Human Anatomy & Physiology
2QQ20 Passive movement of a liquid from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure is known as: a)Filtration b)Osmosis c)Antiport d)Symport e)Facilitated diffusion
Filtration
Ionizing radiation produces ______ in humans.
Free Radicals
The anterior knee is known as the ______ region.
Patellar
the act of tapping the body to feel for abnormal resistance is termed________.
Percussion
Which membrane protein is not integral to the plasma membrane and is often attached to the cytoskeleton?
Peripheral
The majority of the plasma membrane can be described as a bilayer of Blank 1 of 1 with associated proteins.
Phospholipids
Which of the following molecules are the major component of the plasma membrane?
Phospholipids
Addition of an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to an organic molecule is known as the process of
Phosphorylation
Kinases catalyze which type of reaction?
Phosphorylation
Which term is used specifically to describe the addition of an inorganic phosphate to an organic molecule?
Phosphorylation
The time required for one-half of a quantity of a radioactive element to decay to a stable isotope is the______half-life.
Physical
A heme moiety (non-amino acid component) attached to the protein hemoglobin is an example of which of the following?
Prosthetic group
The plasma membrane is made up of phospholipids and which of the following?
Protein
amino acids, like lysine, are the building blocks of _____.
Protein
The most common colloids in the body are mixtures of water and what other substance?
Proteins
Which term refers to a molecule composed predominantly of a carbohydrate covalently bonded to a smaller protein component?
Proteoglycan
TRANSITIONAL
Resembles str. squ., but cells don't flatten as the rise; cells are plump and bulge at surface; cells flatten when lining is stretched, allowing the organ to distend; located lining urinary bladder Function: stretches for expansion (distention)
Name the level of protein structure that is determined by the folding of the protein into alpha helices and beta sheets due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids.
Secondary
What are three mechanisms of carrier-mediated transport?
Secondary active transport Facilitated diffusion Primary active transport
CH3PP: How does secondary active transport differ from primary active transport?
Secondary active transport differs from primary active transport because during secondary active transport the 2 moving substance moves I opposite directions ( one into the cell, one out of the cell ). at the same time, this is called antiport. While Primary active transport moves solute particles through a selectively permeable membrane up their concentration gradient, by a carrier that consumed ATP.
A____is defined as a substance consisting of a solute mixed with a more abundant substance called the solvent.
Solution
The ability of water to dissolve other chemicals is ______.
Solvency
In a solution, the more abundant substance that dissolves another substance is known as what?
Solvent
Ch1PP:right pleural cavity
contains right lung
Ch1PP:cranial cavity
contains the brain
18. The epigastric region contains all of the following organs except: a)stomach b)liver c)gall bladder d)urinary bladder e)large intestine (transverse colon)
d
QQ19 The regional term used to describe the armpit is: a)antecubital b)antebrachial c)brachial d)axillary e)scapular
d
A carbohydrate composed of two covalently-bonded simple sugars (monosaccharides) is called a(n)
disaccharide
CH2PP: Protons
in nucleus, positive charge, have mass
CH2PP: Electrons
in shells around nucleus, negative charge, have no discernable mass
Ch1PP:ventral cavity
located along the front of the body, contains the body organs that sustain homeostasis
Crural
lower leg/ shin
Consider two solutions of different sodium concentrations separated by a selectively permeable membrane. The net movement of water across the membrane will be from the area of ______ sodium concentration to the area of ______ sodium concentration.
lower, higher
2QQ5 An organelle that functions in intracellular digestion is a(n):
lysosomes
A____consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically bound.
mixture
The measure of chemical concentration, expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution, is known as
molarity
Which reflects the weight of a solute in a solution and the number or molecules per volume?
molarity
disaccharides can be broken down into
monosaccharides
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS(KERATINIZED)
multiple layers of cells which flatten more as they rise; red arrow points to layer of dead cells = keratin at tissue surface
Ch1PP: superficial
near the surface
Thoracic
pertaining to the chest
Name the level of protein structure that is determined by the amino acid sequence of the protein.
primary
The Blank 1 of 1 structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence.
primary
Microvilli
projections that increase the cell's surface area
________is the general term for a lipid molecule that consists of four interconnected carbon rings. Examples are cholesterol, testosterone, or estrogen.
steroid
Ch1PP: coronal plane/ frontal plane
vertical division of the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions
A double covalent bond involves how many pair(s) of shared electrons?
2
2QQ10 Crenation is an example of
Blood cells in a hypertonic solution.
Which subatomic particle does not contribute significantly to the mass of an atom?
Electron
Which of the following is an element?
Hydrogen
Which type of bond can be described as a weak attraction between a slightly positive region in one molecule and a slightly negative region in a different molecule?
Hydrogen
A ______ is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost electrons.
Ion
Which of the terms below can be applied to glucose (C6H12O6)?
Molecule Compound
Indicate which statements are true of proteins. Select all that apply.
They make up molecules that can transport oxygen. They act as receptors on cells' surfaces. They catalyze chemical reactions.
Identify the components of a triglyceride below. Choose all that apply. Three fatty acids One fatty acid Polar head group Glycerol Two fatty acids
Three fatty acids Glycerol
Ch1PP: Ventral
Toward the belly
Golgi complex
a cell organelle that helps make and package materials to be transported out of the cell
Q4Q8 __________are attached to the hair follicles, cause goose bumps and are composed of _______________ tissue. a. arrector pili; skeletal muscle b. arrector pili; smooth muscle c. arrector folliculi; keratinized d. levator folliculi; smooth muscle e. levator papilla; keratinized f. levator pili; skeletal muscle
b
Umbilical
belly button
Polymers formed of many simple sugars are classified as ______.
complex carbohydrates polysaccharide
Diffusion rate will ________ as the diffusing distance increases.
decrease
Some fatty acids must be obtained from the diet because the body cannot synthesize them. The term given to this group of compounds is______Fatty Acids.
essential
Q4Q11 Burns that extend into muscle and bone layers are sometimes referred to as:
fourth-degree burns
rule of nines
method used to calculate the amount of fluid lost as the result of a burn; divides the body into 11 areas, each accounting for 9% of the total body area
Ch1PP: Anatomy
the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
Glucose and fructose both have the chemical formula C6H12O6. Which term below describes the relationship between glucose and fructose?
Isomers
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of their atoms are known as
Isomers
The number of molecules of a chemical that is equal to its molecular weight in grams, is a(n)
Mole
2QQ3 Which of the following is a common function of a plasma membrane protein?
Molecular transport through the membrane.
Which molecule combines with an inorganic phosphate to form ATP?
Adenosine diphosphate
What percentage of the body weight is made of oxygen?
More than 50%
2QQ9 A symport system of active transport:
Moves two substances across a membrane actively and in the same direction.
Which term refers to a negatively charged ion?
Anion
Which level of protein structure is due to bending and folding into various globular and fibrous shapes?
Tertiary
Chapter 2
The Chemistry of Life
Deuterium and tritium are isotopes of hydrogen. What is different about them?
They have different numbers of neutrons.
2QQ1 The jelly-like substance in which internal cellular structures are suspended is:
Cytoplasm
The energy molecule that is produced by cellular respiration and used in metabolic reactions is ______.
adenosine triphosphate
A molecule consisting of a carbon chain, with 4 to 24 carbons, with a methyl group on one end and a carboxyl group on the opposite end is which of the following?
Fatty acid
An atom with an atomic # of 7 and an atomic mass of 15 has_______ Protons
7
What is a protein that participates in transmembrane transport called?
A carrier
Q4Q5 Adipose tissue is mostly found in the _____________ layer of the skin. a. epidermal b. dermal c. hypodermal d. stratum corneum e. stratum basale
c
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.
Ch1PP: deep
Away from the body surface; more internal
Which of the following is NOT a function of the plasma membrane?
It prevents small ions like sodium from moving across it.
Q4Q6 Immune system cells that migrate to and live in the epidermis.
Langerhans cells
The ribs are ______To the sternum(breast bone)
Lateral
Which of the following is an example of a mineral?
Magnesium
Choose the disaccharides from the list below.
Maltose,Lactose,sucrose
All are physiological descriptions except:
The bones of the forearm are the radius and ulna
Hydrophilic substances are soluble in
Water
Hemidesmosomes
anchor cells to the basement membrane. anchors intermediate filaments in a cell to the basal lamina.
Tarsal
ankle region
A(n) _______ is a chemical that neutralizes free radicals.
antioxidant
A cell to cell junction allowing for rapid diffusion of ions between adjoining cells is known as a desmosome
false
True or false: A prosthetic group is usually a smaller peptide.
false
Which of the following is an example of a suspension?
Blood cells in blood plasma
Within the plasma membrane, most transmembrane proteins will be comprised of what type of regions?
Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
Which are types of vesicular transport?
Endocytosis and exocytosis
Ch1PP:abdominal divisions
...
Ch1PP: Homeostasis condition exp
1. Stimulus = decreased body temp.; 2. Receptor = thermoreceptor detects drop and relays message to control center; 3. Control center = brain receives message, decides what to do, sends output to effector; 4. Effector(s) = muscles/blood vessels; 5. Response = body temp. rises as muscles contract (shiver) and blood vessels constrict
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
Which is an example of an emulsion?
Fat in breast milk
QQ10 Fill in the blank with the proper directional term: The nose is _______________ to the cheeks.
Medial
Which of the following is a cofactor but not a coenzyme?
zinc
Principle of Complementarity
•Function (physiology) is a reflection of structure (anatomy). •What a structure can do depends on its specific form. •Anatomy and physiology are intimately united and dependent on each other.
CH2WS: What is a catalyst? What is the most common group of catalysts in the body?
A catalyst is an increase in rate is a chemical reaction without undergoing permanent change. The most common group of catalysts in the body includes enzymes.
CH2WS: What is ATP? What is its purpose in the body?
ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. ATP's purpose in the body is to release inorganic phosphates & thus energy needed for various cellular reactions.
A base is a compound that acts as a proton ______.
Acceptor
Which are examples of electrolytes?
Acid Bases Salts
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
Black arrow is pointing to a thin,single layer of flat cells lining a region in the kidney seen here Function: diffusion/filtration/osmosis
The arm is also termed the _______ region.
Brachial
Ch1PP: Proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Which term refers to a small organic molecule, usually derived from a vitamin, that is needed to make an enzyme catalytically active?
Coenzyme
A_______is composed of two or more atoms that are held together by chemical bonds.
Compound
A suspension of liquid fat in water is an example of which of the following?
Emulsion
Which membrane-bound organelle is the site of both protein and lipid synthesis?
Endoplasmic reticulum
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR ( Still simple epithelial tissue)
Looks layered but each cell does reach b.m.; not all cells reach free surface; cilia common which helps moves mucus along free surface; in respiratory tract Function: secretion and propulsion of mucus
Alkalosis is a condition where the blood becomes too basic. If a patient presented with alkalosis, what would you want to do?
Lower the patients blood pH.
Which would require more calories?
