Honors Biology Semester 2 Exam
Chromatid
Each half of the chromosome
What Blood types can give/receive other types?
If the donor's antigen matches the recipient's antibody do not give. Blood type AB is the universal recipient Blood type O is the universal donor
Discovery of DNA
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure as double helix, but DNA was originally discovered by Friedrich Miescher
diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing
Diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the thoracic cavity that separates it from the abdominal cavity and helps with breathing
Sex Chromosomes
One of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human, contains genes that will determine the sex of the individual.- X and Y
epidermis
Outer layer of skin many sheets of flattened scaly epithelial cells- dead cells
Meiosis 1
Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate into two haploid daughter cells
Mechanical digestion
Part of digestion that uses movement and muscles to break down food
semi movable joints
Permit limited movement Ex. Vertebral column and rib cage
Chemical digestion
Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use
excretion
Process by which metabolic wastes(liquid wastes) are eliminated from the body
Crossing Over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
Codon
3 N-base sequence found on mRNA that codes for an a.a 64 possible combinations Some combinations code for the same a.a. Some codons signify start or stop codons
Nucleotide Structure
5 Carbon Sugar- Deoxyribose or Ribose Phosphate group Nitrogen base: Purines- small word, big base Adenine Guanine Pyrimidines- big word, small base Cytosine Thymine(DNA) Uracil(RNA) A double bonds to T/U, C triple bonds to G
Where and how each organic nutrient begins and ends its digestion?
Carbohydrates begin to be digested by salivary amylase in the mouth. Proteins are chemically digested in the stomach by pepsin an active stomach secretion. Digestion is completed by the glands in the Duodenum of the SI that release enzymes monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries, while glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by the lacteals in the jejunum
Prophase
Centrioles move to opposite poles Spindle fibers (microtubules) and aster rays form Chromatin changes to Chromosome Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear by late prophase
Process of Replication
DNA Helicase unzips the DNA into two strands DNA Primase makes short RNA Primers that help get DNA Polymerase started DNA Polymerase adds nucleotides to RNA Primer to make Polynucleotides. RNA Primers are removed and replaced with DNA. Proofreads the strand before the backbone is finished. It builds in 5' to 3' direction by moving down the old template strand in the 3' to 5' direction DNA Ligase seals the gaps in DNA- by connecting the DNA pieces with phosphodiester bonds
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
DNA is replicated -transcription in nucleus> RNA -translation in ribosome in cytoplasm> Protein
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen. attack foreign anitgens
Antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen. made in lymph nodes
Parts of the alimentary canal
Study chart of Alimentary canal
large intestine function
Reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells transport oxygen to cells in all parts of the body(hemoglobin) formed in the red marrow lack a nucleus Hemoglobin is an iron-containing protein that actually transports oxygen and carbon dioxide 30 trillion circulating at one time 4 mil per cubic mm survive 120-130 days
Structure/Characteristics of RNA
SIngle strand of nucleotides with exposed bases RNA bases bind with DNA bases A-U C-G
Incomplete Dominance
Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele
Telophase
Spindle fibers and asters disappear Chromosome become longer, thinner, and less distinct Nuclear membrane reappears in each daughter cell nucleolus reappears in each nuclei Centrioles replicate The cytoplasm gradually pinches in along a cleavage furrow or along a cell plate completing cytokinesis
H-zone
The region at the center of an A band of a sarcomere that is made up of myosin only. The H zone gets shorter (and may disappear) during muscle contraction.
atrioventricular valves
Valves located between the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side of the heart, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting. tricuspid or Right AV is on the right side bicuspid, mitral, or left AV is on the left side
lymphocytes
WBC in immune system of vertebrates that work together to defend the body against foreign substances
Haversian canal
a channel found in the center of each concentric ring pathway for blood vessels that nourish bone cells with food and O2 also contains nerves
monohybrid cross
a cross in which only one characteristic is tracked
pericardium
a tough, saclike membrane that surrounds the heart and secretes a fluid that reduces friction as the heart beats
Single- allele traits
a trait controlled by a single allele- ex. sickle-cell anemia
septum
a wall that vertically divides the heart in half
Epithelial tissue
all internal and external body surfaces lines or covers as a protective barrier
recessive
allele that is only expressed when the dominant allele is not present
ball and socket joint
allow complete rotation to move in all directions; hips and shoulders
pivot joint
allows for side to side movement ex. top 2 vertebrae
hinge joint
allows for up and down or forward and backwards movement ex. elbow
saddle joint
allows grasping and rotation ex. base of thumb
gliding joint
allows one bone to slide over another; found in wrist and ankles
appendicular skeleton
arms, legs, scapula, clavicle, and pelvis
level of CO2
as levels of this rise and acidity of the blood increases, the respiratory center is stimulated to initiate breathing
Parts of the large intestine
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon- leads to the rectum and the anal cavity
flexor
bend joints; biceps
Arteries(Aorta)
blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the heart Pulmonary artery is the only one that carries deoxygenated blood
Ossification
bone formation cartilage is slowly replaced by bone as a result of the deposition of minerals
Skeleton
bone- structure and protection
melanin
brown pigment that determines the color of the skin
myofibrils
bundles of threadlike structures in skeletal muscle fiber
atria
upper left and right chambers of the heart receiving chambers
Skeletal Muscle tissue
voluntary, striated, multinucleated trunk, limbs, and face-attached to the bones moves the bones
Monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol
what are the end products of digestion?
