His 102 chapter 16 for midterm

In Persian Letters, what did the Baron de Montesquieu use to symbolize Eastern political tyranny?

A galley ship in the Mediterranean A slave plantation in the Caribbean The oppression of women in a Persian harem Native Americans forced off of their land Eunuchs at the Chinese imperial court

What led René Descartes to his discovery of analytical geometry?

An intellectual vision one night while serving as a soldier The study of medieval Islamic mathematical texts Kepler's discovery of the elliptical orbits of planets Efforts to solve the problem of building a better loom for weaving Early economic analysis that focused on the circular flow of money

How did Enlightenment thinkers differ from those of the Middle Ages and Renaissance?

Enlightenment thinkers focused on worldly matters, while the Middle Ages and Renaissance only focused on concepts of sin and salvation. Enlightenment thinkers rejected the basic tenants of Christianity and embraced a vision of a world without God. Enlightenment thinkers drew inspiration from classical antiquity, whereas the Middle Ages and Renaissance focused on the Bible. Enlightenment thinkers relished artistic production, while the Middles Ages and Renaissance focused on penance and prayer. Enlightenment thinkers believed that thought had progressed far beyond that of antiquity, which demonstrated the possibility of human progress.

How did the idea of "race" transform Europeans' idea of their superiority over other peoples?

European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior as well as religiously superior. European superiority increasingly was defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior rather than religiously superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as religiously superior rather than biologically superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as politically superior rather than morally superior.

The Enlightenment reached its highest development in France for all of the following reasons except

France had the highest literacy rates in Europe. French was the international language of the educated classes. France was the largest and most populous country in Europe. French intellectuals had more freedoms than those in eastern and east-central Europe. French philosophes sought to reach a large audience of elites.

In general, what was Voltaire's attitude toward government?

He believed in democracy, like most philosophes. He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for. He saw the despot or autocrat as designated by God. He believed in enlightened despotism as long as he could be the despot. He believed in enlightened theocracy

How did Isaac Newton's law of gravity bring the Scientific Revolution to maturity?

Newton demonstrated that the biological and physical properties of nature operated by different principles. Newton proved that the workings of nature could be understood without reference of God. Newton showed that the investigation of nature had significant limits as a form of knowledge. Newton synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system. Newton provided bodies of evidence that proved the existence of God.

Why did scientists find that Protestant countries were more conducive to their work, especially after 1640?

Protestant countries generally lacked a strong religious authority capable of censoring or suppressing scientific work that challenged religious doctrine. Protestant countries embraced the idea of science because it was seen as challenging the doctrines of the Catholic Church. Protestant countries increasingly turned toward secular approaches to knowledge. Protestant countries were more influenced by Enlightenment thought. Protestant countries rejected literal interpretations of scripture that inhibited scientific progress.

Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century?

Prussia, Russia, and Austria The Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Prussia Italy, Austria, and Russia Sweden, Prussia, and Russia Sweden, Saxony, and Austria

Which of the following correctly characterizes the response of various religious perspectives to Copernicus's hypothesis?

The Catholic Church declared Copernicus a heretic, while Protestant faiths believed that the hypothesis had no bearing on Christian teaching. Lutheran and Catholic clerics rejected Copernicus, while Calvinists embraced the new interpretation as a new foundation for the heavens. Calvin and Luther condemned Copernicus, while Catholic reaction was mild at first and only declared his hypothesis false in the seventeenth century. The Catholic Church accepted the new science as the product of a faithful cleric, while Luther and Calvin rejected it as the product of Catholic heresy. Lutheran and Catholic officials rejected Copernicus's hypothesis as heretical to a literal interpretation of scripture, while Calvinists recognized a more modern approach to truth and adopted it.

What core concept of the Enlightenment was the most important and original?

The methods of natural science should be used to examine all aspects of life. The scientific method could discover the laws of human society. Human beings could create better societies and better people. God has no role in the workings of the universe. Reason involved logical patterns of thoughts that could lead one to deduce truths.

How did the philosophes evade the work of censors?

They bribed censors to approve publication of their works. They filled their writings with satire and double meanings. They published works and then claimed to have had them approved. They relied on friendly censors to approve publication of their works. They published from monasteries not subject to censorship.

What was the primary goal of Galileo's experimental method?

To identify the fundamental laws guiding nature rather than issues of theology To discover what did occur in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur To expose how the workings of nature demonstrate the presence of God To uncover the hidden forces that directed nature and that humans could manipulate To produce benefits for humankind rather than seek abstract knowledge

The idea of the public sphere that emerged during the Enlightenment refers to

a government bureau that regulated the work of the philosophes. an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues. the marketplaces at which peasants gathered to gossip and share news. the spaces in the royal courts where commoners could observe the king and the court hold ceremonies. the practice of legislatures to permit private citizens to make addresses before the gathered deputies.

