History of Sport and Philosophy Test 2

Europe became feudalistic (dark ages)

Castles and walled cities designed by desperate people for protection

____________ _____________ adopted popular chariot racing from the Romans

Christian Empire

During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology and started to embrace _________________

Christianity

Philosophical Positions: The Body

Dualism

Etruscan's employed sports and athletic festivals for _________________.

Entertainment

Etruscan sports:

Etruscan cities often centered around arenas which served as sporting venues

Flavian Amphitheater

Financing: - Vespasian looted Temple of Jerusalem Construction: - Brought 12,000 Jewish slaves back to Rome to help construct

Gladiators

Four major classes: - Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, Murmillo - Dressed as Roman enemies who fought to the death - Most popular events in the amphitheater

Middle Ages (or Medieval Period)

From 900 A.D. to beginning of Italian Renaissance (14th century)

Archaeological evidence that women competed as ______________________ - Roman officials outlawed participation at certain times

Gladiators

Roman gods were essentially _______________ gods with Roman names

Greek

Christian concept of the body:

Merging of Eastern Orthodox theology and Greek philosophy

"Romanized" ______________Games had wrestling and running contests for women

Olympic

______________ tended to change Medieval view of the body - "Scholastics" would disagree with this position

Plague

Romans were ______________ (like the Greeks)

Polytheistic

Games and Spectacles (rome)

Religious holidays became elaborate festivals - 53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D. - Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support - Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people - Government believed bored citizens would revolt - Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and various other forms of combat

__________________ adopted various Etruscan customs and practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.

Romans

Dark Ages civilization regressed into kingdoms (dark ages):

Similar to tribal societies

Athens and Sparta: Views on Physical Education

Sparta - Obsessed with the military - Education was domain of the state - State's purpose was to produce soldiers - Physical education was taken very seriously - Educated Spartans were physically fit, good soldiers

Romans were very effective ______________________

administrators

Etruscan rule:

approximately 600 B.C. to 509 B.C.

Pompeii:

best-preserved gladiator training schools

Phlebotomy (bloodletting):

common treatment

Tertullian:

demanded bodily mortification Opposed recognizing the pagan Greek philosophy He and his followers were in the minority

Greek athletic festivals and Roman spectacles ended with of _________________ Rome in 410 A.D.

destruction

Platonism:

endorsed by Christian thinkers as intellectual preparation for Christianity

- Melee:

groups of knights in hand-to-hand combat

Humors explained:

life stages, personality, moods, and disease - Herbs, minerals, and animal materials also used to treat humoral imbalance

Joust:

mounted horsemen try to knock each other off

Orthodox:

rejected idea that body was evil

Great civil engineers, many Roman _____________still in use Very effective administrators

roads

Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful—very ____________________

utilitarian

Scholastics: were among the first to establish philosophical and religious justification for the body

were among the first to establish philosophical and religious justification for the body

Gladiators took a oath to?

"burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods, and killed with steel"

Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics

- A group devoted to the teaching of Socrates - Believed in the importance of character, and the indifference to circumstance - influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians - Believed Socratic maxim, "no harm can come to a good man" - Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignored - Political relationships are pointless and should be ignored

Aretes:

- Arete is possible only while individual is striving - Those who think they have attained it have lost it - Have passed into hubris (excessive pride) - Arete includes virtue, skill, prowess, pride, excellence, valor, and nobility (Stephen - Arete was not limited to athletes - Bestowed on public servants, poets, philosophers, and soldiers

Christian theologians

- Attempted to "wed" philosophy with theology - Developed philosophical proofs to support theological beliefs - Scholastics: Augustine, Anselm, Aquinas, etc.

Games of the Middle Ages

- Ball games tended to be rough and lax on rules - Soule: resembled soccer and played by peasants - Played between two "goals" - Goals could be anything - Many versions as local customs governed rules - Some early versions of hockey and baseball, bowling (kegels) - Horse racing - English football: gained popularity in London

Aristocratic Sport

- Based largely on war games - Tournament (joust): most famous of period—gala affairs that were social and recreational - Medieval tournament: celebration of social order - Evolved from free-for-all into ordered events - Condemned by church initially; knightly sports were accepted during era of Crusades

Philosophical positions of the body

- Biblical Jesus: perfection in body, mind, and soul - Philosophical positions of the body emerged from theology - God created universe, men/women, mind/body - Implied the body and the soul were good - Metaphysics/ontology became confused during medieval debates - Debate over nature of Jesus' body contributed to splitting of Christianity

Dualism (cont.)2:

- Body is enemy of the mind - Deceives as to what is real - Only in death is the mind truly free of the body - Potentially damaging for view of physical education