Raising the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
Which of the following are small granules of RNA and protein that provide a site for protein synthesis?
Ribosomes
A fatty acid contains the maximum number of hydrogens possible. It is ______.
Saturated
Which are examples of antioxidants?
Selenium Vitamin E Vitamin C
a coronal section is one that:
Separates the body into anterior and posterior sections.
A Blank 1 of 1 is the substance that an enzyme acts upon.
Substrate
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (BLOOD)
The predominate cells here are the RBCs, the central, large, purple cells is a WBC and the small, flecks are Platelets; the white areas represent the plasma matrix; found in the heart and blood vessels Function: transport nutrients, gases, wastes, hormones; provide defense; clot to prevent blood loss
Which of the following best describes denaturation?
The unfolding of a protein's three-dimensional shape
which of the following is true about the mode of secretion of endocrine glands?
These glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
A molecule may be composed of one element or more than one element.
True
Which of the following best describes very weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms?
Van der Waals forces
An enzyme associated with its substrate is referred to as an enzyme-substrate
complex
Ch1PP:pericardial cavity
contains the heart
QQ13 The rib cage is _______________ to the clavicles (collar bones). a)superior b)anterior c)posterior d)inferior e)ventral
d
A long and branched chain of glucose molecules is
glycogen
_________is a phospholipid molecule with a carbohydrate covalently bonded to it. It can be found in the plasma membranes of cells.
glycolipid
Components of the plasma membrane called ______ help form the glycocalyx.
glycolipids
Tissue fluid is also called ______.
interstitial fluid
Three types of chemical bonds
ionic, covalent, hydrogen
Any enzyme that adds an inorganic phosphate (Pi) group to another organic molecule is known as a(n
kinase
What is the toxic end product of anaerobic fermentation?
lactic acid
Disaccharide found in milk sugar
lactose
Squamous cells ______.
line the esophagus
The__________ plane runs from front to back and separates the body into equal right and left divisions.
median
Ch1PP: Dorsal
pertaining to the back
Buccal
pertaining to the cheek
Antebrachial
pertaining to the forearm
Inguinal
pertaining to the groin
Cervical
pertaining to the neck
Femoral
pertaining to the thigh
Cesium-137 has a longer ______ half-life than a ______ half-life.
physical, biological
What term refers to a covalent bond in which the electrons are not equally shared?
polar
Keratin and collagen are types of ______ proteins.
structural
Ch1PP: Comparative Physiology
study of how different species solve problems of life; basis for many new drugs and medical procedures.
Colloids are chemical mixtures that contain ______.
suspended particles that scatter light particles smaller than 100 nm
Ch1PP: Posterior
toward the back
Ch1PP: Superior
toward the head
2QQ8 Facilitated diffusion is transport across a membrane:
which is passive, involves a carrier and moves substances from [high] to [low]
In a solution, the solute ______, when the solution is allowed to stand.
will not separate from the solvent
The organelle which controls cellular activity is the Blank 1 of 1.
Nucleus
Ch1PP:Abdominopelvic Membranes:
•Visceral peritoneum •Parietal peritoneum
Ch1PP:Thoracic Membranes:
•Visceral pleura •Parietal pleura •Visceral pericardium •Parietal pericardium
Peptide bonds are used to join two of these together.
Amino acids
Which of the following are the monomeric subunits that make up a protein?
Amino acids
Which term refers to a nonprotein, such as a metal ion or a coenzyme, that is needed for some enzymes to function?
Cofactor
Which important properties of water allow it to support life?
Cohesion Solvency Chemical reaction
Which term is used to describe the structure formed by the combining of the enzyme and its specific substrate?
Enzyme-substrate complex
Each enzyme catalyzes one particular chemical reaction. Which term describes this property of enzymes?
Enzyme-substrate specificity
What is the large centrally-located organelle visible with a light microscope called?
Nucleus
Which of the following are used to express concentration?
weight per volume, percentages,molarity
6.4 Skin Disorders (MELANOMA)
"ABCD ruleABCD rule" " for identification of melanoma:A: A: asymmetry (irregular shape; not rounded)B: B: border irregularity (wavy or scalloped)C: C: color (mixture of brown, black, tan)D: D: diameter (greater than 6 mm)
Microscope Anatomy 1.1
*Histology:study of tissue specimens under the microscope -Histopathology: microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease *Cytology:study of structure/function of individual cells
Homeostasis 1.6
*Homeostasis - ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment (balance) as the external environment changes •'Dynamic' constancy of the body's internal environment; dynamic refers to the body's internal environment being in a constant state of fluctuation above and below a set (normal) point of reference •Homeostasis is maintained mostly by negative feedback mechanisms in the human body
Third degree burns
-Full thickness-Leading cause of accidental death where there is destruction of the epidermis, dermis and accessory organs of the hypodermis (subcutaneous layer); may extend to muscle and bone (44thth degree burn degree burn)
Sunscreen
-SPF = sun protection factorsun protection factor; lab measure of protection against UVB rays (no good evidence they protect against UVA)-Provides little protection against cancer (some for squamous cell type, but not basal cell or melanoma)-Minimum of SPF 15 advisable but relationship between SPF and protection level is not linear•SPF 15 protects skin from 93% of UVB•SPF 30 protects skin from 97% of UVB•Any rating above SPF 30 is misleading-Effectiveness varies with amount, frequency of application, skin type and sweating•Divide SPF by 2 and reapply that many minutes later
First degree burns
-Superficial partial thickness-Damage only to epidermis only (i.e. sunburn) with some pain, redness; heals well with no scarring
One millimole of NaCl is dissolved in a liter of water. What is the concentration of Na+ in the solution?
1 mEq/L
4 BASIC TISSUE TYPES TABLE 5.1
1. Epithelial: layered tissue with closely packed cells that covers body surfaces and organs; lines organs and comprises glands 2. Connective: tissue with abundant matrix (material outside of cells) and fewer cell volume; supports, protects and binds tissues together 3. Muscular: tissue of excitable, contractile cells that is specialized for various movements, both voluntary and involuntary 4. Nervous: tissue of excitable cells specialized for rapid transmission of information to and from other cells; communication cells
If an atom has 2 electrons in its innermost shell and 3 electrons in its outermost shell, how many valence electrons does it have?
3
Q4Q19 Keratinocytes
90% of epidermal cells
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
Which of the following best describes a glycolipid?
A phospholipid molecule covalently bonded to a carbohydrate
Pseudopod
A temporary, foot-like extension of a cell, used for locomotion or engulfing food
Q4Q1 All are true of the dermis except: a. highly regenerative b. vascular c. dense irregular d. loose areolar e. sweat glands
A) highly regenerative
2QQ19 What is the primary energy source the body uses to drive active membrane transport? _______________
ATP
Mitochondria extract energy from organic compounds and transfer it to which of the following for use by the cell?
ATP
Which is an example of a nucleotide?
ATP
Ch1PP: Homeostasis
Ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment (balance) as the external environment changes. •'Dynamic' constancy of the body's internal environment; dynamic refers to the body's internal environment being in a constant state of fluctuation above and below a set (normal) point of reference. •Homeostasis is maintained mostly by negative feedback mechanisms in the human body.
Q4Q17 Erythema
Abnormal redness of skin caused by increased blood flow and dilated blood vessels
HCl is a compound that releases hydrogen ions when put into water. Therefore, it is a(n) ______.
Acid
CH2PP: Atoms Elements Matter
All matter consists of elements which in turn consist of particles called atoms Atoms = the smallest functional unit of any element consisting of: Protons Neutrons Electron
Which secondary structure of proteins has a spiral shape?
Alpha helix
What is an ion?
An atom that has gained or lost electrons
Mitochondria
An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur.
Desmosomes
Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart joins the intermediate filaments in one cell to those in a neighbor
What is the term for an ion with a net negative charge (more electrons than protons)?
Anion
The free surface of the epithelial layer describes the__________surface.
Apical
CH2PP: Isotopes
Atoms of an element w/ a different number of neutrons than the usual expected number These atoms have the same atomic number and thus the same number of protons and electrons Having a different number of neutrons does affect the atom's mass so this number will different than usual atoms of the element
NaOH is a compound that releases hydroxide ions in water. Therefore, it is a(n) ______.
Base
A specialized layer that serves to anchor an epithelium to the connective tissue below is a____ membrane.
Basement
Solution B has a pH of 10. It is ______.
Basic
Which term means the study of the molecules and chemical reactions that occur in living cells?
Biochemistry
Which term refers to the time required for 50% of a radioactive element to be cleared from the body?
Biological half-life
Solution A prevents solution C from changing its pH. Solution A is therefore a what?
Buffer
Substances that resist changes in pH are known as
Buffers
The amount of thermal energy that will raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C defines which unit?
Calorie
What is the prosthetic group in a glycoprotein molecule?
Carbohydrate
Skeletal Muscle
Cells are long and cylindrical running parallel to each other; cells are striated (striped appearance) and have multiple nuclei; muscle cells also called muscle fibers; attached to bones of the skeleton (i.e. biceps brachii) Function: voluntary contraction such as locomotion and facial expression
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Cells are spindle shaped with one large, centrally located nucleus in each cell; cells are non-striated and piled on top if each other in sheets; found in walls of hollow, contractile organs (i.e. stomach), walls of blood vessels and in dermis of skin Function: involuntary muscular contraction outside the heart
CARDIAC MUSCLE
Cells are striated like skeletal muscle but shorter and branched in appearance; cells called cardiomyocytes and typically have a single nucleus; cells joined end to end by junctions called intercalated disks (black arrows above); located only in heart Function: pump blood through heart involuntarily
Ch1PP:Mediastinum
Centrally located space between the lungs
Which three organelles are not surrounded by membranes?
Centrioles Ribosomes Centrosomes
Covalent, ionic, and hydrogen are examples of__________Bonds.
Chemical
For each type of surface extension, match its description with its name.
Cilia- Short 'hairs' with axoneme cores Flagellum- Single long structure with an axoneme core Microvilli- Folds of cell membrane; may have actin core Folds of cell membrane; may have actin core
HYALINE CARTILAGE
Clear, glassy appearance to matrix which is composed of fine strands of collagen; note chondrocytes in pockets called lacunae; makes up nasal cartilages, cartilages of the ribs, ends of bones at joints, trachea, and makes up the fetal skeleton Function: enhances smooth joint movement, provides structure, holds windpipe open and precedes bone development in utero
Which term can apply to a molecule composed of two or more different elements?
Compound
Weight per volume, percentages, and molarity are different measures of
Concentration
Q4Q14 Diaphoresis
Condition of more pronounced sweating which accompanies activities like exercise
Peroxisomes
Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals
Ch1PP:abdominal cavity
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs
Ch1PP:pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
Which type of bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms?
Covalent
What is the general name for the network of structures within the cytoplasm which support the cell, determine its shape, and participate in movement?
Cytoskeleton
DENSE IRREGULAR
Densely packed bands of collagen Running in random directions (not parallel like regular variety); fibroblasts not as visible, low amounts of ground substance; in dermis, around bones Function: withstands stress in multiple directions; durability
QQ12 Fill in the blank with the proper directional term: The wrist is ______________ to the shoulder.