Mendel's Law of Segregation
when gametes form, the alleles from each parent are segregated from each other. Each gamete only carries a single allele for each gene
hetorozygous
when there are two different alleles for a trait
Z-band
where actin is anchored to the sarcomere
Leucocytes
white blood cells defend against disease formed in red bone marrow, lymph nodes, tonsils, the thymus, or the spleen to mature larger than red blood cells 7000 per cubic mm and may live for years
Immune system
white blood cells and lymph nodes fights against disease
movable joints
wide range of movement
trachea
windpipe tube made up of alternating bands of cartilage and smooth muscle lined with ciliateated and mucous secreting cells protected by the epiglottis- a flap of cartilage that presses down and covers air passage when food is swallowed but is open when air is swallowed
Diploid
cells having both sets of chromosomes of the homologous pair in body, or somatic, cells- 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes- all human cells except reproductive
Haploid
cells having one set of chromosomes- Human Haploid number is 23 chromosomes from each Homologous pair- sperm and egg cells
Anaphase
chromatids move to opposite poles, as if pulled by the spindle fibers
Meiosis 2
chromatids of each replicated chromosome separate into 2 more cells fro 4 haploid daughter cells
Metaphase
chromosomes line up in middle and centromeres attach to the spindle fibers
lamella
concentric rings surrounding the HC made up of minerals
proximal convoluted tubule
conducts filtrate from the Bowman's Capsule to the Loop of Henle
Distal convoluted tubule
connects the loop of Henle to a collecting tubule
systole
contraction of ventricles- pumping blood into arteries
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped capsule that receives blood under very high pressure from the glomerulus
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid- macromolecule that holds our genetic material- contains genes- section of DNA that serve as the blueprint for making proteins- located at certain points along a chromosome
Gametogenesis
development of sex cells or gametes by meiosis, results in haploid cells
Cytokinesis
division of cell at end of mitosis that makes two daughter cells animal- cleavage furrow forms when cell pinches in plant- cell plate forms across the middle of the cell
urethra
duct carrying urine to the outside of the body
muscle fibers
elongated cells that have many nuclei and are crossed by light and dark stripes called striations
Loop of Henle
elongated, hairpin-shaped portion that connects the Proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule
tendon
fibrous connective tissue connecting muscles and bones
myofilaments
filaments of myofibrils, constructed from proteins, principally myosin(thick) or actin(thin)
lymph nodes
filter lymph; contain WBC that destroy microbes
Filtration
filtering the materials from the glomerulus to the Bowman's capsule Blood in the glomerulus is under high pressure This forces the filtrate out of the capillary walls of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule filtrate=water, urea, glucose, and amino acids
Villi
fingerlike projections that make up the lining of the small intestine they increase surface area for absorption
Cartilage
firm, flexible connective tissue; larynx, respiratory tract, nose, ear, around the joints
Duodenum
first part of the small intestine that complete digestion by releasing enzymes that break down peptides into amino acids, disaccharides into monosaccharides, and fats into glycerol and fatty acids
pulmonary circulation
flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
Chyme
food particles mixed with gastric fluid form a mixture bolus plus gastric fluids
blood pressure
force of the contraction of the heart putting pressure on the blood in the arterial walls
Oogenesis
formation of ovum (egg cell)- one oocyte (2n) produces 1 productive ovum (n) and 3 non- productive polar bodies (n)
Spermatogenesis
formation of sperm- one spermatocyte (2n) produces 4 productive sperm (n)
atrioventricular node
found in the septum between the atria generates an electrical charge that causes the ventricles to contract
osteon
functional unit of compact bone
sarcomere
functional unit of muscle contraction; the region from one Z-line to the next in a myofibril
Nephron
functional unit of the kidney that filters the blood
alveoli
functional unit of the respiratory system clusters of tiny air sacs at the ends of the alveolar ducts surrounded by a network of capillaries microscopic, very elastic; lined with simple squamous epithelium all exchange of gas occurs here
Homozygous
having two identical alleles for a trait
cardiovascular system
heart, blood vessels, blood transports
Red bone marrow
in spongy bone, end of long bone, ribs, vertebrae, sternum makes red/ white blood cells and platelets
Smooth Muscle tissue
involuntary, non-striated, and one nucleus found in walls of internal organ and moves materials body functions that you can not consciously control
Cardiac Muscle tissue
involuntary, striated, one nucleus, branched with intercalated discs pumps blood through your body
oil glands
large numbers on face and scalp- secrete fatty substance sebum- connected by tiny ducts to hair follicles
Chromatin
less tightly coiled DNA-protein (histones) complex that is not dividing- thread-like mass
abductor
move a limb away from the body; deltoids
adductor
move a limb toward the body; pectorals
Peristalsis
muscular contraction and relaxation of the two muscle layers in the esophagus to help move food down
Glomerulus
network of capillaries surrounded by the Bowman's capsule- acts as a filter
Nervous tissue
neuron=nerve cell brain, spinal cord, nerve, sensory organs receive and transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses
Tubular secretion
occurs in the Distal Convoluted tubule when some toxic substances pass from the blood into the filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule.
