human geo unit 2
Life Expectancy
average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live
Regional Variation in NIR
<95% of natural increase is clustered in developing countries (NIR exceeds 2.0% in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa, but is negative in Europe) Most of world's additional people live in countries that are least able to maintain them
Diversity
A few immigrants are admitted by lottery under a diversity category for people from countries that historically sent few people to the United States.
Migration
A permanent move to a new location Geographers document migration of people across earth and reasons for the migration Form of mobility The flow of migration always involves two-way connections. Given two locations, A and B, some people migrate from A to B, while at the same time others migrate from B to A. Emigration is migration from a location; immigration is migration to a location.
What does examining types of densities help us to understand?
helps to understand relationships between population and resources in a country. Ex. physiological densities of both Egypt and Netherlands are high, but Dutch have lower agricultural density than Egyptians. Geographers conclude that both Dutch and Egyptians put heavy pressure on land to produce food but Dutch agricultural system is more efficient and requires fewer farmers than the Egyptian system.
Interregional migration
movement from one region of a country to another main type has been from rural to urban in search of jobs
Intraregional migration
movement within one region main type is within urban areas from older cities to newer suburbs. Ex. North Surrey to South Surrey
Sex Ratio
number of males per 100 females in the population. Standard biological level for humans at birth is around 105 male babies for every 100 female babies. In China and India- sex ratio is 112:100, female number is much too low to be random (cultural preference to have son, ultrasound machines have enabled parents to know sex of fetus and abort if daughter- governments have attempted to prohibit use of technology and medical procedures but people just seek out unregulated procedures)
Dependency ratio
number of people who are too young or too old to work compared to number of people in their productive years (>15 or <65). Larger dependency ratio= greater financial burden on people working to support. Dependency ratio is 45% in Europe (number of under 15 and over 65 equal) but 85% in sub-Saharan Africa (high % of young people)
Elderly support ratio
number of working-age people (15-64) divided by number of persons 65+. If the ratio gets smaller, fewer people will support elderly people and contribute to pensions, health care, etc.
Doubling time
number of years needed to double a population assuming constant rate of natural increase (if current rate of 1.2% per year, world population would double in about 54 years)
overpopulation
occurs when the number of people exceed the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living. Argue that world is already overpopulated or will be in future
Center of population gravity
the average location of everyone in the country
Epidemiologic transition
focuses on distinctive health threats in each stage of demographic transition
Europe 3/4
4 dozen countries, ¾ of inhabitants live in cities and >5% are farmers Highest population concentrations are near major rivers and coalfield of germany and belgium and historic capitals such as London and Paris
Intervening Obstacles
are things that might stop someone from migrating. Examples: Lack of a drivers license or physical barriers
Refugees
A refugee has been forced to migrate to another country to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or other disasters and cannot return for fear of persecution because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion.
Other clusters
Africa has population clusters along west coast between senegal and nigeria and along east coast between eritrea and south africa Most africans work in agriculture Largest population concentration in western hemisphere is northeastern US and south eastern Canada (along atlantic coast from boston to virginia and westward along great lake to chicago 2/3 of world inhabitants are clustered in the 4 regions (low lying areas, fertile soil, temperate climate, most near ocean or near river with easy access to ocean rather than interior)
Interregional migration in the US
An especially prominent example of large-scale internal migration is the opening of the American West. At the time of independence, the United States consisted of long-established settlements concentrated on the Atlantic Coast and a scattering of newer settlements in the territories west of the Appalachian Mountains. Through mass interregional migration, the interior of the continent was settled and developed.
Internally Displaced Person (IDP)
An internally displaced person (IDP) has been forced to migrate for similar political reasons as a refugee but has not migrated across an international border.
Family reunification
Approximately three-fourths of immigrants are admitted to reunify families, primarily spouses or unmarried children of people already living in the United States. The typical wait for a spouse to gain entry is currently about five years.