Distal
NERVOUS & MUSCULAR TISSUES
EXCITABLE TISSUES
A_____ dissociates in water and produces a solution that can conduct electricity.
Electrolyte
The subatomic particle with a negative charge is a(n)_______
Electron
Which term defines the simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties?
Element
Which term specifically refers to fatty acids that must be eaten since the human body is unable to synthesize them?
Essential fatty acids
2QQ15 The process by which a cell expels or secretes substances from inside the cell to outside the cell is termed ____________.
Exocytosis
Vesicular transport that releases material from the inside of the cell to the outside of the cell is called Blank 1 of 1.
Exocytosis
What is the fluid located between cells called?
Extracellular fluid
Free radicals have an even number of electrons.
False
Which of the following best defines chromatin?
Fine threads of DNA and protein
Q4Q16 Lanugo
Fine, downy, fetal hair; mostly gone @ birth
For each type of surface extension, match its role with its name.
Flagella-Propulsion of cell Microvilli- Increase surface area, as for absorption Cilia-, Move a substance along a cell surface
Which type of particle has an unpaired electron, making it highly reactive and destructive to cells?
Free Radical
Where are proteins, such as enzymes, that are to be secreted from the cells produced?
Free ribosomes
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (SKIN MARKINGS)
Friction ridgesFriction ridges markings on fingertips that leave fingerprints on surfaces; unique to individuals, even identical twins; improve grasp and increase frictionFlexion lines (flexion creases)Flexion lines (flexion creases) lines on flexor surfaces marking sites where skin foldsFrecklesFreckles flat, melanized patches of skin resulting from heredity and sun exposureMoles (nevi)Moles (nevi) elevated patch of melanized skin, often w/ hair, 'beauty marks'HemangiomasHemangiomas 'birthmarks'; skin patches resulting from benign tumors of blood capillaries; many disappear by age 5-6
Which statements correctly describe guanosine triphosphate? Choose all that apply.
GTP is a nucleotide. GTP may donate a phosphate to help regenerate ATP.
Coming from words that mean "sugar coat", the layer of carbohydrates coating a cell membrane is called the Blank 1 of 1.
Glycocalyx
The ______ Is the fuzzy, outer, sugar-coating of animal cells which acts as a biological marker and functions in cell to cell recognition.
Glycocalyx
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (DERMIS)
Highly vascular; thermoregulationLocation of most cutaneous sensory receptorsGlands (sweat and sebaceous, oil glands)Hair follicles & associated muscle cells (arrector pili)
Ch1PP: MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
Histology & Cytology
When your blood sugar rises and insulin is released to bring levels down, this is an exp of:
Homeostasis
pH is a measurement of the concentration of what?
Hydrogen ions
Which term refers to polar molecules that dissolve in water?
Hydrophilic
What term can be used to describe any molecule that is non-polar and does not dissolve in water?
Hydrophobic
2QQ18 Which has the highest osmolarity? a)Distilled water b)Isotonic solution (300-312 mOsm/L) c)Hypertonic solution (>312 mOsm/L)
Hypertonic Solution (>312 mOsm/L)
2QQ16 Cells exposed to a(n) _____________ environment will lyse as water moves in, causing bursting of cells.
Hypotonic
CH3PP: Define integral (I), peripheral (P), and transmembrane (T) proteins found in the plasma membrane.
I= A protein of the plasma membrane that penetrates into or all the way through the phospholipid bilayer. P= Clings to its intracellular or extracellular surface but does not penetrate into the phospholipid bilayer. T= Integral Protein that extends through a plasma membrane & contacts both the extracellular & intracellular fluid.
Q4Q20 Dendritic cells
Immune cells of the skin
Where are protons of an atom located?
In the nucleus
Where is a neutron located?
In the nucleus of an atom
Accumulated cell products such as glycogen granules, pigments, and fats are types of Blank 1 of 1.
Inclusion
Foreign bodies such as viruses, bacteria, or dust particles that have been phagocytized by the cell form types of _________ within the cytoplasm.
Inclusions
Which are not essential to cell survival?
Inclusions
Ch1PP: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
Input from sensory receptor sent to a control center Change is detected by a sensory receptor Variable fluctuates in and out of balance due to a stimulus Effector responds and negatively influences original stimulus Output from control center sent to an effector
Negative Feedback Control - 1.7 & 1.8
Input from sensory receptor sent to a control center Change is detected by a sensory receptor Variable fluctuates in and out of balance due to a stimulus Effector responds and negatively influences original stimulus Output from control center sent to an effector
Positive Feedback Control 1.8
Input from sensory receptor sent to the brain Change is detected by sensory receptors in the uterine wall Stimulus causes uterine contractions during labor Uterus responds and increases contraction of uterine muscles Output from brain is sent to uterine muscles
What does the quaternary structure of a protein depend upon?
Interactions between multiple polypeptide chains
The epigastric region is _________ to the right and left hypochondriac regions.
Intermediate
What are the three types of protein structures that contribute to the cytoskeleton?
Intermediate filaments Microtubules Microfilaments
CH2WS: What is the definition of an ion? What has happened to create an ion? Is Na+ a cation or an anion? What happened to Na+ to make it either a cation or anion?
Ion is when an atom or molecule loses or gains electrons creating a net electric charge. There has to be a change in # of electrons. Na+ is a cation. The Na+ lost an electron to make it a cation.
The sodium ion (Na+) and the chloride ion (Cl-) are attracted to each other and form a(n) ______ bond.
Ionic
AREOLAR TISSUE
Loose arrangement of collagen/elastic fibers w/ abundant ground substance; fibroblasts and other cells present; sits under epithelia,around vessels/nerves, fascia around muscles Function: binds, supports, pathway for blood
RETICULAR TISSUE
Loose network of reticular fibers with Many scattered fibroblasts and WBCs; found in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow, thymus Function: forms supportive framework for various lymphatic organs
Which membrane-bound organelle contains a mixture of enzymes that function in digesting foreign matter, pathogens, and expired organelles?
Lysosome
Blank 1 of 1 are the organelles that digest and dispose of worn-out mitochondria and other organelles by a process called autophagy.
Lysosomes
Bone (osseous tissue)
Matrix is hard, calcified and solid and this tissue composes the skeleton and has associated cartilage, marrow and other connective tissues •Cells that secrete matrix = Osteoblasts; become trapped in pockets (lacunae) that form in the matrix; once trapped = Osteocytes •2 types of bone: •Spongy bone -Hard, but less dense with spaces in between plates of bone; surrounded by compact bone; 20% of skeleton •Compact bone -Hard, dense bone without spaces; 80% of skeleton
tight junctions
Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
The nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex are examples of what type of organelles?
Membranous
Which term is used to describe a series of reactions, where each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme?
Metabolic pathway
CH3PP: 3.3 Membrane Transport (Passive Methods) Filtration
Method of passive transport where pressure forces a liquid across a membrane Movement is from higher pressure to lower pressure areas Example: movement of water in/out of capillaries (Fig. 3.13 in text)
2QQ2 Which structures are fingerlike projections that greatly increase the absorbing surface of cells?
Microvili
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (MAMMARY GLANDS)
Milk producing glands that develop during pregnancy and lactationModified, apocrine sweat glandsConnect to ductile system in the nipple for conveyance to offspring
Inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain are known as
Minerals
The organelle that contains the enzymes necessary to produce ATP for use by the cell is the Blank 1 of 1.
Mitochondria
Salt on a watermelon is an example of a ______.
Mixture
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (CERUMINOUS GLANDS)
Modified apocrine, sweat glands found only in the external ear canalSecretion = cerumen, which is a yellow, waxy secretion also known as 'ear wax'Protects eardrum, waterproofs canal, kills bacteria and blocks foreign particles from entering deeper areas of ear
Name the measure of concentration that takes into consideration the number of solute molecules.
Molarity
The building blocks of carbohydrates are:
Monosaccharides
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS(NON-KERATINIZED)
Multiple layers of squamous cells that flatten as they rise; NO keratin at surface because surface is kept moist at all times via secretions; lining of mouth, esophagus, anal canal Function: protection
In a carbon dioxide molecule, electrons are shared equally among the atoms. What type of bond do they form?
Nonpolar Covalent
Which structure is perforated with pores to allow material to move in and out of the nucleus?
Nuclear envelope
2QQ14 Fill in the blank with the proper term: The passive diffusion of water is termed ____________.
Osmosis
Th passive diffusion of water across a membrane is termed ______.
Osmosis
What is the diffusion of water down its concentration gradient through a selectively permeable membrane called?
Osmosis
What drives filtration through a membrane?
Physical pressure
gap junctions
Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins. Also called communicating junctions. Allows the passage of small water-soluble ions and molecules
A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a slightly________hydrogen atom of one molecule and a slightly_________oxygen or nitrogen atom of another.
Positive Negative
Which term below refers to large molecules composed of covalently-bonded carbohydrate and protein groups? Hint: They usually serve as lubricants at joints or as a structural component of cartilage.
Proteoglycans
Which term refers to the positively charged particle that is found in the nucleus of an atom?
Proton
The atomic mass of an element is approximately equal to the total number of which two subatomic particles?
Protons & Neutrons
The Blank 1 of 1 level of protein structure is determined by the interactions between two or more polypeptide chains within a protein.
Quaternary
Ch1PP:abdominal quadrants
RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ
The process of energy being released from the decay of unstable radioisotopes is called_______.
Radioactivity
Unstable isotopes are called ______.
Radioisotopes
The majority of the liver is located in which abdomino-pelvic region?
Right Hypochondriac
The organelle characterized by flat sacs studded with ribosomes is the______endoplasmic reticulum
Rough
A human body cell placed in a hypertonic salt water would:
Shrink or crenate
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
Single layer of square or round-ish cells common in glands; above, forming a tubule network in the kidneys Function: absorption/secretion
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable. What does this mean?
Some compounds can permeate (pass through) the membrane while others cannot.
What are cells that are thin and flat, such as found in the walls of the alveoli of the lungs, called?
Squamous
2QQ17 All of the following increase diffusion rates except: a)Increased temperatures b)Shorter diffusion distances c)Higher mass of diffusing substance d)Steepness of concentration gradient e)High membrane permeability
Steepness of concentration gradient.
Ionic Bond
Strength= Moderate Description= The bond between two completely oppositely charged ions(atoms or molecules that were formed by the permanent transfer of one or more electrons. Example= The bond between NA+ and CL- in salt. •Electrons are either gained or lost by the atoms involved in bonding •The gaining and losing of electrons creates ions(electrically charged atoms or molecules) •The bond forms b/w one positively charged ion and one negatively charged ion •These bonds are only moderately strong
Blood cells in the blood plasma is a biological example of which type of mixture?
Suspension
CH3WS: How do symporters and antiporters differ during secondary active transport?