Ancient Olympic Games cont. 2

- By 472 B.C. games were five days long - Half competitive events, half religious events - Also had non-athletic competition Competitions in arts, philosophy, poetry, music - Spirit of the games: originally religious - Gave way to attitude of celebrity - City states lured Olympians to their city by wealth and material possessions

Circus Maximus: premier hippodrome in Rome

- Chariot races, gladiator combats in front of 250 thousand spectators - More Christians were killed in the Circus Maximus than in the Flavian Amphitheater

Sport and Christianity (rome)

- Christianity's growth profoundly impacted sport - Roman "sport" was condemned by Christians writers - Christians were often victims of the spectacles - Christians urged to avoid sport and games—but they did attend and gamble on events - Extent of Christian participation in sport and games is debated

Dark Ages

- Collapse of Rome and the beginning of the Dark Ages caused utter chaos - Many people fled cities to seek protection from powerful aristocrats - Commerce, trade, and public administration developed by Rome essentially vanished during the Dark Ages

Roman Sport: Change Over Time Early Republic

- Early Republic: people kept physically fit and engaged in athletic contests but were not interested in Greek-style formal athletic competition - Upper class developed ball games, massage, thermae (bathing pools) - Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept of health gymnastics - Honored their gods through physical activities Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling

Dualism (Cont.)

- Elevates mind over body—regulates the corporeal to an inferior status - Reality and truth revealed through the mind, not the body - Mind and ideas are eternal, the body decays - Most dualists believe it is essential to develop the intellectual ability over the physical - Philosophy was the highest pursuit in Ancient Greece

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

- Embraced physical fitness and recreation as positive for promoting social and moral well-being - Said that intelligence depends in part on the physical fitness level of the individual - Believed that we can know things through our bodies as well as through our mind - Thought the mind was superior to the body

Classical Humanism

- Emphasized existence as humans—welfare of the individual is most important - Body was important - One's purpose in the universe was to work out his destiny - Plato was not a humanist - Emphasized mind more than the body - Greek gods thought of as ideal humans - Anthropomorphic - Depicted as having magnificent bodies (Zeus, Apollo, Athena, etc.) - Greeks wanted to resemble their gods - Sought to train and develop the body

Dualism:

- Explanation of human existence based upon both metaphysical and theological beliefs Socrates and Plato - Has profound implications for physical education - Separates human existence into two parts, mind and body.

Ancient Olympic Games

- First recorded evidence of the Olympic Games: 776 B.C. - Olympic Games occurred every fourth year (Olympiad) - Games may have originated in the hundreds of festivals, mostly religious, held over the years - Athletic contests were a major activity in festivals across Greece; a number of stadiums survive - Elaborate statues and other art forms erected - Celebrated military triumphs as well as athletic success - Greeks believed victory (athletics, military, etc.) was ordained by the gods - Olympia was a sacred location where victory was rewarded - Cheating occurred at Olympic Games as well as other athletic festivals in Greek world - Financial and material gain by victory in the Games

Games and Spectacles: Arenas (rome)

- Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) - Engineering marvel: scented water cooled spectators - Food and presents thrown to poor - Space for 50,000 spectators - Typical agenda: - Animal fights - Men and women thrown to the animals - Gladiator fights last and most popular - Mass combats also held - Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships

Medieval Concepts of Health

- Galen—furthered the work of Hippocrates - Furthered knowledge of anatomy and physiology - Dissected animals and occasionally humans - Believed "humor theory" of health - Body composed of four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile - Health involved a balance of these humors

Athens & Sparta: A Tale of Two City-States

- Greece composed of city-states - Not politically unified - Athens and Sparta most famous - Had highly contrasting cultures - Athens: center of culture and learning - Sparta: military power with warrior-citizens

Ancient Olympic Games cont. 4

- Greeks believed in developing mind & body - Olympics: pinnacle of this achievement - Plato, Aristotle and other famous philosophers gathered at Olympia Theodosius I, II: Christian Roman emperors - Outlawed pagan cults in A.D. 393 - Ordered destruction of pagan temples (including temple at Olympia) in A.D. 435 - Most Games tied to pagan activities ceased - Unknown if continued in some

Greek Influence:

- Greeks developed much of the Western world's belief about the body and physical education - Likely with Judaic and Phoenician influences - Two metaphysical systems in Greece - Naturalistic: man's nature is both spiritual and corporeal (physical) - Achieving balance is desired - Emphasized physical and intellectual education

Roman Emperor Nero:

- Heavily influenced by Greek culture - Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius - Demanded a special Olympic Games be held in his honor - Competed in chariot race but fell - Declared winner anyway - Victory revoked by Greeks after his death

