Human Motivation - Midterm
Baumeister definition of Self-Control
"The capacity to alter ones responses especially so as to bring them into line with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit of long term goals." - More deliberate, conscious, & effortful subset of self-regulation. - capacity to look beyond immediate situation and current experience and thinking long term - failing of thinking of long term = self control failure
Is Self-Discipline Over-rated? by Alfie Kohn
"We should not favor the replacement of unbridled impulsivity with categorical, pervasive and rigid impulse control."
What distinguishes healthy self-control?
"What counts is the capacity to choose whether and when to persevere, to control oneself, to follow the rules - rather than the simple tendency to do these things in every situation...This is what children will benefit from developing..." -
examples of autonomous reasons for a goal
"because of the fun and enjoyment the goal offers." "because I really believe its' an important goal to have." "because it represents who I am and what I value most in life."
examples of controlled reasons for a goal
"because somebody else wants me to." "because I would feel guilty if I didn't." (indirect) " because my self-worth depends on it"
Ramunajan: A mathematical exception?
"no formal mathematical training and came up with intricate mathematical formulas in isolation" COUNTERARGUMENT - monomaniacal when it came to math - purposeful practice - books he had access to and interactions were strong enough - he did have school training and worked with college students who boarded with him
Phenomenology
"want to" versus "have to" "get to" vs "got to" "whole-hearted" vs "half-hearted" -- reorient perspective - prof: ex = walking dog - gotta do it = controlled motivation - get to do it = autonomous ex) sports psychologists help athletes think this way (i GET to train with the best coaches, etc)
3 Characteristics of Homes (young elite performers)
#1 Child-Oriented #2 Achievement-oriented #3 Responsibility -oriented
goal shielding
** Frequency and strength of desires that conflict with personal goals ** metaphor of horse - to some extent, we need blinders to stay focus, shield ourselves from distractions - found that more A about goals, the less likely you are to notice temptations, and the ones you do notice aren't as powerful - shield better when A
Koestner's perspective on how to reduce problems of unrequited love.
*** Pursuer must adjust their goals: wiser perspective on how relationships work, more respectful of other person's views. *** we have to focus on the pursuer - they have a responsibility - have to be wiser about how romantic relationships work - reality = cannot expect another person to change their emotions - disrespectful to keep pushing - very uncomfortable for the other person
John Mighton 2012 New York Times
"Almost every kid - and I mean virtually every kid - can learn math at a very high level ... - very early in school many kids get the idea that they're not in the smart group, especially in math. We kind of force a choice on them: to decide whether they're dumb or math is dumb."
Cognitive mechanisms
"Cognitive mechanisms responsible for the acquisition of expert performance involve complex acquired representations which facilitate expert's ability to plan, monitor, and reason about their performance." (e.g., returning tennis serve -- tennis coaches train to look at server (stance, flip, etc) to anticipate where ball will be hit - not perfect, but better chance - ability to hit 150mph serve - developing mental representations - has nothing to do with reaction time)
Psychology or Mental skills (SP)
"Combination of talent, hard work and simulation has produced many champions and will continue to contribute to excellence, but in the future it will not be enough. Refined mental training will be the final prerequisite." - Canada now provides this - so do other countries - identify talented kids - hard work and simulation - mental training is now what distinguished = 50-90% of variance = who wins or not
Perspectives on Elite Gymnastics (Joan Ryan)
"Many of the girls end up socially immature, physically stunted, prone to depression, and suffering from eating disorders." - gymnastics is a wonderful recreational activity - as a sport has great potential - she questions more advanced training - elite gymnastics = highlights that consequences can be horrific - many girls physically stunted, eating disorders, socially incompetent, etc
Brophy's Recommendation
"Students do not actually need praise to master the curriculum, to acquire acceptable role behaviors or even to develop healthy self-concepts." Teacher praise is a weak reinforcer, especially after age 8, when kids get out of the adult-pleasing mode.
Wayne Hallwell example (arousal regulation)
- "i know" list - ten things you know about yourself that will help you be ready - ex) "I know I'm healthy" "I've done my simulations" etc - puts you in a better mindset - golfer = before hitting shot = specific routine ex) Woods = since 4 yrs old = never varies his routine = groves you to be ready for the shot prof = same routine before teaching - come early, go over notes, etc
key difference: Ericsson and Csik
- C = playful - E = suffering (Play at the edge of our capabilities; Suffer at the edge of out capabilities)
Romantic Dyads over 3 months (STUDY)
Analyzed: Goal Progress, Well Being and Relationship Quality - Well being and relationship quality analyses control for time 1 levels of these variables. - more A supportive = greater progress - increase in Well Being - strongest effect = Relationship Quality
Steven Johnson - Watching TV Makes You Smarter
- Content of TV shows has changed dramatically in last 10 years. - One episode of "24" connects the lives of 21 distinct characters each with a clearly defined "story arc" - Multiple threading and complex social networks require attention, patience, retention and parsing of narrative threads - "You have to focus to follow the plot, and in focusing you are exercising the parts of your brain that map social networks, that fill in missing information, and that connect multiple narrative threads."