The concept of the reading revolution refers to the

acquisition of literacy by the masses. spread of literacy among women. invention of the printing press. spread of pornography and scandalmongering broadsheets in Europe. shift from reading aloud texts perceived as authoritative to reading many different texts rapidly, silently, and individually.

The primary purpose of Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) was to

advocate religious tolerance. attack French absolutism. adapt scientific thought to Christian doctrine. counteract the influence of the Enlightenment. popularize the findings of the scientific revolution.

Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as

classicalism. neoclassicalism. baroque. rococo. romanticism.

A striking feature of the salons was that

clerics were banned. philosophes, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled. they were often sponsored by the government. members of the working classes often attended. their main purpose was making marriage matches between poor nobles and wealthy commoners.

Johannes Kepler believed that the elliptical orbit of planets

could not be sustained, for they violated the perfection of circular orbits. demonstrated the presence of Satan's disruptive influence in the universe. made the heavens subject to violent corrections that produced earthquakes on earth. were interspersed with epicycles and deferents. produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies

Copernicus's theory of the universe

destroyed the distinction between earthly and heavenly worlds. was endorsed by John Calvin. postulated a sun-centered view of the universe. strengthened the Ptolemaic theory of the universe. used epicycles to explain planetary motion.

Francis Bacon formalized the research methods of Tycho Brahe and Galileo into a theory of reasoning known as

dualism. empiricism. occultism. naturalism. materialism.

Rousseau's concept of the general will asserts that

enlightened monarchs protect the interests of the entire society and should be relied on for reform. the people's political wishes can be conveyed only by direct democracy. the authentic, long-term needs of the people can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority. sovereignty resides in the monarchy. public opinion polling can be a valuable support to democracy.

The enlightened policies of Frederick II of Prussia included all of the following except

freeing the Prussian serfs. abolishing the torture of prisoners. permitting scholars wide latitude to publish what they wished. promoting schools. religious toleration.

Joseph II's conversion of labor obligations to cash payments

had the support of the nobles. transformed a barter economy into a cash one. was opposed by both nobles and peasants. was the basis for the future evolution of Austrian society. followed Russian precedent.

All of the following correctly characterize the role of women in the new science except

in Italy, universities offered positions to women. women were well involved in informal scientific communities, attending salons and participating in scientific experiments. most new academies that furnished professional credentials did not accept female members. women worked as illustrators and model makers. women were forbidden from publishing learned treatises.

Catherine the Great of Russia came to power in 1762 through

inheritance of the throne from her mother Elizabeth. an invitation from the Russian senate to rule. Frederick II of Prussia's invasion of Russia. a conspiracy led by her lover. election by the boyars.

Joseph II of Austria responded to calls to grant civil liberties to Jews by

issuing edicts intended to integrate Jews more fully into society, including eligibility for military service. granting Jews freedom of worship but requiring them to live separately from Christians. granting Jews liberties only in areas useful to the monarchy, such as banking. expelling all Jews from Austrian lands. requiring Jews who issued such calls to pay heavy fines or face execution.

According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to

popularize the scientific revolution. improve the material life of Europeans. "change the general way of thinking." undermine French absolutism. overthrow the king.

To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, Empress Maria Theresa

regulated the church more closely. ordered the adoption of scientific farming techniques. abolished serfdom. reduced nobles' power over their serfs. established a bank to make loans to peasants on easy terms.

The discipline of natural philosophy focused on

specific natural laws that governed all matter in material universe. fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe. the application of ancient philosophy to theological questions. theological principles that can be discovered in the study of nature. the investigation of non-Western philosophy and religion in the context of Christian doctrine.

The most influential aspect of René Descartes's theories of nature was that

spiritual forces were infused throughout nature. mind and matter could be reduced to the same substance. secure knowledge required the use of inductive reasoning. only through our senses can we be sure of the world outside of us. the universe functioned in a mechanistic fashion.

The scientific revolution drew on all of the following for its origins except

the establishment of universities and their partial practice of free inquiry. the recovery of ancient texts in the Renaissance. Arabic commentaries on mathematics and studies of nature. efforts to solve problems of navigation. efforts to prevent a recurrence of the Black Death

Rousseau believed that

women should play an active role in public life. women were best suited to a passive role in social relations. civilization was the foundation of freedom. without rational thought, human society would crumble. enlightened absolutism was the best of all possible forms of government.