Symporters differ during secondary active transport because a symport carries 2 or more types of solute through a membrane simultaneously in the same direction. While antiports carry 2 or more solutes in the opposite direction.
Which of the following correctly defines tonicity?
The ability of a solution to cause osmosis, affecting volume and pressure in the cell
CH2WS: What are the boundaries of the pH scale? What is the scale used for? What are buffers?
The boundaries of the pH scale go from 0-14. The scale is used to measure H+ within a solution. Buffers minimize pH changes within a solution when an acid or a base are added.
CH3PP: selectively permeable
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable = allows some things to cross while preventing passage of other things Membrane transport classified as being either: -Passive: no energy required for transport -Active: consume ATP to provide necessary energy for transport
As a solute concentration rises, its rate of transport through a membrane increases up to the point where all the carriers are saturated. This point of saturation is called what?
The transport maximum
CH3PP: Cilia
Thinner, longer and more hair-like than microvilli May be motile (moving) or non-motile (stationary) Some non-motile cilia serve a sensory function at the cell surface Motile cilia beat in waves and sweep substances (such as mucus) along the surface of the cell from which they extend
What is a group of similar cells that performs some discrete function within an organ described as?
Tissue
The concentration of solutes in a cell affects the fluid volume and pressure within the cell. This is referred to as the Blank 1 of 1 of the solution.
Tonicity
CH3PP: Tonicity
Tonicity is the ability of a solution to affect the volume and pressure of fluid inside a cell placed in the solution Compared to the inside of a cell, a hypotonic solution has lower solute concentration and is more watery so water is driven into cells Compared to the inside of a cell, a hypertonic solution has higher solute concentration and is less watery so water is pulled out of cells An isotonic solution has the same solute and water ratio as inside of cells so water moves in/out at the same rate with no damaging effect on the cell
Ch1PP: Medial
Toward the midline of the body
The 12 elements that together account for 0.7% of the body weight, with each accounting for no more than 0.02%, are known as____ elements.
Trace
Which of the following terms refers specifically to an element that plays a physiological role in the body, but which accounts for less than 0.02% of the body weight?
Trace Element
When all carriers are saturated, the transport of the molecule levels off at a rate called what?
Transport maximum
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (SWEAT GLANDS)
Types cont...--Apocrine (scent glands) sweat glands:Apocrine (scent glands) sweat glands:•Located in groin, armpits, anal region, areola, beard in mature males•Less prevalent than merocrine (eccrine) glands•Secretion is more viscous w/ added fatty acids•Mostly stimulated during times of stress and sexual excitement•Not functional until puberty•Although called 'apocrine' they were originally misnamed because they also secrete via exocytosis which was not originally understood (so merocrine method of secretion like eccrine glands)
6.4 Skin Disorders (SKIN CANCER)
Types cont...--MelanomaMelanoma•Arises from melanocytes•Accounts for roughly less than 5% of skin cancers but is the 6th most frequently diagnosed cancer in the U.S.•Extremely aggressive and metastasizes quickly•Metastatic melanoma does not respond to chemotherapy; poor prognosis if spreads•Greatest risk factor is family history•More common in men, red-heads and individuals who experienced extreme sunburns as children
(UVA, UVB and SUNSCREENS)
UVA sun rays tanning rays (but can burn too)UVB sun rays burning rays
Blood pressure levels are controlled by negative feedback mechanism. This means :
Upon standing, BP will drop initially, but it will go back up quickly and regulate to normal.
Which type of bond listed below is the weakest?
Van der Waals forces
Which of the following moves large particles and fluid droplets across the cell membrane?
Vesicular transport
CH3PP: Flagella
Whip-like tail extending from cell that allows cell to move Found only on sperm cells in humans
Q4Q15 Jaundice
Yellowing of skin and whites of eyes due to high bilirubin levels
QQ14 The proper regional term for the area of the anterior elbow or the area at the bend in the arm: a)antecubital b)antebrachial c)brachial d)axillary e)ulnar
a
Ch1PP: sagittal plane/Median Plane
a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
CH3WS: The Cell surface
a. Glycolipid b.Glycoprotein c. Single Carbohydrate Molecule of Glycolipid of Glycocalyx d.Polar Heads of Phospholipids e.Nonpolar Tails of Phospholipids f.Bimolecular Lipid Layer W/ Proteins g.Filaments of Cytoskeleton h. Integral Proteins i.Cholesterol j.Integral Protein/Transmembrane Protein/Protein Channel
A proton (H+) donor, or a chemical that releases protons into solution, is a(n)
acid
Cell Junctions
are connections between most cells that make up the various tissues (see Fig. 5.28) •Also connect C.T. cells to their surrounding matrix •Junctions allow cells to grow and divide normally, allow them to communicate with each other and allow them to resist stress Main types of cell junctions: •Tight junctions •Desmosomes •Hemidesmosomes •Gap junctions
Popliteal
area behind the knee
QQ2 All are anatomical descriptions except: a)The heart has two upper chambers and two lower chambers. b)The kidneys filter blood to produce urine. c)The stomach wall has three layers of smooth muscle. d)The thickest layer of the skin is the dermis. e)Cells have an outer plasma membrane composed of phospolipids, proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates.
b
Ch1PP: intermediate
between a more medial and a more lateral structure
Phosphorylation of an enzyme ______.
can turn off a metabolic pathway can activate a metabolic pathway
In nature, sodium atoms lose electrons; therefore, they become ______.
cations
Which steroid molecule are all of the other steroids derived from?
cholesterol
An enzyme associated with its substrate is referred to as an enzyme-substrate Blank 1 of 1.
complex
adherens junctions
contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. joins an actin bundle in one cell similar bundle in a neighboring cell
extensions off neuron cell body that direct impulses away from the perikaryon are dendrites.
false
Antecubital
front of elbow
Ch1PP: Anterior
front of the body
Choose the monosaccharides from the list below.
fructose, glucose, galactose
In a solution, the solute can be a ______.
gas, solid, or liquid
A protein molecule bonded to a smaller carbohydrate molecule is called a ______.
glycoprotein
Most transmembrane proteins are ______.
glycoproteins
Q4Q9 Portion of the hair follicle that derives from the epidermis:
internal root sheath
Biochemistry
is the study of the molecules and chemical reactions that occur in living cells.
Parietal layer
lining of the wall of the cavity or space within which organs are found
Which term is used to refer to a simple sugar, or sugar monomer?
monosaccharide
Glucose, fructose and galactose are examples of which of the following?
monosaccharides
The abbreviation____is a measurement of acidity derived from the concentration of H+.
pH
This abbreviation is the measurement of acidity
pH
An alpha helix is an example of Blank 1Blank 1 ,structure found in proteins.
secondary
Ch1PP:Diaphragm cavity
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
thinnest epithelial type which is most suited for functions like diffusion and filtration
simple squamous
The particles of matter that are dissolved in a solution are known as what?
solute
Saltwater is a solution of NaCl dissolved in water. In this example, NaCl is the solute and water is the
solvent
The lock and key model describes the property of enzyme-substrate Blank 1 of 1.
specifity
Histology is the study of what?
tissues
Simple Epithelia
•One layer of cells where each cell sits on the basement membrane •Specialized for diffusion, absorption, secretion and filtration Examples: •Simple squamous (single layer of flat cells) •Simple cuboidal (single layer of cube-shaped cells) •Simple columnar (single layer of pillar-shaped cells) •Pseudostratified columnar (appears multi-layered but every pillar-shaped cell does sit on basement membrane; cells are of different heights)
Muscular Tissue
•Tissue specialized to contract and provide movement contract and provide movement •Contraction also generates heat •3 types of muscular tissue: •Skeletal voluntary muscle attached to skeleton •Smooth involuntary muscle found outside the heart •Cardiac involuntary muscle found in the heart only
Nervous Tissue
•Tissue that transmits electrical and chemical signals between cells •Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia (groups of nerve cells outside the CNS) •Composed of 2 cell types: •Neurons nerve cells that transmit signals transmit signals -Less numerous than neuroglia but larger •Neuroglia cells that support and nourish neurons support and nourish neurons -10X as abundant as neurons and smaller in size
Radioisotopes
•Unstable isotopes that emit energy (radiation) & particles until they reach a more stable state •Emissions can be dangerous to living organisms --> can damage tissues; in some cases however these radiation emitting atoms can be used to 'tag' certain molecules in the body for diagnoses and some cancer treatments •These isotopes can also be used in fossil dating: -As a radioisotope strives for a more stable state (by emitting radiation), there is a rate of decay associated with this action -Measuring the amount of radioisotope in rocks/fossils tells us their age because we know the rates of decay for several of the radioisotopes
True or false: An enzyme will usually catalyze only one step in a metabolic pathway.
true
True or false: Formation of adenosine triphosphate from adenosine diphosphate and an inorganic phosphate molecule requires the input of energy.
true
True or false: Guanosine triphosphate may serve as a source of phosphate for ATP.
true
Disaccharides are composed of how many covalently-bonded simple sugars?
two
Scapular
scapula or shoulder blade area
2QQ7 A red blood cell placed in hypertonic salt water would
shrink or crenate
Ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
Estrogen and testosterone are examples of which type of lipid?
