Honors Biology Semester 2 Exam

Chromatid

Each half of the chromosome

What Blood types can give/receive other types?

If the donor's antigen matches the recipient's antibody do not give. Blood type AB is the universal recipient Blood type O is the universal donor

Discovery of DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure as double helix, but DNA was originally discovered by Friedrich Miescher

diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

Diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the thoracic cavity that separates it from the abdominal cavity and helps with breathing

Sex Chromosomes

One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual.- X and Y

epidermis

Outer layer of skin many sheets of flattened scaly epithelial cells- dead cells

Meiosis 1

Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate into two haploid daughter cells

Mechanical digestion

Part of digestion that uses movement and muscles to break down food

semi movable joints

Permit limited movement Ex. Vertebral column and rib cage

Chemical digestion

Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use

excretion

Process by which metabolic wastes(liquid wastes) are eliminated from the body

Crossing Over

Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.

Codon

3 N-base sequence found on mRNA that codes for an a.a 64 possible combinations Some combinations code for the same a.a. Some codons signify start or stop codons

Nucleotide Structure

5 Carbon Sugar- Deoxyribose or Ribose Phosphate group Nitrogen base: Purines- small word, big base Adenine Guanine Pyrimidines- big word, small base Cytosine Thymine(DNA) Uracil(RNA) A double bonds to T/U, C triple bonds to G

Where and how each organic nutrient begins and ends its digestion?

Carbohydrates begin to be digested by salivary amylase in the mouth. Proteins are chemically digested in the stomach by pepsin an active stomach secretion. Digestion is completed by the glands in the Duodenum of the SI that release enzymes monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries, while glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by the lacteals in the jejunum

Prophase

Centrioles move to opposite poles Spindle fibers (microtubules) and aster rays form Chromatin changes to Chromosome Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear by late prophase

Process of Replication

DNA Helicase unzips the DNA into two strands DNA Primase makes short RNA Primers that help get DNA Polymerase started DNA Polymerase adds nucleotides to RNA Primer to make Polynucleotides. RNA Primers are removed and replaced with DNA. Proofreads the strand before the backbone is finished. It builds in 5' to 3' direction by moving down the old template strand in the 3' to 5' direction DNA Ligase seals the gaps in DNA- by connecting the DNA pieces with phosphodiester bonds

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA is replicated -transcription in nucleus> RNA -translation in ribosome in cytoplasm> Protein

antibodies

Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen. attack foreign anitgens

Antibodies

Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen. made in lymph nodes

Parts of the alimentary canal

Study chart of Alimentary canal

large intestine function

Reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells transport oxygen to cells in all parts of the body(hemoglobin) formed in the red marrow lack a nucleus Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that actually transports oxygen and carbon dioxide 30 trillion circulating at one time 4 mil per cubic mm survive 120-130 days

Structure/Characteristics of RNA

SIngle strand of nucleotides with exposed bases RNA bases bind with DNA bases A-U C-G

Incomplete Dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

Telophase

Spindle fibers and asters disappear Chromosome become longer, thinner, and less distinct Nuclear membrane reappears in each daughter cell nucleolus reappears in each nuclei Centrioles replicate The cytoplasm gradually pinches in along a cleavage furrow or along a cell plate completing cytokinesis

H-zone

The region at the center of an A band of a sarcomere that is made up of myosin only. The H zone gets shorter (and may disappear) during muscle contraction.

atrioventricular valves

Valves located between the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side of the heart, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting. tricuspid or Right AV is on the right side bicuspid, mitral, or left AV is on the left side

lymphocytes

WBC in immune system of vertebrates that work together to defend the body against foreign substances

Haversian canal

a channel found in the center of each concentric ring pathway for blood vessels that nourish bone cells with food and O2 also contains nerves

monohybrid cross

a cross in which only one characteristic is tracked

pericardium

a tough, saclike membrane that surrounds the heart and secretes a fluid that reduces friction as the heart beats

Single- allele traits

a trait controlled by a single allele- ex. sickle-cell anemia

septum

a wall that vertically divides the heart in half

Epithelial tissue

all internal and external body surfaces lines or covers as a protective barrier

recessive

allele that is only expressed when the dominant allele is not present

ball and socket joint

allow complete rotation to move in all directions; hips and shoulders

pivot joint

allows for side to side movement ex. top 2 vertebrae

hinge joint

allows for up and down or forward and backwards movement ex. elbow

saddle joint

allows grasping and rotation ex. base of thumb

gliding joint

allows one bone to slide over another; found in wrist and ankles

appendicular skeleton

arms, legs, scapula, clavicle, and pelvis

level of CO2

as levels of this rise and acidity of the blood increases, the respiratory center is stimulated to initiate breathing

Parts of the large intestine

ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon- leads to the rectum and the anal cavity

flexor

bend joints; biceps

Arteries(Aorta)

blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the heart Pulmonary artery is the only one that carries deoxygenated blood

Ossification

bone formation cartilage is slowly replaced by bone as a result of the deposition of minerals

Skeleton

bone- structure and protection

melanin

brown pigment that determines the color of the skin

myofibrils

bundles of threadlike structures in skeletal muscle fiber

atria

upper left and right chambers of the heart receiving chambers

Skeletal Muscle tissue

voluntary, striated, multinucleated trunk, limbs, and face-attached to the bones moves the bones

Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol

what are the end products of digestion?

