for understanding the world around him: *Brain development is both Experience-expectant and Experience dependent* *Experience Expectant* Brain development is experience-expectant - it relies on normal experiences expected to be in the environment to shape its growth For example, our baby and human infants around the world will normally encounter visual experience in a three-dimensional world, interact with physical objects, and have significant relationships with other people, to name a few. Human brains have evolved to develop in the context of these normal human experiences. In their absence, the brain will not develop normally *Experience Dependent* Brain development is also experience-dependent, which means that our baby's and other infants' unique experiences will shape the specific neuronal connections that are formed in their brains and that remain after the pruning process Evolution cannot predict the exact environmental stimulation that the infant will encounter For example, one child might have positive experiences and interactions with parents, while another has negative experiences and interactions with parents Our baby will be surrounded by books and reading materials while another baby might not have these resources available The brains of all these children would reflect different specific neuronal connections and organization due to these experiences Human infants seem to be able to recognize individual *monkey faces* as well, so infant's abilities to recognize faces is not strictly limited to humans, as least at first After repeated experience with human faces, this innate ability to recognize faces quickly begins to specialize in humans, probably between *6-9 months* of age Coincidentally, this is about the same time human infants begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, an awareness of and discomfort around unfamiliar people These two concepts, experience-expectant and experience-dependent, are important concepts for professionals working with infants and children to be knowledgeable of to better understand how experience and biology shape one another and the impact it has on infants' and children's development and learning *(CKC 1)*
Breastfeeding- Advantages for Baby
Even commercials for infant formula must state by law that "breastmilk is best" in the interest of full disclosure Researchers are discovering or confirming further advantages of breastfeeding all the time
Current Safe Infant Sleep Recommendations in the U.S.
In 2016, the U.S. American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) updated safe infant sleep recommendations The AAP specifically presented these recommendations as those for "creating a safe sleep environment" -*Place the baby on their back on a firm sleep surface such as a crib or bassinet with a tight-fitting sheet* -*Avoid use of soft bedding, including crib bumpers, blankets, pillows, and soft toys. The crib should be bare* -*Share a bedroom with parents, but not the same sleeping surface, preferably until the baby turns 1 but at least for the first six months.* Room-sharing decreases the risk of SIDS by as much as 50% -*Avoid baby's exposure to smoke, alcohol, and illicit drugs*
Back to Sleep
In the early 1990s pediatricians recommended that babies sleep on their backs, rather than their stomachs (Back to Sleep) After the launch of the "Back to Sleep" campaign and recommendation, the rate of SIDS in the U.S. decreased by at least 1/3 *Side Effect* One unexpected side effect has been a slight delay in infants achieving motor milestones Contradicting stimulation of sensory nerves in the infant's chest and trunk speeding up motor skill development, putting babies to sleep on their backs slows down motor skill development a bit, presumably because babies are not getting as much sensory stimulation to these areas Thus, although infants who are put to sleep on their back benefit from a lower risk of SIDS, they do achieve motor milestones slightly
Co-Sleeping
Occurs when an infant shares a bed with adult caregivers Some research has suggested that *co-sleeping may reduce the risk of SIDS* as co-sleeping infants do not sleep as deeply as solitary-sleeping infants It has been suggested that this may reduce the risk of SIDS because the *infant is more easily roused from a light sleep* Additionally, research has found that *co-sleeping infants tend to be in "synchrony" with their mother*, including their breathing In other words, when infants and mothers sleep together, their breathing patterns coincide with each other and this may reduce the risk of SIDS by organizing the immature respiratory systems in the developing brain Despite the aforementioned factors that may mitigate risk, *other research indicates that co-sleeping is not safe for infants* - especially as it is related to infants whose *mothers smoke* and/or contributes to the risk of accidental suffocation For instance, even when the smoker is not having a cigarette, toxins are released in her breath and these toxins contribute to the higher risks of SIDS deaths in co-sleeping babies whose mothers smoke Moreover, families who choose to co-sleep must do so safely because simply putting a baby in an adult bed isn't safe as this can contribute to the risk of *accidental suffocation* Overall, co-sleeping has been a controversial topic in the war against SIDS as some research has shown that co-sleeping reduces the risk of SIDS, while other work has linked SIDS to the practice of co-sleeping While *cross-cultural research* shows that when parents and infants sleep together, the risk of SIDS is reduced; in the U.S., conclusions are less clear Research has suggested that *70% of the world's infants* share a bed with a caregiver, and two countries with among the lowest rates of SIDS (Japan and Sweden) have high rates of co-sleeping In addition, *rates of SIDS are reduced when the infant is breastfed*, and this is more likely when the mother and infant co-sleep Nevertheless, *pediatricians in the U.S. routinely recommend against co-sleeping* given other findings that suggest elevated risks