Instructional Practices that promote reading motivation (and comprehension)
- Encouraging choice; - Providing interesting, relevant texts; - Facilitating social interaction around books; - Using hands-on activities to spark interest. Notes: these things DO have a positive affect - shown to increase IM for reading
Evidence against basic abilities as a prerequisite:
- Failure to find basic abilities that predict later expertise; - Failure to find experts with less than 10 years of training;
similarities: Ericsson and Csik
- Goal-oriented - Requires complete attention - Find ways to measure progress - Beyond the comfort zone
Mechanisms that mediate expert performance
-- distinctive physiological characteristics -- cognitive mechanisms sometimes there's a key developmental time period - certain minimum ages
THREE things we come up with to energize, direct and motivate kids
1) rewards 2) praise 3) introduce competitions = highlight that you should strive harder to be the best all 3 combined ex) coach of soccer team
Terry Orlick's Model of Sport Excellence (4 things)
1) talent = prerequisite = won't make it without natural talent 2) effort = DP 3) simulation = prepare for exact conditions as the competitions will be (important for Olympics: ex) artificial vs natural snow for skiing) 4) mental skills = SP teach about this
Determining the motivational impact of praise is a complex question which depends on how the praise is interpreted: (4 things)
1) type of relationship (do you admire the person praising you) 2) type of praise - 9 types 3) age, gender, cultural background 4) public nature
what mediates the success of autonomous goals (3 things)
1) we have limited self control, it's hard to change habits, A goals makes it easier 2) distractions, temptation, A goals helps us be more flexible and adaptable when these things occur 3) action crises
2 main insights of first half of course
1. Because deliberate practice involves goal-directed mastery training, the work on goal setting is highly relevant to how to become more expert. 2. Csikzsentmihalyi's concept of flow may be what is required to maintain deliberate practice.
SMART: Time-Framed
Distal vs Proximal long term = distal - exciting, inspirational short term = proximal - help you in the now - direct impact hierarchy - distal goal with some proximal
Is relying on parents for goal support adaptive ?
Distinguish autonomy support and directive support. -- Consider well being changes over the school year. - Two pathways: 1) Goal progress 2) Need satisfaction
Humanistic Perspective - questions
Does pursuit of the goal support: - Holistic functioning and self actualization -Basic need satisfaction?
how does type of praise changed achievement goals and enjoyment
Dweck: this is a real world question little geniuses (ability praise) - don't enjoy - do not want to persist as much effort praise - still enjoy - still want to persist
Is there any way for me to find my intrinsic motivation for reading again?
won't happen as naturally - # 1 recommendation = look for ANYTHING that sparks your interest - don't judge yourself - problem many of us have: feel like we should be reading certain things - don't judge HOW you're reading (ex: audiobooks/graphic books/etc) - naturally tendency to look for challenge - gradual progression in reading level - trust that IM will lead to challenge
Is Kerri's self control healthy?
worry of kerri - no capacity to choose whether to persevere - no sense of choice - compelled - feel norms should encourage children to be aware that healthy self control is learning about choice
Sixth Graders' Resolutions study
writing what they think parents/teachers/president wants them to write down - we do the SAME thing - use personal goals to motivate ourselves, but are often coming from somewhere else - things that are expected "supposed to do" - NOT personal
correlates (good things that are NOT rewards)
Enjoyment Pursuit of challenge Cognitive flexibility and Creativity Spontaneity and Expressiveness Positive Emotional Tone in relating to others
reasons for failure of NYR
Forgot (10%) Lack will power (24%) Deliberate decision (30%) Factors beyond my control (36%)
water bottle story
HOW PROF LEARNED about implementation plans: - You had a goal but not a plan --do a simple thing --bring bottle with you all the time --link water with other tasks --simple implementation plan
What kinds of goals are associated with relying on parents?
Important // Demanding (High Challenge/Lower Skill) // Lower in Personal Autonomy - toughest and most challenging goals - more likely to say a parent was supporting us - really important - didn't feel like had enough skill - low autonomy - not as much energy towards it
JUMP math - overview
Junior Unidentified Math Prodigy: - introduced new way of teaching math - every child is an unidentified prodigy - anyone can learn if taught in the right way - microsteps - math can build CONFIDENCE
SMART: Realistic
OPTIMALLY CHALLENGING fair chance to accomplish - but not too easy - key: difficult but possible - must be challenging = energizing - when achieved = feels good!
The Flow Method
Overall goal + as many subgoals as possible Find ways to measure progress Concentrate & make finer distinctions re challenge Develop new skills Keep raising the stakes when it becomes boring
Dweck's advice
PROCESS-FOCUSED PRAISE if child fails - focus on process - process cues instead of praising - showed interest - opened up more - was able to make more of a connection - communication
Parent Praise to Toddlers Predicts Fourth Grade Academic Achievement via Children's Incremental Mindsets; Dweck 2018
Parent praise sampled in 90 min naturalistic observations in child's home at ages 14,26, and 38 months - prospective longitudinal studies - looking for: identify 2 distinct ways of giving praise - able to find percentage of type of praise - also found belief about malleability malleable mothers = more process praise - kids later develop malleable theories themselves ?? ●Process Praise ●Person Praise
the monotonic benefits assumption
Performance is a monotonic function of the amount of deliberate practice accumulated since these individuals began deliberate practice in the domain - in other words: the level of performance = linear function of how many hours of DP
Typical stages of involvement
Phase 1 - Exposure and Playful Interaction. Phase 2 - Moderate Skill Building - Internalization Phase 3 - Intensive Preparation Toward Expertise
physical advantages counterargument to Ericsson (Phelps, tennis player)
Phelps - hourglass body - double jointed feet / ankles - flexibility Ericsson response: - height and size CAN be an advantage - however: flexibility and physique were DEVELOPED capacities ... early extensive practice at critical ages for physical adaptations tennis player - best server TRAINED - did drills to serve harder and more accurately - flexibility is result of 10 yrs of intense training
Transcendence
Seeing beyond the immediate stimulus environment by focussing on more long-range goals that are higher in value. - kerri strug doing the perfect jump even though she knew it would result in extreme pain shows amazing self control - doing this involves redeploying attention
The Goal Action Sequence
Selection --> Engagement --> Disengagement
autonomy definition (extended)
Sense of ownership and personal endorsement.