Mendel's Law of Segregation

when gametes form, the alleles from each parent are segregated from each other. Each gamete only carries a single allele for each gene

hetorozygous

when there are two different alleles for a trait

Z-band

where actin is anchored to the sarcomere

Leucocytes

white blood cells defend against disease formed in red bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, the thymus, or the spleen to mature larger than red blood cells 7000 per cubic mm and may live for years

Immune system

white blood cells and lymph nodes fights against disease

movable joints

wide range of movement

trachea

windpipe tube made up of alternating bands of cartilage and smooth muscle lined with ciliateated and mucous secreting cells protected by the epiglottis- a flap of cartilage that presses down and covers air passage when food is swallowed but is open when air is swallowed

Diploid

cells having both sets of chromosomes of the homologous pair in body, or somatic, cells- 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes- all human cells except reproductive

Haploid

cells having one set of chromosomes- Human Haploid number is 23 chromosomes from each Homologous pair- sperm and egg cells

Anaphase

chromatids move to opposite poles, as if pulled by the spindle fibers

Meiosis 2

chromatids of each replicated chromosome separate into 2 more cells fro 4 haploid daughter cells

Metaphase

chromosomes line up in middle and centromeres attach to the spindle fibers

lamella

concentric rings surrounding the HC made up of minerals

proximal convoluted tubule

conducts filtrate from the Bowman's Capsule to the Loop of Henle

Distal convoluted tubule

connects the loop of Henle to a collecting tubule

systole

contraction of ventricles- pumping blood into arteries

Bowman's capsule

cup-shaped capsule that receives blood under very high pressure from the glomerulus

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid- macromolecule that holds our genetic material- contains genes- section of DNA that serve as the blueprint for making proteins- located at certain points along a chromosome

Gametogenesis

development of sex cells or gametes by meiosis, results in haploid cells

Cytokinesis

division of cell at end of mitosis that makes two daughter cells animal- cleavage furrow forms when cell pinches in plant- cell plate forms across the middle of the cell

urethra

duct carrying urine to the outside of the body

muscle fibers

elongated cells that have many nuclei and are crossed by light and dark stripes called striations

Loop of Henle

elongated, hairpin-shaped portion that connects the Proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule

tendon

fibrous connective tissue connecting muscles and bones

myofilaments

filaments of myofibrils, constructed from proteins, principally myosin(thick) or actin(thin)

lymph nodes

filter lymph; contain WBC that destroy microbes

Filtration

filtering the materials from the glomerulus to the Bowman's capsule Blood in the glomerulus is under high pressure This forces the filtrate out of the capillary walls of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule filtrate=water, urea, glucose, and amino acids

Villi

fingerlike projections that make up the lining of the small intestine they increase surface area for absorption

Cartilage

firm, flexible connective tissue; larynx, respiratory tract, nose, ear, around the joints

Duodenum

first part of the small intestine that complete digestion by releasing enzymes that break down peptides into amino acids, disaccharides into monosaccharides, and fats into glycerol and fatty acids

pulmonary circulation

flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart

Chyme

food particles mixed with gastric fluid form a mixture bolus plus gastric fluids

blood pressure

force of the contraction of the heart putting pressure on the blood in the arterial walls

Oogenesis

formation of ovum (egg cell)- one oocyte (2n) produces 1 productive ovum (n) and 3 non- productive polar bodies (n)

Spermatogenesis

formation of sperm- one spermatocyte (2n) produces 4 productive sperm (n)

atrioventricular node

found in the septum between the atria generates an electrical charge that causes the ventricles to contract

osteon

functional unit of compact bone

sarcomere

functional unit of muscle contraction; the region from one Z-line to the next in a myofibril

Nephron

functional unit of the kidney that filters the blood

alveoli

functional unit of the respiratory system clusters of tiny air sacs at the ends of the alveolar ducts surrounded by a network of capillaries microscopic, very elastic; lined with simple squamous epithelium all exchange of gas occurs here

Homozygous

having two identical alleles for a trait

cardiovascular system

heart, blood vessels, blood transports

Red bone marrow

in spongy bone, end of long bone, ribs, vertebrae, sternum makes red/ white blood cells and platelets

Smooth Muscle tissue

involuntary, non-striated, and one nucleus found in walls of internal organ and moves materials body functions that you can not consciously control