Motor Development
On average, *full-term newborns weigh about 7.5 pounds* and are about *20 inches long* (babies are measured in length and not height because they are lying down when they are measured) *By the end of the first year*, the average infant has grown 10 inches and has tripled their birth weight *By age 2*, the child is half their adult height A *multitude of motor milestones are accomplished during the first year* (like *rolling over, sitting up, crawling, pointing, walking*, etc.) So based on average motor achievement of *walking at 12 months*, which is more "normal", a baby who takes her first step at 9 months, or a baby who doesn't take their first step until 15 months? Actually, because there is a varying range of "normal" in accomplishing motor milestones, both of these babies fall within the normal range of walking in the U.S. The average age and range of age when infants achieve certain milestones is important for professionals working with infants is emphasized in *CKC 1* This CKC asserts that it's important for professionals working with infants to understand the pattern of physical developmental milestones infants experience and that infants and children are individuals that develop in their own ways at different rates
Feeding Baby
Only breastmilk or formula (never cow's milk) should be given to babies through their first year When babies are *given cow's milk* before their first birthday, they are *more likely to have digestive problems and allergies to milk and milk products* After 1 yr old, babies can drink whole cow's milk until 2 yrs or 3 yrs As with breastmilk (except to a lesser degree), the high fat content in whole milk is helpful to children's *brain development* *Low fat milk* is typically recommended for children after 2 or 3 because of the increasing rates of childhood obesity in the U.S. *CKC 7: Health, Safety and Nutrition* *Solids*, which mostly include foods that are pureed, should be introduced one at a time in order to identify potential food allergies starting around *six months* It's important to introduce healthy eating habits in infancy in order to establish lifelong nutrition and prevent obesity As infants move to toddlerhood and their fine motor skills develop (ie. development of the pincer grasp where the pointer finger and thumb are used to pick up objects), it is critical to introduce them to healthy finger foods to begin to facilitate self feeding *CKC 7*
Brain Development
Plasticity is a characteristic of brain development generally In addition, the *slow growth of human brains* also explains their plasticity *Humans have the longest period of immaturity of any animal* (at least 18-20 yrs or more) In this amount of time, human children must learn everything they need to know to be able to survive as an adult on their own, caring for their own children Brain plasticity assures that children will be able to conquer the multiple complexities and changing circumstances of life that they will encounter as they grow into adulthood Thus, as adults, humans retain the ability to adapt to rapidly changing needs and demands For example, learning a new way of communicating is a developmental process; the ability to learn any of these methods of communication is due to plasticity So, even though much of the changes our brain undergoes occur during the first three years, *our brain still continues to develop in noticeable ways until at least the mid 20s* Thus, early development is important, but subsequent experiences can modify the effects of early development
Stimulation
Stimulation *helps with exuberant connectivity* (rapidly increasing the number of neuronal connections) in the infant's brain -Genetically identical *twin rats* are separated at birth and provided with identical food, water, and medicine (if necessary), but different living environments -One rat has a stimulating environment, complete with rat toys, rat field traps, other rats to interact with, and other enriching experiences. His twin has a deprived solitary environment, which is essentially a bare cage -At some later point their brains are examined for differences (the interval is determined by the specific research question but could be weeks, months, or up to three years later, as the rats near old age) -*Conclusion*: The rats with stimulating environments have bigger brains with more neuronal connections than rats with deprived environments Since the rats were genetically identical and had the same nutritional input, any differences in their brains had to be due to different environments and different experiences Thus, *environmental experience and stimulation is important in brain development* For human infants, *stimulation refers to environmental experience with objects and people*, and interacting within a normal family environment provides plenty of stimulation to promote brain development *In cases of abuse or neglect however, adequate stimulation may be lacking* Unfortunately, *the longer the brain is deprived of adequate stimulation, the more likely the child will suffer permanent damage from the deprivation* Therefore, it's important to consider how the child's experiences and needs, such as their biology/genetics, impact their development and learning and develop ways to best accommodate those infants and children *(CKC 2)* There is also evidence that *early intervention can help children with learning or developmental issues* *"Use it or Lose it"* rule - when connections necessary for normal development are lost, they typically cannot be recovered When infants have normal interactions with objects and people, they are developing and solidifying neuronal connections they need for normal development