(goal) self-efficacy definition
beliefs about your ability to successfully perform certain actions - NOT = to self-esteem - NOT = to actual ability - esteem can be high which efficacy is low - efficacy is specific and can be low - efficacy is not perfectly matched to ability - we don't always know how good we are at things, or we overestimate our abilities
What personality qualities predict reliance?
big finding - if you're younger, more likely to do it - big 5 traits unrelated - more N or C doesn't mean you need parents more or not - MORE SECURE in identity, explored and made commitments = more likely to rely on parents - higher INTIMACY = less likely to rely on parents = use partner for support
praise as ICEBREAKER / PEACE OFFERING
bully / mean kid
Pizza Hut Program example - intrinsic motivation
certificate - idea: take something intrinsic, and introduce extrinsic reinforcements - ex) pizza = food reward, praise = verbal/symbolic rewards - think that this will skyrocket interest and motivation to read - it DOESN'T work like that - intrinsic and extrinsic motivation actually COMPETE with each other - more and more powerful extrinsic motivators = diminishes the intrinsic motivation
Myriam Bedard - athlete - Ericsson response to her "talent" (Talent is a basic necessity but will not be enough to ensure excellence.)
contradicts Ericsson - he wouldn't believe everything RESPONSE: — biathlon was never a women's sport — most had less training than she did — even playing field — grew up in the right environment
The Free Choice Paradigm - conditions
control condition - see how kids like art materials reward condition - told they want to see who is good at drawing - if you draw a good picture, you get a certificate and it will be posted in classroom - kids receive reward a week later, they have a chance to work with drawing materials again - observe how much time they spend on target activity - no one told them to play, no reward or encouragement - AKA a free choice period time spent during FCP - indicator of intrinsic motivation for this activity
Tiger Woods - responsibility example
dad did a lot of things wisely - focused on responsibility - driving range at age of 2 = made tiger pack his own clubs = was his responsibility - highlight importance of responsibility
What motivational factors enabled Jennifer Heil, Clara Hughes and Becky Scott to win multiple Olympic medals?
deliberate practice, but also necessary to have metal skills training
effects of rewards on children
effects of rewards most powerful and devastating with young children - diminishes intrinsic motivation more strongly - culturally generalizable
ease of subjective effort
ego depletion paradigm - one task - then another task - if the first task you feel autonomous about doing it (not C), then there's NO depletion effect - ego depletion applies mostly when you feel controlled about what you're doing - when you pursue goals for A reasons, you give a lot of effort but it feels EASY - the effort you give feels natural, not taxing and draining you - advantage when we have A goals: interesting, personally meaningful, effort flows for us, less struggle, not draining us the way goal pursuit can - makes self control EASIER to ACCESS
How to give corrective feedback? (Carpentier)
empathy sandwich > praise sandwich - CHANGE-ORIENTED feedback
How Earl Woods promoted autonomous motivation in young Tiger?
every day for years: - made tiger call if he wanted to play golf - volitional - tiger was driving the process
team mindset vs self control
evidence on religious practice and self control (positive link) = associated with better well being and adjustment = most people think that it has to do with being part of a group, but evidence supports the idea that it has to do with learning self control
Does the type of TV program make a difference?
ex: sports vs comedy shows vs reality tv vs documentaries etc - also disproved - doesn't matter it's still TV
can you be an expert in managing
excellence as a manager = not enough research - reserve notion of expertise for rigorous, carefully measured and consistently displayed
expectancy (supporting ability praise)
expectancy research = create positive expectantly = self-fulfilling prophecy = teachers told that certain kids would be the best (random in reality) = those kids improved bc the teachers had expectations and behaved differed and so did the kids
Why do people stop pursuing activities that formerly seemed to be highly self-rewarding?
extrinsic incentives have been introduced - unfortunately long term effect of rewards = diminished IM
Performance Changes by Condition (3rd set of matrices)
intelligence praise condition - did well at the beginning = now BOMBING out effort condition - did well, then failed, then improved - learned something from failing - found a way to adopt different strategies - believe abilities are malleable - failure isn't threatening - just have to work harder or try new things - not threatened by failure = can come up with new things genius ability - not likely to look for that
Why has Canada become a powerhouse in the Winter Olympics?