steroids
Example of an atom: Oxygen
• A simple version of the shell model, with shells depicted as 2-dimensional circles. •Oxygen -8 Protons -8 Neutrons -8 Electrons in 2 shells
Ch1PP: The Hierarchy of Complexity
•Atom (smallest) •Molecules (two or more bonded atoms) and Macromolecules (large molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates...) •Organelles •Cells •Tissues •Organs •Organ Systems •Organism (largest)
The Hierarchy of Complexity 1.5
•Atom (smallest) •Molecules (two or more bonded atoms) and Macromolecules (large molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates...) •Organelles •Cells •Tissues •Organs •Organ Systems •Organism (largest)
Anatomical Position (Fig. A.1)
•Body standing erect, feet flat on floor, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms and face directed forward •Standard frame of reference which allow descriptions of body structures to remain valid regardless of subject's position •Always assume all anatomical descriptions refer to subject being in anatomical position
Glands
•Cell or organ that secretes substances used elsewhere in body or which are eventually eliminated as waste •Composed mainly of epithelial tissue with some C.T. •Secretion products include sweat, enzymes, bile, urine, and hormones. Types of glands: •Exocrine -Release a watery secretion via a duct system to the outside of the body or onto a body surface •Endocrine -Ductless glands that release hormones into the bloodstream
Ch1PP: Examples of Methods of examination of anatomy
•Inspection looking at body's appearance •Palpation feeling body with the hands •Auscultation listening to body sounds •Percussion tapping body to feel for abnormal resistance •Dissection cutting/separating tissues to reveal their relationships; using human dead body (cadaver)
Fibrous Connective Tissue Types:
•Loose connective tissue •Areolar tissue •Reticular tissue •Dense connective tissue •Dense regular •Dense irregular
Stratified Epithelia
•More than on layer of cells (2-20 or more) •Most wide spread epithelial type in the body and functions primarily in protection of underlying tissues Examples: •Stratified squamous(multiple layers of flat cells) •Stratified cuboidal (multiple layers of cube-shaped cells) •Stratified columnar (multiple layers of pillar-shaped cells)--rare •Transitional(multiple layers of plump, irregularly shaped cells)
5.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE •General Characteristics
•Most abundant tissue type and widely distributed throughout the body •Cells occupy less space than the extracellular matrix (fibers + ground substance) and cells do not typically contact each other but are separated by the matrix•Matrix varies from liquid to semi-solid to solid in nature, giving this category a wide range of characteristics •Deep tissue with no exposed surface no exposed surface; lies in between other tissue types •Most are highly vascular with a few exceptions •Innervated
Characteristics of Life 1.6
•Organization •Cellular composition •Metabolism (internal chemical reactions of the organism) -Includes excretion = removal of metabolic wastes •Responsiveness and movement Responsiveness and movement (sense/react to stimuli) •Homeostasis (ability to maintain a stable internal environment while external environment fluctuates) •Development -Differentiation: unspecialized cells transforming into specialized cells -Growth:increase in size •Reproduction •Evolution (genetic change in populations from generation to generation)
Ch1PP: Characteristics of Life
•Organization •Cellular composition •Metabolism (internal chemical reactions of the organism) -Includes excretion = removal of metabolic wastes •Responsiveness and movement Responsiveness and movement (sense/react to stimuli) •Homeostasis (ability to maintain a stable internal environment while external environment fluctuates) •Development -Differentiation unspecialized cells transforming into specialized cells -Growth increase in size •Reproduction •Evolution (genetic change in populations from generation to generation)
Possible Functions of Epithelia:
•Protection •Secretion •Excretion •Absorption •Filtration •Sensation
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (FUNCTIONS)
•Resistance to trauma/infectionResistance to trauma/infection•Keratin (durable, outer layer of dead cells; dry)•Acidity (pH 4-6)•Barrier to entryBarrier to entry•Keratin (water-proofing protein keeps water in/out)•Resists UV rays•Resists harmful chemicals•Vitamin D synthesis Vitamin D synthesis begins here•Important for bone development/maintenance
Plural, Adjectival and Possessive Forms
•Review Table 1.1, pg. 20 •Singular vs. Plural endings -Septum (singular; separation) -Septa (plural; separations) •Noun vs. Adjective -Brachium (noun; the arm) -Brachial (adjective; of or related to the arm) •Possessive Forms --> noun variations indicating possession -Rectus abdominis muscle ---> straight muscle of the abdomen -Erector spinae muscle ---> straightening muscle of the spine
Anatomy 1.1
the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another *Methods of examination: •Inspection-looking at body's appearance •Palpation-feeling body with the hands •Auscultation- listening to body sounds •Percussion-tapping body to feel for abnormal resistance •Dissection- cutting/separating tissues to reveal their relationships; using human dead body (cadaver)
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (SKIN COLOR FACTORS)
#1 = melaninmelanin production by melanocytesExposure to UV light UV light (sun) = stimulates melanocytes to release melaninHemoglobinHemoglobin = red pigment in blood; areas where blood vessels are closer to surface appear redder (i.e. lips)CaroteneCarotene = yellow pigment in egg yolks and yellow/orange vegetables; attracted to stratum corneum and subcutaneous fat; presents as yellowing of thicker skin areas (i.e. soles of feet)
Ch1PP:Serous Membranes
thin, dbl., membranes lining organs and spaces w/in the VENTRAL CAVITY. They secrete a watery fluid (serous fluid) that lubricates the outside of organs to decrease friction between the organ and cavity in which it sits. •Visceral layer - covers the outside of the organ •Parietal layer - lines the cavity where the organ sits •The space between the two layers is the cavity housing the organ
The Language Of Medicine
*Analyzing Medical Terms •Elements of scientific terminology -Root (stem) ---> bears the core meaning of the word; cardiology (root = cardi- = heart) -Combining vowels----> used to join toots for easier pronunciation; cardiomyopathy (o used to combine cardi- to my- to -pathy =heart muscle pathology) -Prefix---> comes before root to modify its core meaning (hypo- added to -gastric = hypogastric = below the stomach) -Suffix---> comes at the end of a word to modify its core meaning (-logy used at the end of a word to indicate 'the study of'; osteology = the study of bone tissue) -Eponyms---> terms coined from the names of people -•-duct of Santorini (named after discovering scientist) -Acronyms---> words composed of the first letter or first few letters of a series of words -•-PET scan = positron emission tomography
Gross Anatomy 1.1
*Structure which can be seen with the naked eye via: •Surface observation •Medical imaging (radiology) -X-rays -PET scans -CT scans •Dissection
Second degree burns
-Deep partial thickness-Damage to epidermis and some dermis that is quite painful; see blisters; may leave scars
Hydrogen has an atomic weight of 1amu and oxygen has an atomic weight of 16amu. What is the molecular weight of water (H2O)?
18amu
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (SKIN COLOR FACTORS)
Abnormal skin coloration of diagnostic value:--CyanosisCyanosis blueness tint to skin from low O2 resulting from obstruction, vasoconstriction, disease--ErythemaErythema abnormal redness of skin caused by increased blood flow and dilated blood vessels--PallorPallor pale or ashen color due to low blood flow through skin (stress, low BP, coldness)--AlbinismAlbinism genetic lack of melanin resulting in whitening of skin/hair; eyes appear very pale blue/gray--JaundiceJaundice yellowing of skin and whites of eyes due to high bilirubin levels typical of liver disease--HematomaHematoma bruise; mass of clotted blood showing through the skin
2QQ11 A molecule which moves from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration with the assistance of a protein carrier and an input of energy (ATP) would be moving by:
Active Transport
Which molecule, composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups, functions as an energy-transfer molecule?
Adenosine triphosphate
Which of the following is a type of connective tissue that provides energy storage, thermal insulation, and protective cushioning?
Adipose tissue
6.4 Skin Disorders (SKIN CANCER)
Affects 1 in 5 people in the USAMost caused by UV exposure to the sun which damages DNA in epidermal cells, leading to development of tumorsMost commonly seen on head, neck and hands and in fair-skinned and elderly populationsOne of most common cancers but one of easiest to treat and has a high survival rate when detected early
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (SWEAT GLANDS)
Also called sudoriferous glandsTypes:--Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands:Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands:•Widely distributed over entire body, especially at palms/soles and forehead•Secreted via exocytosis (merocrine method)•Release a watery secretion which serves primarily to cool the body via evaporation•Insensible perspiration = unnoticeable sweat the evaporates rapidly (most sweat)•Diaphoresis = condition of more pronounced sweating which accompanies heat, exercise and circulatory shock
Indicate how pH and temperature affect the activity of an enzyme.
Altering the shape of the substrate binding site Causing a conformational change in the enzyme
Molecules described as_____, such as phospholipids, contain both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region.
Amphipathic
Ch1PP: Lateral
Away from the midline of the body
COMPACT BONE
Calcified matrix arranged in rings (lamellae) around central (Haversian) canals containing blood vessels; osteocytes in lacunae seen as black dashes above; makes up the skeleton Function: physical support, movement via muscular attachment, protection of underlying viscera, storage of minerals
Sural
Calf or posterior surface of the leg
CH2WS: What are the simplest forms (monomers) of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids? Can you give an example of each category?
Carbs SF= Monosaccharides Carbs exp= Glucose; Fructose Lipids SF= Fatty Acids Lipids Exp= Saturated; Unsaturated Fat Proteins SF= Amino Acids Proteins Exp=Alanine;Valine Nucleic Acids SF= Nucleotides Nucleic Acids Exp= DNA; RNA
Facilitated diffusion, primary, and secondary active transport are all mechanisms of which of the following?
Carrier-mediated transport
In which process does a solute bind to a carrier in the plasma membrane that then changes shape and releases the solute to the other side of the membrane?
Carrier-mediated transport
What type of ion has lost an electron and, consequently, has a net positive charge?
Cation
Which term refers to an attractive force caused by the sharing or transfer of electrons?
Chemical Bond
The fine thread-like genetic material (the form of DNA) found within the nucleus of a non-dividing cell is called Blank 1 of 1.
Chromatin
Which term refers to an organic cofactor that is required for an enzyme to function?
Coenzyme
A_______is a chemical mixture containing particles that are too large to pass through most selectively permeable membranes, but small enough to remain evenly dispersed through the solvent.
Colloid
6.2 Hair and Nails (HAIR: PILUS)
Composed mostly of dead, keratinzed cells that are harder than that of the stratum corneumGrows from a tube in skin called the hair hair folliclefollicleDistribution:-Occurs everywhere except palms/soles, lips, nipples and portions of the genitals-Differences in regional density is similar from person to person and between the sexes but does differ in texture/pigmentation
What are the functions of adipose tissue?
Cushioning Insulation Energy storage
CH3PP: Pseudopods
Cytoplasm filled extensions of the cell that change continually and allow for locomotion and in some cases capture of food, pathogens or debris (see in certain human white blood cells)
The fluid contained inside a cell is known as Blank 1 of 1 fluid.
Cytosol; intracellular; ICF
Q4Q4 All are true of the outer layer of the epidermis except:
D)concentrated with melanocytes
DENSE REGULAR
Densely packed, often wavy bands of collagen running in parallel bundles; fibroblasts compressed between fibers, low amounts of ground substance and few blood vessels;makes up tendons and ligaments Function: binds tissues an
Q4Q3 The primary connective tissue of the dermis is:
E)dense irregular
A pair of membranes enclosing the nucleus with pores allowing the movement of molecules in and out of the nucleus is the nuclear Blank 1 of 1.
Envelope, or Membrane
Which of the following statements about enzymes are true?
Enzymes speed up reaction rates by lowering the activation energy of a specific reaction. Enzymes are not consumed in the reactions they catalyze. Enzymes show enzyme-substrate specificity.
A tissue found at surfaces, composed of one or more layers of closely adhering cells, is called ______ tissue.
Epithelial
Which tissue type covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, forms the internal and external linings of many organs, and constitutes most gland tissue?
Epithelial
CH2PP: Atoms Combine to Form Molecules
Example: 2 atoms of H + 1 atom of O make water (H2O) ---->water is a molecule Joining atoms requires energy -Energy is the capacity to do work -Stored energy = potential energy -Energy in motion, doing work = kinetic energy -Ex/ water behind a damn has a lot of potential energy but if released it converts to kinetic energy Electrons have potential energy Shells = the energy levels of electrons -Electrons closest to nucleus have the least potential energy and if moving closer toward nucleus, they lose energy -Electrons have more potential energy (gain) the further out they are from the nucleus
True or false: An enzyme is consumed by the reaction it catalyzes.
F
True or false: The cytoskeleton is composed of calcium salts.
False
Which is a hydrophobic substance?
Fats
Choose the lipids in the list below. Fatty acids* Polysaccharides Triglycerides* Steroids* Eicosanoids* Phospholipids* Polypeptides
Fatty acids Triglycerides Steroids Eicosanoids Phospholipids
2QQ4 A glycoprotein area around an animal cell may function in cell to cell recognition.