Cardiac sphincter
opening from the esophagus to the stomach "front door"
pyloric sphincter
opening from the stomach into the small intestine "back door"
Mitosis
part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides
Interphase
period of cell growth- the majority of the time. distinct nucleus, nuclear membrane, visible nucleolus. chromosomes (46) are seen as chromatin- DNA replication
thrombocytes
platelets- fragments of very large cells that were formed in bone marrow essential to blood clot formation lack a nucleus live 7-12 days 250,00-400,000 per cubic mm smallest Hemophilia- disorder caused by the absence of one or more of blood clotting proteins
Fixed joints
prevent movement, are found in the skull
expiration
process of releasing air from the lungs
inspiration
process of taking air into the lungs
keratin
protein that fills cells of epidermis
Semilunar valves
pulmonary(Right SL) and aortic(Left SL) valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta
collecting tubules
receive urine from distal convoluted tubules and take them to the renal pelvis
diastole
relaxation of the ventricles- blood flows in from the atria
sweat glands
release water, slat, and urea to help regulate body temp
Lymphatic System
removes fluid that has leaked from blood vessels back into the bloodstream
medulla oblongata
respiratory center of the brain that controls breathing
RNA
ribonucleic acid- converts information stored in the DNA into proteins
rRNA
ribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome along with proteins- also help catalyze the formation of peptide bonds
Chromosomes
rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins that are tightly coiled- cell is dividing
Jejunum
second part of the small intestine that completes absorption by transferring the monosaccharides and amino acids to the capillaries and the fatty acids and glycerol to the lacteals(tiny lymph vessels)
anticodon
sequence of 3 N bases found at the opposite end of the tRNA It is complementary to a specific codon and transfers info through the connection
Yellow bone marrow
shaft on long bone energy reserve of fat- can be converted to red in time of blood loss
Diaphysis
shaft or center of long bone
sinoatrial node
site where initial stimulus of contraction begins specialized region of muscle and nerve tissues found in the right atrium "pacemaker" generates an electrical charge that stimulates the atria to contract
integumentary system
skin, hair, nails protects against pathogen-regulates
Axial skeleton
skull, ribs, spine, and sternum
Lacuna
small cavities found between the lamella that contain mature bone cells
arterioles
smaller branches of major arteries
bronchioles
smaller branches of the bronchi also lined with cilia and mucus
venules
smaller veins that carry deoxygenated blood
Test Cross
the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype
Epiphysis
the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.
respiratory system
the lungs, air passages, and breathing muscles; supplies oxygen to the body and removes carbon dioxide
Systemic Renal circulation
the movement of blood from the body organs through the kidneys
nervous system
the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
Centromere
the point at which the two chromatids of a chromosome are attached
Product Rule
the probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their individual probabilities
Gas exchange
the process of obtaining oxygen from the environment and releasing carbon dioxide
excretory system
the system that removes waste from your body and controls water balance
How a skeletal muscle fiber contracts
they contract when supplied with a nerve impulse and energy from ATP
ileum
third part of the small intestine, further digests food heading through
canaliculi
tiny channels of the lacuna that contain extensions of the osteocytes- allow for communications btw. bone cells
ligament
tough bands of connective tissue they connect bone to bone
Periosteum
tough membrane covering long bones surface
bronchi(2)
trachea branches into the left and right bronchus which lead to each lung walls are made of smooth muscle and cartilage and are lined with cilia and mucus
Polygenic traits
traits controlled by two or more genes- ex. hair color, skin, and height
Multiple- allele traits
traits that are controlled by more than two alleles (ex. ABO blood typing = A allele, B allele, & O allele)
tRNA
transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome
ureter(2)
tube leading from each kidney to the urinary bladder
homologous chromosomes
two copies of each autosome- Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance, and same genes.