Southeast Asia 4/4
Around 600 million live her mainly on series of islands lying between indian and pacific ocean Concentration is on island of Java and several islands belonging to philippines, several river valleys and deltas at the southeastern tip of aisan mainland High percentage working s farmers in rural areas
US Immigration: Mid- Nineteenth to early twentieth centuries
Between 1820 and 1920, approximately 32 million people immigrated to the United States. Nearly 90 percent of them emigrated from Europe. 1840s and 1850s: Ireland and Germany. Annual immigration jumped from 20,000 to more than 200,000. Three-fourths of all U.S. immigrants during those two decades came from Ireland and Germany. Desperate economic push factors compelled the Irish and Germans to cross the Atlantic. Germans also emigrated to escape political unrest. 1870s: Ireland and Germany. Emigration from Ireland and Germany resumed following a temporary decline during the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). 1880s: Scandinavia. Immigration increased to 500,000 per year. Increasing numbers of Scandinavians, especially Swedes and Norwegians, joined Germans and Irish in migrating to the United States. The Industrial Revolution had diffused to Scandinavia, triggering a rapid population increase. 1905-1914: Southern and Eastern Europe. Annual immigration to the United States reached 1 million. Two-thirds of all immigrants during this period came from Southern and Eastern Europe, especially Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungary.
Distribution of World's People
Concentration and density are used to understand how population is distributed Geographers identify regions where population is clustered and sparse Help to explain relationship between number of people and available resources Concentration can be displayed on a cartogram depicts size of countries according to population rather than land area
Possible Stage 5 Cause: Connections
Connectivity makes viruses and diseases easy to spread - Ebola/Aids/Etc. Urbanization and rate of connection makes spreading fast
Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases
Decrease in deaths from infectious diseases and increase in chronic disorders with aging. Cardiovascular diseases (heart attacks), and cancer
Health Care variations
Developed countries use money to protect those who can't work- public assistance, expenditures on health care <15% of total government expenditures in europe and north america compared to >5% in sub-Saharan Africa and south asia Denmark, Norway, Sweden provide highest level of public-assistance payments
Migration from urban to rural areas
Developed countries witnessed a new migration trend beginning in the late twentieth century. For the first time, more people immigrated into rural areas than emigrated out of them in some years. Net migration from urban to rural areas is called counterurbanization.
Skilled workers
Exceptionally talented professionals receive most of the remainder of the quota.
Critics of Malthusians
Expanding resources- world's overall supply of resources is expanding rather than fixed, supply of some resources decreasing but there are others to replace them Economic growth- population growth stimulates economic growth and production of more food. More consumers= more demand for good= more jobs Inequality- poverty and hunger result from unjust society and economic inequality not population growth- world possess sufficient resources to eliminate hunger and poverty if resources are shared equally Population has increased more slowly than projected and slower than countries food supply Food production has increased during past half-century much more rapidly than he predicted Ex. In india rice production followed malthus's expectations but wheat production has increased twice as fast- better growing techniques, higher-yielding seeds, cultivation of more land contributed to increase in food supply
Stage 2: High Growth
High CBR, Rapidly declining CDR, High NIR Europe and North America entered stage 2 after 1750 because of the industrial revolution- major improvements in manufacturing and delivering goods to market= unprecedented level of wealth- made communities healthier places to live Africa, Asia, Latin America arrived in 1950 because of the medical revolution- medical technology invented diffused to developing countries, eliminating traditional causes of death and increasing life expectancy
US Immigration at independence
Immigration to the American colonies and the newly independent United States came from two principal places: Europe: According to the 1790 census, 62 percent of immigrants came from Europe, and of those, 45 to 50 percent came from the lands comprising the modernday United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland. Sub-Saharan Africa: Most African Americans are descended from Africans forced to migrate to the Western Hemisphere as slaves
Lowering CBR through education and health care
Improving local economic conditions, wealthier communities have more money to spend on education and health-care programs promoting lower birth rates More women able to attend school and to remain in school longer, more likely to learn employment skills and gain more economic control over their lives Better education, women better understanding reproductive rights and make more informed reproductive choices, select more effective methods of contraception Improved health-care programs, IMRs (infant mortality rate) would decline through such programs as improved prenatal care, counseling about STDs and child immunization Survival of more infants ensured, women more likely to choose to make more effective use of contraceptives to limit number of children
South Asia 2/4
India, Pakistan, bangladesh, SriLanka Largest concentration lives along a corridor from pakistan through india and bangladesh to bay of bengal. Concentrated along plains of indus and ganges rivers Population is concentrated near indias 2 long castlines (arabian sea and bay of bengal) most people in south asia are farmers in rural areas
Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine
Infectious and parasitic diseases were the principal cause of human deaths (animal attacks too). "Natural Checks" on growth of human population. Epidemic was Black Plague transmitted to humans by fleas from infected rats
Possible Stage 5 cause: Evolution
Infectious disease microbes evolve and change in response to environmental pressures by developing resistance to drugs and insecticides Ex. malaria was nearly eradicated by spraying DDT in area with mosquitoes but there was an evolution of DDT- resistant mosquitoes
Possible Stage 5 Cause: Poverty
Infectious diseases are more prevalent in poor areas than other places because unsanitary conditions may persist and more people can't afford the drugs needed for treatment. Ex. tuberculosis has been controlled in developed countries but not in developing countries
Intervening Opportunties
are things that give people an easier path to migration. Example: Someone who speaks the same language also making journey.