Cardiac Muscle tissue

involuntary, striated, one nucleus, branched with intercalated discs pumps blood through your body

oil glands

large numbers on face and scalp- secrete fatty substance sebum- connected by tiny ducts to hair follicles

Chromatin

less tightly coiled DNA-protein (histones) complex that is not dividing- thread-like mass

abductor

move a limb away from the body; deltoids

adductor

move a limb toward the body; pectorals

Peristalsis

muscular contraction and relaxation of the two muscle layers in the esophagus to help move food down

Glomerulus

network of capillaries surrounded by the Bowman's capsule- acts as a filter

Nervous tissue

neuron=nerve cell brain, spinal cord, nerve, sensory organs receive and transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses

Tubular secretion

occurs in the Distal Convoluted tubule when some toxic substances pass from the blood into the filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule.

Cardiac sphincter

opening from the esophagus to the stomach "front door"

pyloric sphincter

opening from the stomach into the small intestine "back door"

Mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

Interphase

period of cell growth- the majority of the time. distinct nucleus, nuclear membrane, visible nucleolus. chromosomes (46) are seen as chromatin- DNA replication

thrombocytes

platelets- fragments of very large cells that were formed in bone marrow essential to blood clot formation lack a nucleus live 7-12 days 250,00-400,000 per cubic mm smallest Hemophilia- disorder caused by the absence of one or more of blood clotting proteins

Fixed joints

prevent movement, are found in the skull

expiration

process of releasing air from the lungs

inspiration

process of taking air into the lungs

keratin

protein that fills cells of epidermis

Semilunar valves

pulmonary(Right SL) and aortic(Left SL) valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta

collecting tubules

receive urine from distal convoluted tubules and take them to the renal pelvis

diastole

relaxation of the ventricles- blood flows in from the atria

sweat glands

release water, slat, and urea to help regulate body temp

Lymphatic System

removes fluid that has leaked from blood vessels back into the bloodstream

medulla oblongata

respiratory center of the brain that controls breathing

RNA

ribonucleic acid- converts information stored in the DNA into proteins

rRNA

ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome along with proteins- also help catalyze the formation of peptide bonds

Chromosomes

rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins that are tightly coiled- cell is dividing

Jejunum

second part of the small intestine that completes absorption by transferring the monosaccharides and amino acids to the capillaries and the fatty acids and glycerol to the lacteals(tiny lymph vessels)

anticodon

sequence of 3 N bases found at the opposite end of the tRNA It is complementary to a specific codon and transfers info through the connection

Yellow bone marrow

shaft on long bone energy reserve of fat- can be converted to red in time of blood loss

Diaphysis

shaft or center of long bone

sinoatrial node

site where initial stimulus of contraction begins specialized region of muscle and nerve tissues found in the right atrium "pacemaker" generates an electrical charge that stimulates the atria to contract

integumentary system

skin, hair, nails protects against pathogen-regulates

Axial skeleton

skull, ribs, spine, and sternum

Lacuna

small cavities found between the lamella that contain mature bone cells

arterioles

smaller branches of major arteries

bronchioles

smaller branches of the bronchi also lined with cilia and mucus

venules

smaller veins that carry deoxygenated blood

Test Cross

the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype

Epiphysis

the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.

respiratory system

the lungs, air passages, and breathing muscles; supplies oxygen to the body and removes carbon dioxide

Systemic Renal circulation

the movement of blood from the body organs through the kidneys

nervous system

the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Centromere

the point at which the two chromatids of a chromosome are attached

Product Rule

the probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their individual probabilities

Gas exchange

the process of obtaining oxygen from the environment and releasing carbon dioxide

excretory system

the system that removes waste from your body and controls water balance

How a skeletal muscle fiber contracts

they contract when supplied with a nerve impulse and energy from ATP

ileum

third part of the small intestine, further digests food heading through

canaliculi

tiny channels of the lacuna that contain extensions of the osteocytes- allow for communications btw. bone cells

ligament

tough bands of connective tissue they connect bone to bone

Periosteum

tough membrane covering long bones surface

bronchi(2)

trachea branches into the left and right bronchus which lead to each lung walls are made of smooth muscle and cartilage and are lined with cilia and mucus

Polygenic traits

traits controlled by two or more genes- ex. hair color, skin, and height

Multiple- allele traits

traits that are controlled by more than two alleles (ex. ABO blood typing = A allele, B allele, & O allele)

tRNA

transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome

ureter(2)

tube leading from each kidney to the urinary bladder

homologous chromosomes

two copies of each autosome- Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance, and same genes.