Medieval Social Structure

- Hierarchy of aristocrats emerged - Feudal relationships based on military allegiance to a local monarch (for protection) - Monarchs often had bodyguards (lord/vassal) - Bodyguards given land: lords taxed/protected serfs - Wealth came from property ownership - Leisure became unique to nobles (monarch/lord) - Social mobility became very restricted as the era progressed

Greek Sport

- Historical foundations - Birth of Olympic Games (776 B.C.) - Funeral Games honored the deceased and pleased the Gods - Climate in Greece allowed for physical activity year round

Greek Ideals: Arete and Agon

- Ideals that resonated with every Greek - Greeks were most like the gods when striving and competing for excellence - The Greek ideal was the excellent scholar-athlete-soldier - Homer's Iliad and Odyssey - Epic poems depicting arete and agon in action

Roman law

- Incorporated aspects of conquered nations' cultures if they bettered Roman practices - Greeks very reluctant to do this

Plato: View of Physical Education

- Initially seems that he doesn't support it (Phaedo) - Later supports ideal education as harmony of mind (music) and body (gymnastics) - Does harmonious imply equality?

Impact of Christianity

- Judaism and Islam profoundly impacted Europe - Not to the extent of Christianity - Christian church—only institution left intact after the fall of the Roman Empire - Provided a symbol of stability and order amidst fear - Christianity spread throughout the ruins of the Roman Empire

Roman Sport: Change Over Time Late Republic

- Late Republic/Empire era: - Less interested in personal physical fitness - Greek athleticism not valued militarily by utilitarian Romans - Rome became a nation of spectators Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage - Games and sport did not facilitate physical education as they did in Greece

Etruscans

- Lived in North Central Italy - Scholars don't agree on where they originated - Archeology uncovered burial tombs

Maimonides, St. Bonaventure

- Maimonides: Jewish physician - "Nothing is more useful for the preservation of health than physical exercise" - St. Bonaventure: Scholastic - Body does not imprison the soul - Is a friend and companion - Individual exists as union of body and soul

Greek Reaction to Roman Sport:

- Many Greeks opposed the introduction of Roman sport - Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece by first century A.D. - Some emperors liked the Olympic Games and spent money to restore Greek athletic venues like Olympia

Modern sport historians:

- Many are "nontraditionalists" - Sport grew out of Greek contact with surrounding civilizations

Epicurean Thinkers

- Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and philosopher - Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar - Banished from Rome due to criticisms - Became social critic of arena sports as representative of larger Roman social problems - Influenced by Greek philosopher Antiochus - Concerned with ethics and optimum development of mind and body

Christianity and Greek Philosophy

- Medieval philosophers didn't have access to many literary sources - Greek works, especially Plato and Aristotle - Plato and Aristotle interested in similar metaphysical questions as Christianity: - Existence of soul - Personification and belief in God - Nature of being, system of ethics - Not all Christians were eager to embrace the merging of Christianity with Greek philosophy - Tertullian: demanded bodily mortification - Opposed recognizing the pagan Greek philosophy - He and his followers were in the minority - Platonism: endorsed by Christian thinkers as intellectual preparation for Christianity

Roman Sport and the Military

- Military extremely important - Affected views of physical training - Youth were trained to make obedient, disciplined soldiers - Prestigious profession - Legions were feared throughout ancient world - Stoic philosophy supported military system

Roman Beliefs:

- Military training took precedence over intellectual achievement - Religion: relatively spirit-less lacked ceremony, mystery, and awe - Philosophers provided code of conduct - Character formation: critical to development of citizens and survival of the Republic - Romans were much more inclusive of other - cultures than Greeks

Bubonic plague: devastated Europe (fourteenth century)

- Millions died - Church: plague was a sign from God - Body was "Messenger of Death"

Games and Spectacles: Gladiators

- Mostly criminals and slaves trained to fight - Utilitarian approach of pacifying the people - System dealt with "criminals," political enemies - Some free men volunteered: auctorati

Ancient Olympic Games cont. 3

- Olympic champions became heroic - Closest thing to a god as mortal can become. - Given special privileges and could make vast sums of money by continuing to win. - Received a lifetime pension

Ancient Olympic Games cont.

- Only males were permitted to compete and watch - Married women were not allowed to attend, on pain of death; virgins could attend - Women who represented the priestess Demeter could view the Games - Showed the relationship between the ancient Games and theology - Women who owned a horse and chariot could enter the competition—but not watch it - Daughter of Spartan king was victorious in fourth century B.C.