Glycocalyx
CH3WS: What is Glycocalyx and what composes it?
Glycocalyx is a layer of carbohydrate molecules covalently bonded to the phospholipids and protein of a plasma membrane & forms a surface coat on all human cells. It is composed of carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids & glycoprotein.
is a protein molecule with a smaller carbohydrate covalently bonded to it.
Glycoprotein
The main components of glycocalyx in animal cells is:
Glycoproteins and glycolipids
The organelle that resembles stacked membranous sacs and is involved in "packaging" is the Blank 1 of 1 complex.
Golgi
Which organelle is comprised of stacked cisternae that synthesize carbohydrates?
Golgi Complex
When the concentration of a substance differs from one area to another, this creates a concentration Blank 1 of 1.
Gradient or concentration gradient
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion
CH2PP: Example of an atom: Oxygen
Has 8 Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons in 2 shells
CH3PP: ANTIPORT
If during secondary active transport, the two moving substances move in opposite directions (one into the cell, one out of cell) at the same time, this is called ANTIPORT
CH3PP: Microvilli
Increase cell surface area primarily for absorption When densely packed, create a fringe at the cell's apical surface called a brush border On certain specialized cells (i.e. taste cells of tongue), serve a sensory function
Ch1PP: POSITIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
Input from sensory receptors sent to the brain Change is detected by sensory receptors in the uterine wall Stimulus causes uterine contractions during labor Uterus responds and increases contraction of uterine muscles Output from the brain is sent to uterine muscles
Which type of chemical bond involves the exchange of electrons?
Ionic
High-energy radiation that can cause damage to human tissues by removing electrons from other atoms and destroying molecules is called ________ radiation.
Ionizing
To say that 2 structures are on the same side of the body is say they are _______.
Ipsilateral
Molecules with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of their atoms are known as______.
Isomers
2QQ13 Cells in this environment would allow solutes and water to diffuse in/out at equal rates. a)75% saline b)Pure water c)50% sucrose d)isotonic e)both a. and c.
Isotonic
CH3PP: Which type is consistent with that of body fluids? ____________________ isotonic, hypotonic or hypertonic solutions
Isotonic is consistent with that of body fluids.
Atoms of the same element that differ only in the number of neutrons are known as______
Isotopes
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (EPIDERMIS)
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Avascular (lacks blood vessels)CellsCells of the epidermis (see Fig. 6.3):--Stem cells Stem cells @ deepest layer (stratum basale); divide into keratinocytes--KeratinocytesKeratinocytes make up 90% of epidermal cells; die at surface to become keratin layer (stratum corneum)--MelanocytesMelanocytesproduce melanin to give skin color and protect keratinocytes from UV light; located in stratum basale with stem cells--Tactile cells Tactile cells touch receptors also known as Merkel discs; @ stratum basale; very few as most tactile cells are in the dermis--Dendritic cells Dendritic cells immune system cells that migrate to skin from bone marrow and provide defense against toxins, microbes, etc.; also known as Langerhans cells
Lab1: Prone
Lying face down
Lab1; Supine:
Lying face up
CH2PP: Ionic Bond
Moderate The bond between two oppositely charged ions ( atoms or molecules that were formed by the permanent transfer of one or more electrons) Exp: The bonds Between NA+ & Cl- in salt. Electrons are either gained or lost by the atoms involved in bonding The gaining and losing of electrons creates ions(electrically charged atoms or molecules) The bond forms b/w one positively charged ion and one negatively charged ion These bonds are only moderately strong
Adding together the atomic weights of all atoms in a molecule gives a value known as its_______weight.
Molecular
A______is composed of two or more atoms that are held together by chemical bonds.
Molecules
Amphipathic
Molecules described as ______ such as phospholipids, contain both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region.
A molecule with a relatively high mass which is crossing a thick membrane would diffuse across it______ than one with a lower mass which is crossing a thinner membrane.
More slowly
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
Multiple layers of cuboidal cells found lining ducts of sweat glands and other large glands as well as ducts in the testes Function: secretion
The uncharged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom is a(n)______.
Neutron
Adipose (Yellow Fat)
Note large adipocytes filled with fat; nuclei pushed off to side due to fat taking up most of the volume of the interior of the cell; blood vessels present between cells; found underlying skin (hypodermis), surrounding certain organs (heart, kidneys) and in the breast Function: energy storage, insulation, heat production, cushioning
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (SWEAT GLANDS)
Note: eccrine glands secrete to skin surface directly; apocrine glands secrete through hair follicle to skin's surface
Which of the following is an acidic polymer of nucleotides, found or produced in the nucleus, that functions in heredity and protein synthesis?
Nucleic acid
Which organic molecules are composed of a nitrogenous base, a monosaccharide, and a phosphate group?
Nucleotides
Which is an example of a membranous organelle?
Nucleus
CH3PP: Osmolarity
Osmolarity refers to the osmotic concentration of a solution A solution's osmolarity is an indication of how much solute is dissolved in the solution = quantity of non-permeating particles per liter of solution (mOsm/L) A beaker of salt water would have higher osmolarity than a beaker of distilled
CH3WS: Transport across the Plasma Membrane(FILL IN BLANKS) Passive active= No______ input required ; Movement downa conc.'n gradient ; ( [________] [________] ) ; May or may not use _________________
Passive = No_ENERGY required ; Movement downa conc.'n gradient ; ( [_HIGH [__LOW ) ; May or may not use ____Transport Protein Active Requires an input of __ENERGY (ATP) Movement againsta conc.'n gradient ( [_LOW__] [__HIGH___] ) Always uses a ______TRANSPORT PROTEIN
A_____is a lipid that consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate head
Phospholipid
2QQ6 The majority of the plasma membrane is composed of:
Phospholipids
Blank 1 of 1 are the organelles that read coded genetic messages and assemble amino acids into proteins.
Ribosome
6.3 Cutaneous Glands (SEBACEOUS GLANDS)
Secrete an oily substance = sebumSecretion typically exits skin through the hair follicleHolocrine glands (recall mechanism from Ch. 5 notes on methods of gland secretion)Gives hair its sheenAbsent on palms/soles would diminish gripping ability if present
Which membrane-type allows some things through and restricts the passage of others?
Selectively permeable
SIMPLE COLUMNAR
Single layer of tall cells with nuclei aligned, typically along basement membrane; large, white mass = mucus secreting goblet cell; common lining of digestive tract Function: absorption/secretion
Hydrogen Bond
Strength=Weak Description= The bond between oppositely charged regions of molecules that contain covalently bonded hydrogen atoms. Example= The bonds between molecules of water
CH2PP: Covalent Bond
Strong A bond in which the sharing of electrons between atoms results in each atom having a maximally filled outermost shell of electrons Exp: The bonds between hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. •Electrons are shared b/w bonding atoms •The bond formed by sharing electrons is extremely strong •Sharing of electrons is done in order to fill the outermost shell of each bonded atom ---> makes the most stable form of each atom involved *More common in the body*
6.2 Hair and Nails (HAIR: PILUS)
Structure of the Hair and Follicle cont...--FollicleFolliclesurrounds the root and is composed of:•Epithelial (internal) root sheath: downward continuation of the epidermis; composed of stratified squamous cells•Connective (external) root sheath:produced by matrix of dermis; composed of collagen--Hair root plexus Hair root plexus hair receptor encircling base of follicle--Arrector pili (piloerectormuscle)Arrector pili (piloerectormuscle) smooth muscleassociated w/ hair follicles and responds to physiological or emotional stress (cold/fright) creates "goose bumps"
6.2 Hair and Nails (HAIR: PILUS)
Structure of the Hair and Follicle--ShaftShaft portion extending above skin--RootRoot portion beneath the surface of the skin that forms from a tube-like depression extending from the skin's surface down into the dermis --BulbBulb onion-shaped base at end of root; region of only living cells of hair--PapillaPapilla indentation in bulb w/ blood vessels for nourishing the growing hair
Ch1PP: Cytology
Study of structure/function of individual cells.
Ch1PP: Histology
Study of tissue specimens under the microscope. •Histopathology: microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (HYPODERMIS)
Subcutaneous layer beneath the dermisComposed of loose areolar connective tissue and adipose (mostly)Pads the body, insulates it and binds it to muscle which lies beneathHighly vascular and innervated with major blood vessels and nerves giving off branches that reach up and provide blood/nerve supply to dermis above
Which term refers to the substance upon which an enzyme acts?
Substrate
List the factors that affect enzyme conformation.
Temperature pH
CH3PP: Factors affecting diffusion rates:
Temperature: increased temp. = increased diffusion rate Molecular weight: heavier molecules diffuse more slowly than lighter ones Steepness of concentration gradient: the greater the gradient, the faster the rate Membrane surface area: the greater the cell's surface area, the faster the diffusion rate (recall microvilli...increases the surface area of cells and thus allows for more absorption via diffusion in some instances) Membrane permeability: the selective nature of cell membranes makes it easier from some substances to cross and harder for others; cells can adjust their permeability depending on the situation
Cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
Physiology 1.1
The study of the function of the body's structural machinery. •Sub-discipline examples: -Neurophysiology -> N.S. physiology -Endocrinology-> hormone physiology -Pathophysiology-> mechanisms of disease •Comparative Physiology-study of how different species solve problems of life; basis for many new drugs and medical procedures
Ch1PP: Physiology
The study of the function of the body's structural machinery. •Sub-discipline examples: •Neurophysiology N.S. physiology •Endocrinology hormone physiology •Pathophysiology mechanisms of disease
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (DERMIS)
Thicker than epidermisConnective tissue layer beneath the epidermis-Loose areolar (top 1/5) = papillary layer-Dense, irregular connective tissue (bottom 4/5) = reticular layerBoundary between dermis and epidermis is wavy-Upward projections from dermis = dermal papillae-Downward projections from epidermis = epidermal ridges-Responsible for fingerprints
CH3PP: Functions of membrane proteins Identify 6 distinct possible functions of membrane proteins and give a brief explanation of each:
Transport= A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane. Enzymatic Activity= A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane act as a team that catalyzes sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated. Receptors For Signal Transduction= A membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. the external signal may cause a conformational change in the protein that indicates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell. Intercellular Joining= Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions. Some membrane proteins (CAMs) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions. Cell-Cell recognition= Some glycoproteins (Proteins bonded to short chains of sugars) serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells. Attachment to The Cytoskeleton And Extracellular matrix (ECM) = Elements of the cytoskeleton (cell's Internal Supports) and the extracellular matrix (ECM) may be anchored to membrane proteins, which help maintain cell shape and fix the location of certain membrane proteins. Others play a role in cell movement or bind adjacent cells together.