Compact bone

under periosteum- hard and thick layer enables shaft of long bone to endure stress- made of cylinders of mineral crystals and lamellae- has haversian canal contains osteons

Spongy bone

under the compact bone- network of connective tissue- hard and strong- latticework structure of bony spikes on points of stress- light and strong; it makes bones

Connective tissue

-"melting pot" body- bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, and blood binds, supports, and protects structures

Codominance

A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed

dihybrid cross

A cross between two individuals, concentrating on two definable traits

Probability

A number that describes how likely it is that an event will occur

Gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

lymphocytes

A type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections

Dominant

An allele that is always expressed

Allele

An alternative form of a gene.

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Autosomes

Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome- Body

veins(vena cava)

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart superior/inferior vena cava receive blood from either the upper or lower body

digestive system

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

Transcription

DNA->mRNA carries the code/ instructions for making a protein out of the DNA Occurs in the Nucleus RNA Polymerase binds to the DNA promoter where transcription is to begin and unzips the gene that needs to be copied. RNA Polymerase uses complementary base pairing rules to match RNA nucleotides with the exposed DNA nucleotides. Releases the completed mRNA molecule. DNA zips back up and the mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm.

Structure/characteristics of DNA

Double helix: twisted ladder sugar and phosphate form the "sugar phosphate backbone" Nitrogenous bases bond in the middle with weak H-bonds All other bonds are strong covalent Nitrogenous bases only bond to their complementary base pair Adenine- Thymine Cytosine to Guanine

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Genes for two different traits are inherited independently- no connection between them

History of Gregor Mendel and the study of Genetics

German monk born in 1822 Lived in now Czech Republic Tended the garden at his monastery, conducted experiments with pea plants Studies peas for 7 years, published results in 1866; ignored until 1900 Now considered the Father of Genetics- the study of traits

endocrine system

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. homeostasis

Systemic coronary circulation

Heart Circulation Arteries carry oxygen rich blood Veins carry oxygen poor blood

206 bones

How many bones are in the human body?

dermis

Inner layer of skin living cells and specialized structures

plasma

Liquid part of blood that is made up of 90% water 55% of blood is liquid

capillaries(gas exchange)

Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body connect between arteries and veins

Overall difference in purposes for mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis is to make more somatic (body) cells- 2 diploid, while meiosis is to make more sex cells(gametes)- 4 haploid.

predicting results of a monohybrid and dihybrid crosses

Monohybrid: 3:1 Phenotypic Ratio 1:2:1 Genotypic Ratio Dihybrid: 9:3:3:1 Phenotypic Ratio

Dorsal Cavity

The cranial and spinal cavities are what type of cavity?

Ventral Cavity

The thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities are what type of cavity?

sex-linked traits

Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes. ex. colorblindness and hemophilia

Interkinesis

like interphase, but no replication of DNA

pleura

lines cavity and covers lungs- secreting a slippery fluid to decrease friction from breathing

Accessory organs

liver, gallbladder, pancreas food does not directly pass through these during digestion

Kidney(2)

location-just below the diaphragm in the upper lumbar region of the back-dorsally functions- filters the blood excretes most of the body's nitrogenous wastes maintains homeostasis of the body's fluids Parts cortex-outer 1/3 region;made up of nephrons medulla- inner 2/3 region; contains pyramids of loops renal pelvis- tunnel-shaped chamber that connects to the ureter;also contains blood vessels

ventricle

lower left and right chambers of the heart pumping chambers

Synovial fluid or bursa

lubricating substance secreted from tissue lining joints subject to great pressure bursa are the sacs

Translation

mRNA->polypeptide(protein) Reads/follows the instructions carried on the mRNA to make a polypeptide. occurs in the Ribosomes mRNA attaches to the small subunit of the ribosome Ribosome reads the mRNA codons, always in the 5' to 3' directions, starting at the AUG or start codon= 3 RNA nucleotides. tRNAs act like taxis to pick up and drop off the amino acids that match with each codon. tRNAs continue to drop off amino acids, and the ribosome binds the amino acids together with Peptide Bonds The stop codon is reached, and the ribosome releases the completed polypeptide chain

reabsorption

materials return to the blood through the wall to the renal tubules Most reabsorption occurs in the Proximal convoluted tubule Products reabsorbed are water(by diffusion) and digested food materials(by active transport)

Osteocyte

mature bone cell

mRNA

messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

Mendel's Law of Dominance

states that one of the factors for a pair of inherited traits will be dominant and the other recessive, unless both factors are recessive

urinary bladder

stores liquid wastes

extensor

straightens a joint; tricep

Muscles

structure, support, movement

antigens

substance that stimulates an immune type determines blood type present on RBC

Functions of the endoskeleton

supports and shapes the body, surface to which muscles attach to aid in movement, protects internal organs, stores materials, and formation of blood cells in bone marrow

Systemic hepatic portal circulation

system of blood movement through the digestive tract and liver transfer of nutrients

reproductive system

system of organs involved in producing offspring