US Immigration: Late 20th to early 21st centuries
Latin America. Around 13 million Latin Americans have migrated to the United States in the past halfcentury, compared to only 2 million in the two preceding centuries. Asia. Around 7 million Asians have migrated to the United States in the past half-century, compared to only 1 million in the two preceding centuries.
Environmental Reason for Forced Migration
Migrants are also pushed from their homes by adverse physical conditions. Water—either too much or too little—poses the most common environmental threat. An environmental or political feature that hinders migration is an intervening obstacle.
Migration from rural to urban areas
Migration from rural (or nonmetropolitan) areas to urban (or metropolitan) areas began in the 1800s in Europe and North America as part of the Industrial Revolution (see Chapter 11). The percentage of people living in urban areas in the United States, for example, increased from 5 percent in 1800 to 50 percent in 1920 and 81 percent in 2015.
Medical Facilities variations
Most countries in europe have more than 50 hospital beds per 10,000 people compared to >20 in sub-Saharan Africa and South/Southwest Asia Developed countries- health care public service available at little to no cost (government programs pay more than 70% of health-care costs in most european countries and private individuals pay less than 30%
Migration from urban to suburban areas
Most intraregional migration in developed countries is from cities out to surrounding suburbs. The population of most cities in developed countries has declined since the mid-twentieth century, while suburbs have grown rapidly.
E.G. Ravenstein-Migration-Laws of Migration
Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country. Long-distance migrants to other countries head for major centers of economic activity. Most people migrate for economic reasons. Cultural and environmental reasons also induce migration, although not as frequently as economic reasons.
Migration to find work
Most people migrate for economic reasons. People often emigrate from places that have few job opportunities and immigrate to places where jobs seem to be available. Because of economic restructuring, job prospects often vary from one country to another and within regions of the same country.
China and India future population
Most populous countries- heavily influence future prospects for global overpopulation ⅓ of total population have different family-planning programs (india adds 12 million more people each year than china= india could surpass china around 2030 in population) One Child Policy in 1980 couple needs permit to have a child, will get financial subsidies, long maternity leave, better housing, more land if agree to have one child (CHINA) people also were given free contraceptives, abortions, sterilization.- CBR declined from 18 to 12 in 2015 and NIR declined from 1.2 to 0.5 National Family Planning program (INDIA) establishing clincins, provid information about diff methods of birth control, distributed free/cheap birth control devices, legalized abortions. Set up camps to perform sterilizations- installed fear of being forcibly sterilized. Now have advertised education and information distributed through health centers
Why is the census controversial?