invested time and money = commitment to sports psychology = mental skills to perform up to usual standards despite overwhelming pressure of olympics
daily experience of flow sampling
involves giving all participants a beeper - beeps 8x a day (10am-10pm) - beep = complete survey = where you are, who you're with, what you're doing, etc - you can identify when ppl are experiencing flow in their day - empirical research = looking for times when you do something challenging but feel you have skill = marker for flow
common assumption about praise
it is verbal reinforcement
Autonomy & Goal Progress study results
it makes a difference - look at goal (A or C) - correlate this with progress over time - reliably find that everyone makes more progress when they feel A rather than C - overall effect size = .23 - good robust solid effect size - if usually 50% chance of completing goal, if the goal is A, there is a 70% chance - more likely to make it if you change the goal motivator - we feel good about ourselves, more satisfied, more positive emotions - a lot of positive experiences
Csikzentmihalyi and Ericsson - flow and deliberate practice
key = when pursuing, were we able to do DP, and would it be described as flow - only way to do DP at a high enough level and long enough to become expert is if you turn it into flow activity = prof theory ericsson also described DP in these ways (components) - similar components - nice match between flow and DP problem: Ericsson asserts that DP cannot be a flow activity - prof = E missed the point of C's work and disagrees
point of clip from "Hoosiers" (basketball drills)
key point - practices designed to develop specific skills and to combine then again and again to do reliably = complex skills - "My practices are not designed for your enjoyment!"
Classic article by Brophy from 1981
large observational field study - defined praise praise is not the same as feedback! - praise is the evaluation on top of feedback - praise = adult acting like expert to judge whether you're doing well or not there are conditions - cannot praise randomly
Parent Praise - results
no relation between mother's beliefs and child's beliefs - thought it would, but no - powerful connect was the way the mother praised the child was STRONGLY related to mindset (fixed vs malleable) - process praise associated with malleable beliefs
Implementation Study - are the results only true for self-reported progress?
no: effect size stays the same even with objective reports
Three Psychological Needs - goal progress hypothesis
not focused on if you reached the goal, but if it had the expected payoff - the more you achieve at goals, better well being . . . - hypothesis: but ONLY true if the goal supports one of your 3 basic needs - Goal Progress results in enhanced well being only if goal pursuit is associated with basic need satisfaction?
one is intrinsically motivated when ...
one is intrinsically motivated for a particular activity when they do it volitionally, without being rewarded or threatened, without others setting a goal - do it of your own accord bc you're interested and enjoy doing it
Achievement-oriented home - why?
oriented toward improvement and success, competitive, focus on excellence, model this in their own lives (parents)
Question 2: Are personal goals exclusively personal?
other important point -- Personal goals are also "interpersonal." -- We rely on others to show interest in and provide support for our goal pursuits. -- We have to outsource the self-control demands - rare to pursue goal without HELP from others - people in your life know when you're pursuing a goal (likely to tell fam and friends and invest in your goals a little)
our most precious motivational resource?
our Intrinsic motivation - we're born curious, enjoying challenges - great force for growth - however, it's a FRAgile resource - introducing extrinsic rewards = can limit / reduce / sometimes destroy IM - will still work hard, but it's instrumental for a certain reward
Evidence of Atypical Brain Organization Among Gifted in Math and Music - ERICSSON REBUTTAL
sure, there are differences - but the differences (like physique in sports) aka these anatomical differences are the result of early intensive and deliberate practice - famous studies how changeable the brain is - ex: London taxi drivers can teach memory - DP - memory training = morphological training in the brain
Brophy's Conclusion
t's a mistake to think kids need to be praised all the time 9th graders - #1 motivator = goals they set for themselves - teacher praise = last
why is it good to share your goals with others?
talk to others, get them involved = limited self control resources - by involving other ppl, allows us to expand our resources - OUTSOURCE some responsibility and motivation even if more introvert than extrovert - there are others who know and care about our goal pursuits and will try to support us
goal setting problems of athletes
tend to set too many goals - good at raising goals (increasing speed) - cannot lower goals
Baumeister Analysis of Kerri Strug
the epitome of a human's capacity to exercise self control - "While seriously injured and while knowing an intensely painful and possibly harmful experiences is awaiting one, one must still execute a strenuous and demanding routine with world-class skill."
if you have 2/3 goals, which one shows the most progress
the most progress is the one that is most autonomous
what is intrinsic motivation
the natural propensity to engage one's interests and exercise one's capacities
why implementation plans work
they are a way of creating instant habits - doesn't draw on limited self control supply - AUTOMATIC - part of routine (routine = another word for plan)
what can you do when you cannot abandon a goal (and you want to)
things you have to do and cannot abandon = challenge is to think about goal in a less C and more A way
Key Factors Associated w Talent Development (Csikzentmihalyi)
"A talent will be developed if it produces optimal experiences" -- A sense of effortless action felt in moments that stand out as the best in our lives.
example of implementation plan exercise
Please think about how you will complete your goal, indicating when and where you will carry it out. Please select a specific point in time and a certain place to conduct your goal. Also think about two possible distractions or obstacles and how you will handle them in order to achieve your goal.
purposeful practice definition
Practice that is goal-oriented, thoughtful and focused - Well-defined specific goals - Focused - requires full attention - Involves feedback - You must get out of comfort zone
The Free Choice Paradigm - steps
Pre-test to identify intrinsic activity Random assignment to Control v Reward Performance Period Explicit Ending of Required Activity Free Choice Period (with Observation)
naive practice definition
Doing repeatedly and expecting repetition to result in improvement - no instruction or feedback - useless
Level of Curiosity/Interest by Grade (Harter's research on the impact of school on IM)
over school years: - continuous linear drop in interest in school activities - seen in recreation reading
why does holding a goal intention NOT guarantee goal achievement?