SIDS
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome is the unexplained death of an otherwise-healthy infant during sleep It is *most likely to occur when the infant is between 2 months to 4 months* but *can occur anytime during the first year* *Causes* The cause is still unknown but the most widely-accepted explanation is *abnormal brain functioning* It is believed that brain centers that control respiration do not function properly in infants who die of SIDS When these infants do not receive enough oxygen in the air they breathe (as when sleeping on their stomach and rebreathing their own exhaled air), they may be unable to detect this as readily (i.e. send signals from the brain to change position), and/or take the necessary steps to remedy the situation (like turning their head or rolling over) It has been found to happen more often to infants who sleep on their stomachs In the early 1990s pediatricians recommended that babies sleep on their backs, rather than their stomachs (Back to Sleep) After the launch of the *"Back to Sleep"* campaign and recommendation, the rate of SIDS in the U.S. decreased by at least 1/3 *Side Effect* One unexpected side effect has been a slight delay in infants achieving motor milestones Contradicting stimulation of sensory nerves in the infant's chest and trunk speeding up motor skill development, putting babies to sleep on their backs slows down motor skill development a bit, presumably because babies are not getting as much sensory stimulation to these areas Thus, although infants who are put to sleep on their back benefit from a lower risk of SIDS, they do achieve motor milestones slightly
Plasticity
The ability to change Brain development is plasticity
Myelination
The process of covering parts of neurons with myelin Developmental process that occurs in the human brain *during the first three years* Myelin is a *white, fatty substance* that covers parts of certain neurons in the brain When neurons have myelin, they can send messages faster, more efficiently, and with less stimulation Not all neurons have Myelin Myelination requires certain fats in the infant's diet, which is one reason breastfeeding is recommended at first, followed later by whole cow's milk Not surprisingly, *myelination of different parts of the brain corresponds to infant abilities:* -Myelination of *sensory areas* is typically done by the first birthday, and this helps explain the amazing sensory abilities infants already have -Myelination of *motor areas* is typically done by the second birthday, and this helps explain why many of the most noticeable gross motor skills are developed by the second year -The last brain areas of myelination are involved in *planning, inhibition, and attention*, occurring during adolescence
Resilience
Those children who have such traumatic or stressful experiences but manage to avoid future problems are termed resilient, and they are especially interesting to developmental researchers *Questions asked by researchers studying resilience:* -What could be responsible for the lack of negative outcomes in these children -How do they manage to avoid the problems faced by most children in their circumstances *5 characteristics* seem to be shared by resilient children: *Child's Personality*- Adaptable, friendly, independent, sensitive, competent, high self-esteem, resourceful *Family*- Good relationship with at least one parent who provides warmth and supervision *Learning Experiences*- Sense of control and ability to overcome challenges, having good examples to learn from *Compensating Experiences*- Social support from outside the family-- in school, the community, or a relationship with a supporting adult *Reduced Risk*- The fewer the stressors, the greater the chance for resilience When these factors are present, they serve to modify the effects of negative stressors and avoid long-term future problems *CKC 3* *CKC 1*
Brain Development
Understanding the development of the brain rightly belongs in the domain of physical development There is a lot of development to consider, too, even though the infant is born with a large brain, relatively speaking Even so, *during the first three years, the brain develops at a faster rate that at any other time in the lifespan* (*except prenatal development*) The popular media has deemed the *first three years of life as the most important for brain growth* In a sense, this is true because the foundation for healthy brain growth is set here For instance, *during the last trimester of pregnancy, brain growth really explodes, and this growth is affected by the mother's diet* Plenty of *proteins and "healthy" fats* are necessary for healthy fetal brain development These particular nutritional needs do not end with birth - the newborn, toddler, and young child also require plenty of protein and "healthy" fats to continue healthy brain development