6.4 Skin Disorders (SKIN CANCER)
Types:--Basal cell carcinomaBasal cell carcinoma•Most common type of skin cancer; seldom spreads (metastasizes)•Arises from damage to cells of the stratum basale (deepest layer of epidermis)•Appears first as a shiny bump but enlarges and often develops a central depression and a beaded pearly edge
CH2PP: Radioisotopes
Unstable isotopes that emit energy (radiation) & particles until they reach a more stable state Emissions can be dangerous to living organisms --->can damage tissues; in some cases however these radiation emitting atoms can be used to 'tag' certain molecules in the body for diagnoses and some cancer treatments These isotopes can also be used in fossil dating: -As a radioisotope strives for a more stable state (by emitting radiation), there is a rate of decay associated with this action -Measuring the amount of radioisotope in rocks/fossils tells us their age because we know the rates of decay for several of the radioisotopes
What is the active site of an enzyme?
Where it binds its substrate
QQ17 The majority of the liver is located in which abdominopelvic quadrant? a)right upper b)right lower c)left upper d)left lower e)umbilicus
a
QQ20 Which body cavity houses both parts of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)? a)dorsal b)vertebral c)cranial d)thoracic e)abdominal
a
QQ6. ______________ means toward the back or posterior side of the body. a)Dorsal b)Ventral c)Lateral d)Medial e)Abdominal
a
Neurons and Neuroglia
a motor neuron cell body; note various extensions coming off the cell...these transmit signals to/from the neuron cell body; located in CNS, nerves and ganglia Smaller, black arrows pointing to neuroglia Function: Internal communication (neurons) & Support/Nourishment (neuroglia)
The substrate-binding site of an enzyme is known as the Blank 1 of 1 site.
activation
Mechanisms for moving substances across the plasma membrane that require the use of cellular ATP include ______.
active transport vesicular transport
Ch1PP:thoratic cavity
also known as the chest cavity or thorax, surrounds and protects the heart and lungs.
Ch1PP: Inferior
away from the head
QQ15 The parietal pleura would represent a serous membrane ________. a)covering individual lungs b)lining the pleural cavity c)covering the heart d)lining the abdominal cavity e)lining the abdominal organs
b
QQ9 A cut that separates a body part into anterior and posterior sections would be a(n): a)transverse section. b)coronal section. c)sagittal section. d)median section. e)oblique section.
b
Nucleotides contain a phosphate, a sugar and a nitrogenous
base
QQ3 Which of the following statements is true concerning feedback mechanisms? a)Positive feedback mechanisms always result in excessive damage to the host. b)Negative feedback mechanisms tend to increase the original stimulus. c)Negative feedback mechanisms work to reverse the original stimulus. d)Blood glucose levels are regulated by positive feedback mechanisms. e)Blood clotting is primarily regulated by negative feedback mechanisms.
c
QQ8 It is most proper to say the hip is _______________ to the knee joint. a)inferior b)superior c)proximal d)distal e)ventral
c
Polysaccharides are examples of what type of molecule?
carbohydrate
family of macromolecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio and includes sugars, starches, glycogen, and cellulose.
carbohydrate
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are all examples of which type of macromolecule?
carbohydrates
Lysosomes
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell
Which of the following is a type of plant saccharide that is commonly found in our diet, even though we do not have the enzymes to digest it?
cellulose
The concentration of an electrolyte in a body fluid is expressed as milliequivalents per liter. This is equal to the millimolar concentration of the electrolyte multiplied by the
charge
NADH is a small organic molecule that is needed for an enzyme to work properly. NADH is a(n) ______.
coenzyme
Which term refers to a nonprotein, such as a metal ion or a coenzyme, that is needed for some enzymes to function
cofactor
the primary component of the matrix of hyaline cartilage is
collagen fibers
Weight per volume, percentages, and molarity are different measures of
concentration
Ch1PP: Axial Region
consists of the head, neck and trunk; structures forming the axis of the body •Trunk is further divided into thoracic (upper trunk) and abdominal (lower trunk) regions
Ch1PP: appedicular region
consists of the upper and lower limbs; appendages or extremities. •Upper limb -Arm (above elbow), forearm (below elbow), wrist, hand & fingers •Lower limb -Thigh (above knee), leg (below knee), ankle, foot & toes
Ch1PP:left pleural cavity
contains left lung
QQ16 The heart is located in the following cavities ________. a)pleural, ventral, and thoracic b)mediastinum, abdominal, and ventral c)pleural, dorsal, abdominal d)pericardial, ventral, thoracic e)dorsal, vertebral, thoracic
d
QQ4 All are physiological descriptions except: a)The liver produces bile which aids in fat digestion. b)The outer layer of skin protects against water loss, water intrusion and microbial invasion. c)Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle controlled by conscious thought. d)The bones of the leg are the fibula and tibia. e)The medulla oblongata controls cardiac and respiratory functions.
d
QQ5 A sagittal cut is one that: a)is cut horizontal left to right b)is cut horizontal front to back c)is cut between the vertical and horizontal d)separates the body into right and left divisions e)separates the body into front and back divisions
d
An extensive system of cytoplasmic tubules classified as rough or smooth is called the ______.
endoplasmic reticulum
CH3WS: How does exocytosis differ from endocytosis? For endocytosis, what is the difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis? Finally, what is transcytosis?
exocytosis differs from endocytosis because exocytosis is those that release materials from a cell while endocytosis is the vesicular process that brings matter into the cell. For endocytosis, the difference between phagocytosis and pinocytosis is that phagocytosis is the " cell eating" process of engulfing particles such as bacteria, dust, & cellular debris. Particles that are large enough to be seen with a microscope. While pinocytosis is the "cell drinking" process of taking ECF droplets containing molecules of some use to the cell. Phagocytosis occurs only in a few specialized cells while pinocytosis occurs in ALL human cells. Transcytosis is the transport of materials across the cell. It is captured on one side and released on the other.
Ch1PP: Distal
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
the matrix secreting cells of loose areolar connective tissues are:
fibroblasts
In blood capillaries, blood pressure forces fluid through gaps in the capillary wall in a process called Blank 1 of 1. Listen to the complete question
filtration or capillary filtration
Ch1PP:vertebral canal
formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves
Which is a monosaccharide that provides energy to most body cells?
glucose
Which monosaccharide is the monomer that forms glycogen and starch?
glucose
Ch1PP: transverse plane/horizontal plane
horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions
CH2PP: Neutrons
in nucleus, no charge, have mass
Ch1PP:dorsal cavity
includes the cranial and spinal cavities.
QQ11 Fill in the blank with the proper directional term: The pelvis is ______________ to the abdomen.
inferior
2QQ12 12. All are true of active transport except: a)Movement of molecules is from [low] to [high]. b)It includes facilitated diffusion which involves a carrier protein. c)Usually utilizes ATP to provide energy necessary for transport. d)It is sometimes referred to as a "pump". e)It is used by cells to move Na+ and K+ out of and into cells respectively.
it includes facilitated diffusion which involves a carrier protein.
Visceral layer
lining covering that directly surrounds the organ within the cavity
A molecule with the chemical formula C57H110O6 is an example of which type of organic molecule?
lipid
Hydrophobic organic molecules, such as fatty acids, fats, steroids, and prostaglandins, are classified as what type of molecule?
lipids
The number of molecules of a chemical that is equal to its molecular weight in grams, is a(n)
mole
Which of the following would give you the molarity of a solution?
moles/liter
The six most abundant elements in the human body are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and
nitrogen
Nucleotides are the subunits of the macromolecule type called Blank 1 of 1 acids.
nucleic
Melanocytes
number is about the same in all people, but the amount of melanin produced differs Responsible for:FrecklesAge spotsNevi (moles)
Ch1PP: Contralateral
on the opposite side of the body
Ch1PP: Ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
Sucrase digests ______.
only sucrose
mental
pertaining to the chin
Otic
pertaining to the ear
The fluidity of the plasma membrane is primarily provided by the ______.
phospholipids
a____is a lipid that consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate head.
phospholipids
A ______ is a common signaling molecule derived from a fatty acid.
prostaglandin
Which type of eicosanoid is a modified fatty acid with a single five-carbon ring?
prostaglandin
the epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. This tissue is best suited functionally for:
protection
Most biological colloids are composed of_____dissolved in water.
protein
Polypeptides over 100 amino acids long are generally classified as which of the following?
proteins
QQ1 The overall purpose of negative feedback is ________. a)to control all levels of the body's systems b)to sense changes within the body and activate mechanisms to reverse them c)to keep the body's sugar "normal" d)to regulate blood clotting e)to regulate labor contractions during delivery
B
_________ are catalysts that speed reaction rates and which are usually___________
Enzymes; proteins
The_____ abdominopelvic region is immediately superior to the umbilical region.
Epigastric
Covalent Bond
Strength=Strong Description= A strong bond in which the sharing of electrons between atoms results in each atom having a maximally filled outermost shell of electrons. Examples: The bonds between hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. •Electrons are shared b/w bonding atoms •The bond formed by sharing electrons is extremely strong •Sharing of electrons is done in order to fill the outermost shell of each bonded atom --> makes the most stable form of each atom involved
Directional term example
The breast is anterior to the spinal chord The glutes are posterior to the hips The neck is superior to the ches The nose is inferior to the forehead The mouth is medial to the cheeks The hand is lateral to the hips The knee is proximal to the ankle The toes are distal to the ankle The ribcage is superficial to the lungs The heart is deep to the ribcage The left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg The right eye is contralateral to the left wrist
Serous membranes FIGS. A.6, A.7, A.8
Thin, dbl., membranes lining organs and spaces w/in the VENTRAL CAVITY. They secrete a watery fluid (serous fluid) that lubricates the outside of organs to decrease friction between the organ and cavity in which it sits. •Visceral layer - covers the outside of the organ •Parietal layer - lines the cavity where the organ sits •The space between the two layers is the cavity housing the organ •Thoracic Membranes: -Visceral pleura -Parietal pleura -Visceral pericardium -Parietal pericardium •Abdominopelvic Membranes: -Visceral peritoneum -Parietal peritoneum
6.4 Skin Disorders (SKIN CANCER)
Types cont...--Squamous cell carcinomaSquamous cell carcinoma•Arises from keratinocytes in the middle, thickest layer of the epidermis known as the stratum spinosum•Present as raised, red, scaly legions that eventually develop a concave ulcer with raised edges•Metastasizes if not caught early and can be deadly
6.2 Hair and Nails (HAIR: PILUS)
Types: --LanugoLanugo fine, downy, fetal hair; mostly gone @ birth--Vellus hairVellus hair replaces lanugo and makes up 2/3 of female hair and 1/10 of male hair; most all hair of children--Terminal hairTerminal hair longer, courser, more pigmented; forms eyebrows, eyelashes, scalp hair, pubic hair, male facial hair
Modes of Exocrine Gland Secretion
a) Merocrine (eccrine) 1.Sweat gland 2.Tear glands b)Apocrinea. 1)Fat secreting portions of mammary glands c)Holocrine 1).Sebaceous oil glands of skin
QQ7 The anatomical position is characterized by all of the following except ________. a)body erect b)arms at sides c)thumbs pointed laterally d)palms turned posteriorly e)face anterior
d
The heart has surrounding membrane that secretes a watery fluid to decrease friction, protect, and lubricate the heart in the cavity within which it sits. Identify this membrane from the selections below.