people may fail to deal with self-regulatory problems during goal striving. - Interference from other planned and unplanned goals; - Unanticipated obstacles and distractions. - Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006
important function of personal goals
personal goals we set provide shape, meaning and direction to our lives
Directive support
provision of positive guidance and encouragement. - cheerleader! - tips - encouraging feedback
Describe hypothetical interview with an athlete who wanted to break through at the Olympics (with Ericsson)
questions Ericsson would ask: 1) when did you start playing? 2) how much time have you played each week? (how many hours a week) — not just total time, but how much time in games, competitions, and deliberate practice (drills supervised by coach) would make calculations - cumulated DP hours 3) do you know any other competitors your age - would ask the same questions 1000 hours vs 5000 hrs of practice
Can anyone really become an athlete? (what about factors like height, genetics, lactic acid capacities ...)
reaction: - ratio of fast twitch vs slow twitch changes as a result of training - percentage will change in as little as 3 months, and after 3 yrs = heart expands - impact of training on bodily processes is remarkable - stop training ... body changes again - very responsive to TRAINING - ex) eagle eyes for baseball = can develop for anyone with training
Responsibility-oriented home - why?
responsibility training, expected to be responsible around the house (wake up early, clean, etc), do things on their own, learn good habits for sports
does the source of support makes a difference
to provide support - friends/peers VS parents - "helicopter parents" - sometimes, parents get over involved in children's pursuits - see if there is a difference in A vs D support from parents vs peers
Trying to control the uncontrollable.
underperforming - previous history suggests you should perform at a certain level, but you canno Ex: choking in a performance setting.
getting social support / going public
we need social support for most things in life so making it public can help - not things prof highlight - different theoretical background and personality - social psych and extrovert VS motivation and introvert - idea of publicizing and involving others = not prof's style - prof suggests that any psychologist would give u a standard recipe with own little twist
Question for Dweck: Isn't it naive to believe that everyone has the potential to change? For example, some people just cannot draw very well.
we should stop saying things like "i can't ski, swim, do math, etc" — add YET — you can develop the ability - this is an acquired skill - learning curve, we're on the curve! - everyone can learn and get better "We never know exactly what someone is capable of with the right support from the environment and the right degree of personal motivation and commitment."
Misunderstood contingencies.
you think a goal requires something but you're wrong about it - Unrequited love = most of think it's just a matter of changing someone's mind - misregulating, going to fail bc that's that how it works
Brophy - Praise will act as reinforcement only if it is:
—> contingent —> specific —> credible (ie, sincere, varied, and believable).
Distinctive physiological characteristics
"Distinctive physiological characteristics of experts...are accurately characterized as physiological adaptations to extended periods of intense training"
Why does unrequited love persist and become a problem?
(1) vicarious learning - we are not taught or reinforced to behave in this way (2) difficulty delivering rejection (no script)
how autonomy is measured
(The extent to which a goal reflects your developing interests and core values (versus something you feel pressured to do).
generally 4 reasons we praise kids
1) create bond = create a connection, value what they do 2) motivate 3) protect = their feelings, make them feel less rejected 4) manipulate = reinforce certain behaviors — operant conditioning, behavioral
deliberate practice definition
Activities designed to push you beyond your current level - Requires a field that is relatively well developed - Can measure differences in performance - There exist accepted training methods - Requires expert instruction
Accumulated deliberate practice
Amount of weekly practice and age at which individual began
Why did Tiger become so good?
Answer: Early exposure, extensive training, involved parents. (Also, keen interest, high self control).
Problem in testing Ericsson's theory
Cannot do a randomized controlled study where kids at young ages are assigned to extensive deliberate practice during critical developmental periods. - acknowledges that there is a problem - no random experimental studies - would be more convincing - limit to his theory - but we can use case studies
goal pursuit and self control
Capacity to over-ride short-term considerations in the interest of more valued long-term concerns.
components of Flow (6 things)
Clarity of goals Immediate feedback Challenges and skills are matched Absorbed in the task Sense of personal control Altered sense of time
Self-Talk example
Describe accomplishments - soft and forward" - "no regrets, f*** it" - "I have prepared well, endure the pain" - "I have prepared well" - "Endure the pain." meta-analysis - can be very helpful - can be trained
Are our personal goals truly "personal"? (are these goals really reflexive of you and what you want/care about)
Despite being self-generated and self-initiated, in a nominal sense, our personal goals are often not self-endorsed.
Distinguishing Types of Interpersonal Goal Support (2 types)
Directive support Autonomy support
"genius" label - according to Dweck
Dweck's research: - kids who are damaged most are the ones identified as geniuses - set up to think about their ability in ways that hinder their motivational abilities
example of Implementation Plans
If-then plans that connect good opportunities to act with cognitive or behavioral responses that are effective in accomplishing one's goals. -If situation Y arises, I will initiate goal-directed behavior x - What versus when, where, and how.
what is the solution to problems of striving?
Implementation Plans
how is years of experience related to performance
In most domains years of experience with an activity is only weakly related to level of performance. - we do DP in the start, but we tend to stop - years of experience = unimportant - Accountants, Therapists, Medical Doctors
Person Praise (dweck)
Indicates that the child had a fixed, positive quality, for example, "Good girl" and "Let's show her how smart you are."