Philosophical Positions of the Body: Middle Ages

- Ontology became confused - Ascetic dualism: blended Platonic philosophy, - Christian history, and other religious thought - Sought to purify the soul - Denied all pleasure - Eastern Orthodox church formed an ascetic order—monks - Scholastics: saw close relationship between the mind and the body

Greek Metaphysics:

- Opposing views (cont.) - Anti-naturalistic: man's nature created by mind - Mind held in higher esteem than body - Physical education not necessary - View of physical education: result of a specific metaphysical position - Both views held the mind in high esteem - Differed on importance of the body - Naturalistic view far more popular

Holidays and Ball Games

- Peasant (serf) life was particularly difficult - Owned home but worked land as rent for protection - Recreation: only on Sunday after church - Serfs participated in games and amusements - Major holidays considered pagan - Extended over several days - Filled with foods, entertainment, and games - Often degenerated into drunken free-for-alls

Philosophy and theology have different starting points

- Philosophy is based on reasoned inquiry - Theology is based on faith

Medieval view of sports

- Ranged from athletic feats of knights, to sport in preparation for crusades, to ascetic views of monks

Epicureans

- Rejected metaphysical or religious claims on one's behavior (similar to Stoicism) - Argued against idealism - Body was important for knowing, discovering reality - Promoted the development of cultured individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind - Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyments

The Stoics

- Rejected metaphysics and religious claims on morality - Emphasized attainment of personal happiness through positive personal conduct no matter what life dealt

Ancient Rome:

- Roman Republic (established following victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.) - Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.) - Empire divided in fourth century A.D. - Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until A.D. 476 - Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453

Analysis of Roman culture:

- Romans valued intellect and culture much less than Greeks - Focused on practical versus aesthetic - Romans did not contribute much to philosophic and scientific advancement compared to Greeks - Most Romans did not share the Greek belief in the "holistic" development of man (arete)

Greek Sport: Historical Perspectives

- Romantic view: Rise and fall approach Glory years in fifth and sixth centuries - Declined with Roman conquest and - Christianity - Traditional View - Sport evolved from games described by Homer

Roman Science: Claudius Galen

- Sometimes called father of sports medicine - studied medicine at seventeen - Practiced on gladiators - First to apply medicine and biomechanics to exercise. - Opposed to professional athlete - Agreed with Greeks about "moderation in all things"

Athletic Participation of Greek Women

- Spartan women - Participated in gymnastics and rigorous physical fitness and sports programs - Common belief was that physical fitness and training were for both sexes - Spartan women competed in foot races and other sports - Athenian women did not participate to extent of Spartan women - Euripides (426 B.C.): "A Spartan girl could not be chaste if she wanted...They share the same race track and palaestra—a situation I find insufferable" - Married women were forbidden under pain of death from attending Olympic Games - Held own athletic contests to honor wife of Zeus (Hera) - Included foot races - Used same stadium at - Olympia - Took place after the Olympic Games - Same judges (Hellanodikai) as the Olympic Games

Stoics and Roman Society

- Stoicism appealed to Roman society: - Individualism—master of your own fate - Personal conduct, character development - Acceptance of fate - Reflected lack of emotion and strict discipline - Recent "Gladiator" movie displays this ethos - Essential for Roman rule and organization

Four major classes of Gladiators:

- Thracian - Samnite - Retiarius - Murmillo

Etruscan tendency for violence:

- Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead - Later used prisoners as "performers" who entertained by fighting to the death

Women and Sport (rome)

- Women's role not nearly as documented as men's role for entertainment value; not taken seriously - Social and political system was based on patriarchy and class stratification - Athletic competition was the domain of Roman men - Women participated in swimming, dancing, ball games, and thermae

Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics

- Zeno established his own school of philosophy—stoicism - Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with political life - Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics - Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body - Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledge - Body was significant

Etruscan Statues

- depict men and women wrestlers competing against each other. - Suggests that Etruscan men and women were both active and competed against each other

Etruscans Tombs

- in 1958 discovery of tomb containing elaborate paintings depicting various sporting scenes - Known as the Tomb of the Olympic Games - Other tombs were discovered later - Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming, gymnastics, armed combat

The Scholastics valued:

- physical fitness and recreation for physical, mental, social, moral well-being - God is omnipresent and therefore in the body - Did not believe that body was a "messenger of death"

Christians employed:

- religious rituals as disease treatment - Prayed to saints to intervene, amulets, incantations

Dark Ages:

After fall of Rome (476 A.D.) until 900 A.D.

Agon:

Agon: Homer referenced as a meeting place where athletic events were held Expanded from athletic competitions Included competitions in music, poetry, public speaking and other events Evolved into the term agonistic (competitive) Became associated with the process (agony) of preparing for competition

Thomas Aquinas Agreed with ____________ Man is an integral composite of body and soul Soul needs a body to acquire knowledge.

Aristotle