Nonparticipation: Homeless people, ethnic minorities, citizens of other countries who aren't legal immigrants are less likely to complete census. Fear that census bureau could turn forms over to FBI or Department of Homeland security Sampling: statistical sampling techniques can be used to get more accurate count, identify detailed characteristics of people/houses/ businesses. Supreme Court ruled sampling is not used to redraw congressional district boundaries (people in favor of needs of homeless and immigrants support sampling but small towns/rural areas are opposed)
Physiological Density
Number of people supported by a unit area of arable land Comparing two arithmetic densities helps understand capacity of the land to yield enough food for needs of people Ex. Egypt there's a large difference between physiological density and arithmetic density because most of countries land is unsuitable for intensive agriculture (all but 5% of egyptians live in the nile river valley and delta)
Stage 2: Receding Pandemics
Pandemic- disease occurs over wide geographic area and affects high proportion of population There is improved sanitation, nutrition and medicine reducing spread of infectious diseases Cholera spread in urban areas but construction of water and sewer systems eradicated it in Europe and North America. Affected poor because more likely to have to use contaminated water
Stage 3: Moderate Growth
Rapidly declining CBR, Moderately declining CDR, Moderate NIR CDR continues to falls but at a much slower rate than stage 2, pop continues to grow because CBR is greater than CDR People have fewer children- economic changes induce people to have fewer offspring, most live in cities than in the countryside (working in offices, shops instead of farms), so large families aren't considered an asset in smaller urban homes compared to farms. Europe, North America moved to stage 3 during first part of 20th century, and Asia and Latin America moved in second half of 20th century
Lowering CBR through contraception
Rapidly diffusing modern contraceptive methods- putting resources in to family planning reduces birth rates more rapidly Developing countries the need for contraceptive devices is more than the supply- most effective way to increase use is to distribute more of them cheaper and quickly
Agricultural Density
Ratio of the number of farmers to the amount of arable land Helps account for economic differences (developed countries have lower agricultural densities because technology/finance allow few people to farm extensive land areas and feed many people)
Gender of migrants
Ravenstein theorized that males were more likely than females to migrate long distances to other countries because searching for work was the main reason for international migration, and males were much more likely than females to be employed. This held true for U.S. immigrants during the nineteenth and much of the twentieth centuries, when about 55 percent were male. But female immigrants to the United States began to outnumber male immigrants around 1970, and they now comprise 55 percent of the total. In developing countries, male immigrants still outnumber female ones.
Age of Migrants
Ravenstein theorized that most long-distance migrants were young adults seeking work rather than children or elderly people. Recent migration patterns in the Unite States match the theory in some respects but not in others. A relatively high share of U.S. immigrants are young adults, as Ravenstein expected. People between the ages of 20 and 39 comprise 49 percent of recent immigrants, compared to only 27 percent of the entire U.S. population. Immigrants are, as expected, less likely to be elderly people. Only 5 percent of recent U.S. immigrants are over age 65, compared to 14 percent of the entire U.S. population. However, in developing countries, immigrants are more likely to be elderly—only 6 percent of the total population but 8 percent of immigrants. Children under age 20 comprise 21 percent of immigrants, only slightly lower than the 26 percent share in the total U.S. population. In developing countries, immigrants are much less likely to be children; people under age 20 comprise 35 percent of the total population but only 23 percent of the migrants.
Supporting Malthusian
Stage 2 and development- only free wealthy countries were in stage 2 when malthus was alive and so he failed to anticipate that relatively poor countries would have most rapid population growth because of medical technology. The gap is wider in some countries than anticipated between population growth and resources Resource depletion- world population growth is outstripping a wide variety of resources not just food production Was close to mark on resources but too pessimistic on population growth India production of wheat and rice has slowed and without new breakthroughs in food production india may not be able to keep food supply ahead of population growth Overpopulation is africa may be irreversible, land declining in quality and so more effort to yield same amount of crops- extending working day of women who are growing food ofr families and children
Malthus Theory
The belief that there is a finite optimum population size in relation to food supply, and that any increase in population beyond this point would lead to a decline in the standard of living and to war famine and disease. Created by Thomas Malthus. (Population is growing much more rapidly than Earth's food supply because population increased geometrically whereas food supply increase arithmetically)
U.S. Quota Laws
The era of unrestricted immigration to the United States ended when Congress passed the Quota Act in 1921 and the National Origins Act in 1924. These laws established quotas, or maximum limits on the number of people who could immigrate to the United States during a one-year period.
Changing center of population
The population center is the average location of everyone in the country. The center has consistently shifted westward to follow US migration patterns. In the last 50 years it shifting southwest. 1790: HUGGING THE COAST. Virtually all colonial-era settlements were near the Atlantic Coast. 1800-1840: CROSSING THE APPALACHIANS. Transportation improvements, especially the building of canals, helped to open the interior. 1850-1890: RUSHING TO THE GOLD. The population center shifted westward more rapidly during this period. 1900-1940: FILLING IN THE GREAT PLAINS. The westward movement of the U.S. population center slowed during this period because emigration from Europe to the East Coast offset most of the emigration from the East Coast to the U.S. West. 1950-2010: MOVING SOUTH. The population center resumed a more vigorous westward migration. It also moved southward, as Americans migrated to the South for job opportunities and warmer climate.
Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases
Through medicine cancers spread slower or are removed altogether Operations can repair deficiencies in cardiovascular system Improving health are behavior changes (better diet, reduced use of tobacco and alcohol, exercise) Increased consumption of non-nutritious food and sedentary behavior= more obesity
Differences in Stage 1 and Stage 4
Total Population- total population of the country is much higher in stage 4 than stage 1 CBR and CDR- Beginning of demographic transition CBRs and CDRs are high (35-40 per 1,000), at the end the rates are very low (10 per 1,000)
Arithmetic density
Total number of objects in an area Total number of people divided by total land area Enables geographers to compare the number of people trying to live on a given piece of land in different regions in the world. Helps answer the "where" question
Voluntary migration
Types of voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain, step, guest worker, and rural-to-urban. migrant has chosen to move, usually for economic reasons, though sometimes for environmental reasons.
Stage 1: Low Growth
Very high CBR and CDR, very low NIR No country today remains in stage one (in history most of it was here) People depended on hunting and gathering for food, when food was easily obtained regions population increased population declined when people couldn't get enough animals/vegetation
Stage 5: Decline
Very low CBR, Increasing CDR, Declining NIR After several decades of very low birth rates, relatively few young women agin ginto childbearing years and smaller pool of women would choose to have fewer children= birth rates continue to fall
Stage 4: Low Growth
Very low CBR, Low or slightly increasing CDR, Zero or negative NIR CBR declines to a point where it equals CDR- Zero population growth (ZPG) Define ZPG as TFR (fertility rate) that results in lack of change in total population over long term Women enter labor force rather than stay at home, wider access to birth-control methods
Infant Mortality rate (IMR)
annual number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age compared to total live births. Express as number of deaths per 1,000 births. Lower in developed countries because of better doctors, nurses, hospitals, medicine. Higher risk in developing countries- not immunized
Maternal Mortality Rate
annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause regulated to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management. Rate exceed 100 per 100,000 mothers in much of Africa and Asia compared to >10 per 100,000 in most European countries
Population Pyramid
bar graph that displays the percentage of a place's population for each age and gender. Shows percentage of total pop in 5 year age groups (0-4 at bottom and oldest at top). Males are shown on the left and females on top. Countries in stage 2 (Gambia) have a pyramid with a broader base than countries in stage 4 (Denmark), there is a higher % of young people.
Epidemiology
branch of medical science concerned with incidence, distribution, control of diseases prevalent among a population at a particular time and are produced by some special causes not generally present in affected place
Pull factor
induces people to move into a new location
Push factor
induces people to move out of their present location
Step migration
is a migration pattern conceptualized in 1885 by Ernst Georg Ravenstein who observed migration as occurring stage by stage as rural inhabitants move closer to urban areas of growth.
Chain migration
is the process in which an immigrant to the US sponsors other family members for admissions who can then sponsor more family members.
Forced Migration
means that the migrant has been compelled to move by cultural or environmental factors. ex. slavery, events that produce refugees, internally displaced persons, asylum seekers
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
measure the number of births in a society, it's the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years. TFR for the world is 2.5 but varies between developed and developing countries.
Natural Increase Rate (NIR)
percentage by which a population grows in a year. Excludes migration.
International Migration
permanent move from one country to another
Internal Migration
permanent movement within the same country
Demographic Transition
process of change in a society's population from high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and higher total population
Demography
scientific study of population characteristics, look at how people are distributed spatially by age, gender, occupation, fertility, health,etc. Can tell the current population of the world and population in recent past but forecasting is much more challenging.
Census
single most important data source for population geography. Takes place once a decade in US but is controversial;
Asylum Seeker
someone who has migrated to another country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee.
Crude Death Rate (CDR)
total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. Doesn't follow the same patterns as CBR and NIR- combined CDR for all developing countries is lower than the combined rate for all developed countries, variation between world's highest and lowest CDRs is less extreme than CBRs (highest is 21 per 1,000 and lowest is 1 per 1,000).
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society (CBR of 20 means for every 1,000 people in a country 20 babies are born over a one-year period). High CBRs are in sub-Saharan Africa (over 40) and lowest in Europe (below 10)
East Asia 1/4
¼ of the population live in East asia. Bordering pacific ocean (eastern china, islands of japan, korean peninsula, taiwan) China is most populous country and most is clustered near pacific coast and fertile river valleys inland ½ of people live in rural areas where they work as farmers. 93% of japanese and 80% of south koreans are clustered in urban areas and work at industrial/service jobs