Heidi Grant Halverson's #1 Secret
Make an implementation plan - strong empirical basis - setting a goal should only be the first step - critical second step - follow up with a PLAN = where, when and how we will be actively pursuing the goal
is teacher praise given the way a behavioralist psychologist would recommend? - is it contingent, specific, credible
NO - not contingent - not specific for particular level of performance - not credible — majority of time it was given without belief and sincerity — teacher said one thing and body language said the opposite — not used in a systematic way who received most/least praise - measured perforce - found no relationship - those given praise did not improve more
relatedness
Needing to feel meaningfully connected to at least some other people.
competence
Needing to feel that one can do things well or at least improve in one's abilities. - not necessarily being good or the best - but being capable of getting better - the belief that you can improve - sense of improvement
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi - study of talented 9th graders
Prospective Longitudinal Study of 9th graders identified as talented in 2 areas. Includes ESM for 1 week Follow-up in Grade 12 to see if teens developed their talent areas. only 1/4 of talented youth still in their domains - who stays? and who loses interest/hits a wall? experience sampling - how absorbed and challenged you are? - predict who would fulfill and stay with it - focused on flow - more flow experience (high challenge, focus, skill, absorption) - more likely to be in committed group
Implementation Study, Armitage 2004
Randomized control study in work setting. "we want you to plan to eat a low fat diet during the next month" "you are free to choose how to do this but we want you to formulate your plans in as much detail as possible. Please pay particular attention the situations in which you will implement these plans."
Boosting self-efficacy study
Rate the extent to which you possess the resources and skills necessary to attain your new year resolution on a 9-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 9 (very much). Randomly Assigned to neutral or self-eff boost condition: Neutral: List 3 pos outcomes to attain and 3 neg to avoid. Self-Efficacy Boost: Write about : (a) a goal they had already achieved that was similar, (b) an individual similar to themselves who already attained the same goal (c) an individual who could encourage them in their pursuit.
What Happens to IM for Reading in School?
Rewards Punishment Negative Reinforcement (Threats) Surveillance Deadlines Evaluation Goal Imposition Competition
unrequited love definition
Romantic, passionate love that is felt by one person toward another person who feels substantially less attraction toward the lover. (A relationship that fails to form) - US universities = breeding group for UR love
Describe hypothetical interview with an athlete who wanted to break through at the Olympics (with a sports psychologist)
SP would ask instead: — think of best performance in detail — think of worst performance ever — how they were thinking before/after/during — look at differences in preparation and differences in feelings — look at mental approach, can work on it and reach potential
how do sports psychologists differ from Ericsson
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGISTS (SP) respond differently - believe in innate talent - mental factors that have to do with performance in big game situations - might have a chance even if start late - less emphasis on DP
Bloom - Home environments of youngsters who become elite performers:
conclusion - characteristics of home environments were similar across the fields - striking : how involved parents were (and how early they became involved)
SMART goals (Dr. Phil)
Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic (Ready) Time-Framed
Ingredients of Successful Self-Control:
Standards Monitoring Strength
Qualitative Exploration of Retirement from Women's Gymnastics
Structured interviews with 5 elite British women gymnasts. - Mean age = 24, competed nationally or internationally, retired at 16, practiced 30 hours per week at peak. quotes suggest - end of career, many of these women have many concerns and regrets - categorize concerns in relation to 3 needs - wonder why they stayed in it, pressure
lowest leisure activity
TV - only 7% of the time when beeped while watching tv will reports exhibit flow - equivalent to sitting in a chair looking up at the ceiling
How do we disengage from valued goals and find new goals?
The Goal Action Sequence - UR love as an example as an unattainable but highly valued goal - becomes clear that we should let it go - goal adjustment theory - important goals take a life of their own - series of steps and problems - action crises to overcome with many of our goals - final stage : realize it's unattainable - need to disengage
underminers (bad things other than rewards)
Threats of Negative Consequences Surveillance Deadlines Evaluation Goal Imposition Competition
action crises
Torn between continued goal engagement and disengagement - refers to further along in goal pursuit - start to struggle - torn between disengaging or trying to keep with it - action crises - research suggest that for A, better manage action crises
Ed Deci's fundamental question
Why do people stop pursuing activities that formerly seemed to be highly self-rewarding. - most of us when we were 12/13 yrs old = read 40/50 books - characterized as reading as an end in itself - for many of us, that doesn't happen anymore - childhood attachment to reading has changed - how and why?
What do children care most about after failure: - finding out how to master problems better? OR - finding out how well their peers performed?
ability condition backfires when failure is introduced would you like to learn to strategies or hear how others did: — effort = wanted to learn — praise = wanted to see how others did, wanted to feel less bad
Jim Ryun
actually best example in SUPPORT of Ericsson's theory - had a coach = unique with a type of workout no one else was doing - intensive and elaborate swim kind of work out for running - allowed teams to best - coach took notice of him, set him on a plan to break 4 mins
praise as STUDENT-ELICITED STROKING
apple polisher student - kids who are a littler quicker/better who show off a little - systematically reinforcing the teachers to be praised more - not coming from the teacher - coming from the kids who have found a way to get the teachers to praise them - these are the kids to worry about - teacher dependent - value of what they do is justified by teacher acceptance - danger = motivational shift - MOST COMMON - long term = probably most dangerous
How common is relying on parents? (study)
asked people to list 5 goals - who is supporting - categorized parent vs. peer - very common (88%) has a parent supporting one goal - normative to rely on parents for goal support
When the parent does not withdraw?