serous Pericardium
A lipid composed of three fatty acids joined to a glycerol is a(n)
triglycerides
Life Depends on Water
•Accounts for 50-75% of body weight thus the most essential molecule to life •Properties of water: -Water molecules are polar ---> while electrically neutral, electrons spend more time associated w/ O than the 2 Hs creating a more neg. pole toward O and more positive pole toward Hs (see Fig. 2.9) -->this is why hydrogen bonds from b/w water molecules -Water is liquid at body temperature -Water can absorb and hold heat energy without drastic changes in temperature *Important biological functions* •Biological solvent (liquid in which substances dissolve) -Solutes (substances dissolved in solvents) --Hydrophilic molecules ---> polar molecules that readily dissolve in water (water-loving) --Hydrophobic molecules ---> non-polar molecules that do not readily dissolve in water (water-fearing) •Adhesion/Cohesion ---> tendency to cling to another substance vs. tendency to cling to other same molecules •Chemical reactivity ---> ionizes itself and other chemicals thus participating in chemical reactions •Helps to regulate body temperature ---> due to fact that water can hold heat w/ only moderate increases in temperature
Major Body Regions
•Adjectival forms that describe body parts and/or regions (see Fig. A.3) •The terms you are expected to know, both by definition and visual recognition, are listed in the Ch. 1 worksheet (2) Examples: -Femoral---> of, or related to, the thigh -Carpal---> of, or related to, the wrist -Axillary---> of, or related to, the armpit -Lumbar---> of, or related to, the lower back •Axial Region Axial Region ---> consists of the head, neck and trunk; structures forming the axis of the body -Trunk is further divided into thoracic (upper trunk) and abdominal (lower trunk) regions •Appedicular Region ---> consists of the upper and lower limbs; appendages or extremities -Upper limb:Arm (above elbow), forearm (below elbow), wrist, hand & fingers -Lower limb:Thigh (above knee), leg (below knee), ankle, foot & toes
Atoms --> Elements --> Matter
•All matter consists of elements which in turn consist of particles called atoms •Atoms = the smallest functional unit of any element consisting of: -Protons: in nucleus, positive charge, have mass -Neutrons: in nucleus, no charge, have mass -Electrons: in shells around nucleus, negative charge, have no discernable mass
Isotopes
•Atoms of an element w/ a different number of neutrons than the usual expected number •These atoms have the same atomic number and thus the same number of protons and electrons •Having a different number of neutrons does affect the atom's mass so this number will different than usual atoms of the element
Possible Functions of Connective Tissues:
•Binding of organs •Support •Physical and immune protection •Movement (via attachment of muscle to bone) •Storage •Heat production •Transport
5.2 EPITHELIAL TISSUE: General Characteristics
•Cells are tightly packed together tightly packed together with little to no material between/around cells (no matrix) and cells sit on a basement membrane •Cells arranged in one or more layers one or more layers (simple vs. stratified) •Cells have characteristic shapes which allow for differentiation between different epithelial types •Upper most layer exposed to a free space exposed to a free space (either an internal exposed surface—ex/ inner stomach lining or exposed to the outer environment—epidermis of skin) •Covers body surfaces, lineslines organs and comprises comprises glandular tissue glandular tissue •Avascular (no direct blood supply); receive nutrition from underlying connective tissues •Highly regenerative (repair and replace themselves quickly) •Innervated(does have a nerve supply)
5.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE •Adipose Tissue (Fat)
•Dominate cell type = adipocyte •Primary energy reservoir •Two kinds of fat in humans •White (yellow) fat •More abundant •Provides thermal insulation •Higher amounts in women vs. men •Brown fat •Mainly in fetuses, infants and children w/ small amounts in adults •Brown b/c unusual abundance of blood vessels •Heat generating fat
Atoms Combine to Form Molecules
•Example: 2 atoms of H + 1 atom of O make water (H2O) -->water is a molecule •Joining atoms requires energy -Energy is the capacity to do work -Stored energy = potential energy -Energy in motion, doing work = kinetic energy -Ex/ water behind a damn has a lot of potential energy but if released it converts to kinetic energy •Electrons have potential energy -Shells = the energy levels of electrons -Electrons closest to nucleus have the least potential energy and if moving closer toward nucleus, they lose energy -Electrons have more potential energy (gain) the further out they are from the nucleus
Ch1PP: PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY
•Function (physiology) is a reflection of structure (anatomy) •What a structure can do depends on its specific form •Anatomy and physiology are intimately united and dependent on each other
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue
•Largest and heaviest organ in the human body•About 8% of one's body weight•Varies in thickness from one area to another••Thick skin Thick skin (up to 6 mm in thickness)•Palms/soles of hands and feet•Thick outer stratum corneum (keratin layer)•Contains sweat glands but no hair follicles or oil glands••Thin skin Thin skin (less than 1 mm thick up to 2 mm)•Eyelids and most other areas not considered thick•Thin outer stratum corneum about .1 mm thick•Contains sweat glands, hair follicles and oil glands
Membranes
•Linings of body cavities and organs composed of epithelial tissue, connective tissue or a combination of both •Types of membranes: •Cutaneous membrane (skin): largest membrane •Mucous membranes: internal, mucus producing membrane lining passages open to the external environment (i.e. digestive membrane) •Serous membranes: internal, double-layered membrane that secretes a watery fluid (serous fluid) and lines the outside of organs (visceral layer) and the cavities in which they sit (parietal layer) -Pleurae of lungs -Pericardium of heart -Peritoneum of abdomen
Examples Of Negative Feedback Mechanisms In The Human Body
•Maintenance of blood glucose levels •Maintenance of constant body temperature •Endocrine function (hormone release) •Maintenance of blood electrolytes (Na+, Ca2+ ) •Maintenance of blood gas levels (O2, CO2) •Maintenance of blood pressure
Ch1PP: EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISMS IN THE HUMAN BODY
•Maintenance of blood glucose levels •Maintenance of constant body temperature •Endocrine function (hormone release) •Maintenance of blood electrolytes (Na+, Ca2+ ) •Maintenance of blood gas levels (O2, CO2) •Maintenance of blood pressure
Blood
•Matrix is a fluid ground substance called Plasma •Produced by bone marrow found in spongy bone •Cells are called the 'formed elements' and include: •Red blood cells (RBCs)—erythrocytes •White blood cells (WBCs)—leukocytes •Platelets—thrombocytes
Fibrous Connective Tissue
•Most diverse C.T. type •Primary cellular components: •Fibroblasts (matrix producing cells) •Common leukocytes (white blood cells for defense; ex/ macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes)—migrate to C.T. •Mast cells (secreting cells that increase blood flow to this tissue)—migrate to C.T. •Primary fibrous components of matrix: •Collagenous fibers (tough, flexible, protein, fibers that resist stretching) •Reticular fibers (thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein that form a sponge-like framework of support) •Elastic fibers (thinner than collagen; made of elastin protein and allow tissues to stretch and recoil like a rubber band) •Ground substance characteristics of matrix: •Gelatinous/rubbery material that fills the space between the fibers and cellular components of C.T. •Is transparent and colorless •Absorbs compressive forces and protects cells from mechanical injury
Positive Feedback 1.6
•Positive feedback is relatively uncommon in the human body but is seen during labor (childbirth) and blood clotting for example •A response is generated which increases the original stimulus, thus, its response acts to reinforce or strengthen the stimulus or change (NOT reverse it as seen w/ negative feedback) •Positive feedback pushes the body pushes the body AWAY from from homeostasis so it cannot be left unchecked and must eventually end or it could be life-threatening
Ch1PP: Positive Feedback
•Positive feedback is relatively uncommon in the human body but is seen during labor (childbirth) and blood clotting for example. •A response is generated which increases the original stimulus, thus, its response acts to reinforce or strengthen the stimulus or change (NOT reverse it as seen w/ negative feedback). •Positive feedback pushes the body pushes the body AWAY from from homeostasis so it cannot be left unchecked and must eventually end or it could be life-threatening.
Ch1PP: Analyzing Medical Terms
•Root (stem) bears the core meaning of the word; cardiology (root = cardi- = heart) •Combining vowels used to join toots for easier pronunciation; cardiomyopathy (o used to combine cardi- to my- to -pathy =heart muscle pathology) •Prefix comes before root to modify its core meaning (hypo- added to -gastric = hypogastric = below the stomach) •Suffix comes at the end of a word to modify its core meaning (-logy used at the end of a word to indicate 'the study of'; osteology = the study of bone tissue) •Eponyms terms coined from the names of people -duct of Santorini (named after discovering scientist) •Acronyms words composed of the first letter or first few letters of a series of words -PET scan = positron emission tomography
Anatomical Planes
•Sagittal / Midsagittal or Median / Parasagittal •Transverse / Horizontal •Coronal / Frontal
6.1 The Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (FUNCTIONS)
•SensationSensation•Thermal, touch, texture, pressure, vibration, pain•ThermoregulationThermoregulation•Constricts blood vessels to retain heat when cold•Dilates blood vessels to release heat when warm•Non-verbal communication (Fig. 6.2)Non-verbal communication (Fig. 6.2)•Facial expression possible due to muscles that insert into the dermis of the skin•General appearance of skin important to self-image and emotional state
Ch1PP: Plural, Adjectival and Possessive Forms
•Singular vs. Plural endings -Septum (singular; separation) -Septa (plural; separations) •Noun vs. Adjective -Brachium (noun; the arm) -Brachial (adjective; of or related to the arm) •Possessive Forms noun variations indicating possession -Rectus abdominis muscle straight muscle of the abdomen -Erector spinae muscle straightening muscle of the spine
Cartilage
•Stiff with a flexible, rubbery matrix •Matrix producing cells = Chondroblasts •Chondroblasts become trapped in pockets (lacunae) that form in the matrix; once trapped = Chondrocytes •No direct blood supply so slow rate of repair and metabolism •Types of cartilage: •Hyaline cartilage (most common) •Elastic cartilage •Fibrocartilage
Ch1PP: GROSS ANATOMY
•Structure which can be seen with the naked eye via: •Surface observation •Medical imaging (radiology) -X-rays -PET scans -CT scans •Dissection
Terms of Relative Position (Table A.1, pg. 29)
•Superior / Inferior •Anterior (ventral) versus Posterior (dorsal) •Medial versus Lateral •Intermediate •Ipsilateral versus Contralateral •Proximal versus Distal •Superficial versus Deep
Negative Feedback 1.6
•The most common way to maintain homeostasis of the body's internal environment •The body responds to fluctuations (stimuli) above or below the normal set point in such a way as to reverse or diminish the direction of the stimulus in order to maintain balance/equilibrium internally
Ch1PP: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
•The most common way to maintain homeostasis of the body's internal environment. •The body responds to fluctuations (stimuli) above or below the normal set point in such a way as to reverse or diminish the direction of the stimulus in order to maintain balance/equilibrium internally.