Compact bone
under periosteum- hard and thick layer enables shaft of long bone to endure stress- made of cylinders of mineral crystals and lamellae- has haversian canal contains osteons
Spongy bone
under the compact bone- network of connective tissue- hard and strong- latticework structure of bony spikes on points of stress- light and strong; it makes bones
Connective tissue
-"melting pot" body- bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, and blood binds, supports, and protects structures
Codominance
A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed
dihybrid cross
A cross between two individuals, concentrating on two definable traits
Probability
A number that describes how likely it is that an event will occur
Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait
lymphocytes
A type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections
Dominant
An allele that is always expressed
Allele
An alternative form of a gene.
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Autosomes
Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome- Body
veins(vena cava)
Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart superior/inferior vena cava receive blood from either the upper or lower body
digestive system
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.
Transcription
DNA->mRNA carries the code/ instructions for making a protein out of the DNA Occurs in the Nucleus RNA Polymerase binds to the DNA promoter where transcription is to begin and unzips the gene that needs to be copied. RNA Polymerase uses complementary base pairing rules to match RNA nucleotides with the exposed DNA nucleotides. Releases the completed mRNA molecule. DNA zips back up and the mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm.
Structure/characteristics of DNA
Double helix: twisted ladder sugar and phosphate form the "sugar phosphate backbone" Nitrogenous bases bond in the middle with weak H-bonds All other bonds are strong covalent Nitrogenous bases only bond to their complementary base pair Adenine- Thymine Cytosine to Guanine
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Genes for two different traits are inherited independently- no connection between them
History of Gregor Mendel and the study of Genetics
German monk born in 1822 Lived in now Czech Republic Tended the garden at his monastery, conducted experiments with pea plants Studies peas for 7 years, published results in 1866; ignored until 1900 Now considered the Father of Genetics- the study of traits
endocrine system
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. homeostasis
Systemic coronary circulation
Heart Circulation Arteries carry oxygen rich blood Veins carry oxygen poor blood
206 bones
How many bones are in the human body?
dermis
Inner layer of skin living cells and specialized structures
plasma
Liquid part of blood that is made up of 90% water 55% of blood is liquid
capillaries(gas exchange)
Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body connect between arteries and veins
Overall difference in purposes for mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis is to make more somatic (body) cells- 2 diploid, while meiosis is to make more sex cells(gametes)- 4 haploid.
predicting results of a monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
Monohybrid: 3:1 Phenotypic Ratio 1:2:1 Genotypic Ratio Dihybrid: 9:3:3:1 Phenotypic Ratio
Dorsal Cavity
The cranial and spinal cavities are what type of cavity?
Ventral Cavity
The thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities are what type of cavity?
sex-linked traits
Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes. ex. colorblindness and hemophilia
Interkinesis
like interphase, but no replication of DNA
pleura
lines cavity and covers lungs- secreting a slippery fluid to decrease friction from breathing
Accessory organs
liver, gallbladder, pancreas food does not directly pass through these during digestion
Kidney(2)
location-just below the diaphragm in the upper lumbar region of the back-dorsally functions- filters the blood excretes most of the body's nitrogenous wastes maintains homeostasis of the body's fluids Parts cortex-outer 1/3 region;made up of nephrons medulla- inner 2/3 region; contains pyramids of loops renal pelvis- tunnel-shaped chamber that connects to the ureter;also contains blood vessels
ventricle
lower left and right chambers of the heart pumping chambers
Synovial fluid or bursa
lubricating substance secreted from tissue lining joints subject to great pressure bursa are the sacs
Translation
mRNA->polypeptide(protein) Reads/follows the instructions carried on the mRNA to make a polypeptide. occurs in the Ribosomes mRNA attaches to the small subunit of the ribosome Ribosome reads the mRNA codons, always in the 5' to 3' directions, starting at the AUG or start codon= 3 RNA nucleotides. tRNAs act like taxis to pick up and drop off the amino acids that match with each codon. tRNAs continue to drop off amino acids, and the ribosome binds the amino acids together with Peptide Bonds The stop codon is reached, and the ribosome releases the completed polypeptide chain
reabsorption
materials return to the blood through the wall to the renal tubules Most reabsorption occurs in the Proximal convoluted tubule Products reabsorbed are water(by diffusion) and digested food materials(by active transport)
Osteocyte
mature bone cell
mRNA
messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome
Mendel's Law of Dominance
states that one of the factors for a pair of inherited traits will be dominant and the other recessive, unless both factors are recessive
urinary bladder
stores liquid wastes
extensor
straightens a joint; tricep
Muscles
structure, support, movement
antigens
substance that stimulates an immune type determines blood type present on RBC
Functions of the endoskeleton
supports and shapes the body, surface to which muscles attach to aid in movement, protects internal organs, stores materials, and formation of blood cells in bone marrow
Systemic hepatic portal circulation
system of blood movement through the digestive tract and liver transfer of nutrients
reproductive system
system of organs involved in producing offspring