athletes who peak and don't get further - usually bc of parents who do not withdraw - example: Michelle Wie - problem = DAD - didn't let real experts take over
autonomous vs controlled
autonomous = whole-heartedly endorse goal - full self, i want to do this controlled = half-hearted - conflicted, alienated - part of me wants to study, but it's boring and I'm only doing it for the good grade
mental contrasting
before embarking: should ask yourself, what is your fantasy for how this will go - think about positive firsts - and then negatives - holes in the fantasy - helps you be realistic
praise as CONSOLATION PRIZE / ENCOURAGEMENT
being done publicly not good, not good for older kids, makes students feel pathetic, being praised for unimpressive things
Evidence of Need Satisfaction for ex gymnasts?
competence: would think they would feel this as elite gymnasts, but they do not bc alway comparing themselves to others in one specific thing - lens is so narrow when making comparisons - felt like most boring people in the world - had nothing to talk about with other people - incompetent when talking to others relatedness - everyone in your gym is a competitor - competing for same position - rivalry, no sense of care for each other - generally true (with some exceptions)
Can we can apply any sports psychology skills to our own activities.
can be adapted to our own life — surgeons, companies, etc - help ppl perform to their best
Boosting self-efficacy study results
can remeasure your ability! - predicts better than your ability - boost condition had higher progress levels and SE levels
Why the drop at Junior High?
certain times when really under pressure from school system - rewards more salient - more evaluative - more competitive - more impersonal - more formal
typical "formula" for expertise
classic formula - intuitive - the heights we can attain depends on natural ability and effort/practice/strategies - Performance = Ability X Effort
Expert performance - definition
consistently superior performance on specified set of representative tasks for the domain that can be administered to any subject
praise as BALANCE FOR CRITICISM
corrective comment is "sandwiched" with praise before and praise after — lessen the blow — critical comment is "oreo-ed"
what makes relationship goals different?
different goals - relationship goals = different because it's an INTERDEPENDENT GOAL - no progress unless other person wants progress too - focusing attention and effort on person uninterested = not a good thing
Implementation Study - results
found: no change in control - 3 minute plan ppl had more success - 94 independent studies show a significant positive effect of - - Pearson r = .33. - VERY strong (most r = .2)
what is the most important construct
goal self-efficacy
Critical Issue: How to help the child sustain deliberate practice?
help make it FLOW
Well being change by type of goals (STUDY)
in all four groups - evidence of progress whether progress improved subjective well being - more positive affect - higher life satisfaction - only when you made progress at need related goals that you showed improved subjective well being - if goals were only changing circumstances unrelated to needs, no increased WB
change oriented feedback
indicates behaviors that need to be modified so that athlete can achieve their goals - Show empathy with the challenge. - Choice of solutions to correct problems. - Free from person-related statements. - Given in a considerate tone of voice - End with empathy about the difficulty of changing ingrained habits.
praise as TRANSITION RITUAL
indicating that something is finished, and there's something next to do — harmless but not motivational
praise as ATTEMPTED VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT
inspire others to start working, putting one up as a model for everyone else, teacher's pet — being the example can be embarrassing — being used as a model can be bad for social vitality
Ed Deci - overview
interested in flow activities - activities we aren't encouraged to do by others, but do simply bc they're fun and interesting - "intrinsic motivation activities" - not interested in WHY we do these - but why do we STOP doing these activities - thinking about things used to do and don't anymore - ex) reading for fun
how common are social goals
most of us don't set social goals - for every 100 only about 15/20 are social in nature
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences:
not just one single form of IQ - 7 distinct different kinds of intelligence - each of these have their own neuropsychological and genetic basis - to some extent, these 7 kinds are largely independent of one another - 1980s/90s - now: 1.5 have been added we've neglected the 5 bottom intelligences (spatial-intrapersonal) - most relevant = last 2 - good at psychology: inter and intra personal - how to help others, being aware of social groups, relationships, etc - intra: understanding yourself well, and using it to understand other people (take others' perspectives_ - reading can enhance empathy and interpersonal ability - writers are really good at it, so reading helps enhance
what does it mean when one does NOT have volition behind a personal goal
not really connected to the person's own interests and values
example of holding onto goals we need to let go of
unrequited love
The Free Choice Paradigm - Lepper
way of testing the impact of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation - paradigm = systematic way of studying and observing a phenomenon
framework of self-determination theory
why we do what we do? - distinguish quantity and quality of motivation - focus on issue of volition - focus on satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs
why is invisible support helpful
- your motivation because increasingly more autonomous - if more and more ppl in your life are A supportive, you feel more A yourself - Get to do this attitude increased
Goal Setting Strategies with Athletes
-- Performance review and identification of key areas for improvement; -- SMART Framing. -- Distinguish Training vs. Competition Goals - Personal Best
Discrepancies between would be-lovers and rejecters accounts and emotions.
- Hi stakes gamble vs no-win situation. - "I tried and failed" vs "He tried. He failed. He tried again and again and again." - Perspective-taking: -- often the pursuer has a memory of the events as bittersweet but positively bc they were pursuing something they cared about and took a risk, but at least they tried = high stakes gamble, and think back to it with a tinge of "great moments" - person pursued = unpleasant memories, uncomfortable, don't know what to do, awkward and difficult, hard on the target and stays hard
how to turn things into flow activity (the flow method)
- Overall goal + as many subgoals as possible - Find ways to measure progress - Concentrate & make finer distinctions re challenge - Develop new skills - Keep raising the stakes when it becomes boring
Baumeister's ego-depletion
- Self-control as limited resource hypothesis remains tenable. - Mediation by glucose seems untenable.
examples of failed relationships that are NOT unrequited love
- broken up with = not unrequited - never telling the person = doesn't count either - this study: to write the narrative, there had to be an indication that you were interested - extensive narrative accounts of the other person, why they felt love, what happened
what is goal adjustment
- disengagement from unattainable goals (reduction of effort and withdrawal of commitment - reengagement in alternative goals
why can goal adjustment be difficult
- doesn't happen spontaneously and naturally - have to WORK on letting a goal go - active reduction of effort and withdrawal of commitment
why are approach goals better than avoidance
- easier to self regulate in regards to approach - avoiding requires worry - stating in positive way is better - general rule modified by our personality for some of us, being avoidance oriented is better but very rare - approach oriented usually better
How do children praised for intelligence versus those praised for effort represent their task performance to others?
- effort kids = said only got 3 right - ability kids = lied and said 5, needed to prove competence when so focused on proving ability, makes it hard to do things to develop ability - it's an opposing way to precede
motivational impact of giving little kids the "genius" label
- effort: working hard - kinds of goals (about learning and mastery, or demonstrating their intelligence) (getting better or being good and proving it to others) - how kids respond to challenge = if they take it up a notch or not, rising to the challenge - persist with road blocks
praise as ... 9 things
- first 3 = mostly controlled by personality of teacher - next 6 = qualities and characteristics of the students
examples of Directive support
- helps me problem solve about my goals. - reminds me of my goals. - emphasizes the importance of reaching my goals - makes sure that I really understand the importance of reaching my goals without pressuring me to do so.
Koestner study (matrices)
- kids and university students - gave hidden figures puzzle test - gave positive feedback - either focus on ability (you have a knack) or effort (you worked hard) - ability praise condition = responded better, persist longer, etc
examples of Autonomy support
- listens to how I would like to do things regarding my goals. - understands how I see things with respect to my goals. - conveys confidence in my ability to make changes towards my goals - accepts me whether or not I reach my goals
Higher processes involved in Transcendence
- longer time-spans, - more extensive networks of meaningful associations, - more distal and abstract goals.
Csikzentmihali study - overview
- look at all beep times during TV - report of affect and concentration - comparison between tv and other activities - hint of WHY we watch tv, what does it give us escape from
what is better: 40 minute lesson or 25 games
- need deliberate practice - need GOALS In Europe: - more practice than games - well designed practice = each player works on skills instead of barely developing skills in a scrimmage - Ericsson prob recommend 90% drills and 10% games if
what is the cost of pursuing our goals
- neglecting other important goals - might neglect fundamental needs - focus too much on an "ultimate goal" - ex: gymnastics and figure skating in USA
counter argument for savants
- obsessive compulsive endeavor - savants: never taught, but are so obsessed in a specific way, sequence of steps, repeat it for hours a day, get better at it
what can go wrong with praise
- on average we assume it is generally positive - need to distinguish short and long term effects of praise - usually positive experience - repeatedly using praise = long term effect might change danger = shifting focus from doing things for interest and challenge VS doing bc adult wants you to and will reward you
Self-Determination Perspective on Goal Disengagement: Canadian Olympic athletes (STUDY)
- short careers - the year after they retire, usually experience a real drop in well being - hard to give up dream of being athlete - focused on why athletes felt they were stopping their career - used that to predict how well they would cope after leaving
why does choking happen
- skill tasks = think about speed and precision - the reason we choke is because we focus too much on precision and ignore speed - start by thinking about specific movement and that's the problem - wrong approach
reasons we watch tv
- trying to COPE - cognitive philosophical argument - natural state of our minds = chaos - if we let our minds go however, we would be stressed - need to structure minds to avoid chaos - most of us realize this is the case - TV is the fastest, easiest, least expensive way to structure minds for minimal amount to avoid chaos - minimal investment and minimal cost - helps us occupy and keep attention - tv actually plays upon a reflex that gets us hooked
negative conditioning of TV
- when watching tv, feel relaxed, but stop watching = anxious, unpleasant negative emotions - turn tv back on to keep negative emotions away - conditioned ourselves to watch more tv and not turn it off
Phase 1 - Exposure and Playful Interaction.
1 = parents choose what kids are exposed to
failure rates for NY resolutions
1 week 23% 2 weeks 34% 3 weeks 40% 1 month 45% 3 months 55% 6 months 60% (12 months) 80% (24 months) 90%
What 4 factors should parents look for (according to Dweck)
1) Challenge-Seeking 2) Resilience in Face of Obstacles 3) Effort 4) Strategies - most parents when observing kids look for star qualities Dweck = terrible waste of time: - gift is the motivational qualities, not the special abilities - focus on effort is better - has to do with child's beliefs about their abilities malleable ideals = will set them up WELL
Types of Experience
1) Deliberate practice = individualized training on tasks selected by a qualified teacher. (coach, drills = improve skills = take drills and do on your own) 2) Play = primary goal is the inherent enjoyment of the activity. (no real goal to improve) 3) Work = public performances, competitions or other performance motivated by $.
Fathers, sons & hockey - the Sullivans Does the story fall in like with the work of: 1) Ericsson - deliberate practice 2) Csikszentmihalyi - flow 3) Dweck - mastery vs performance orientation
1) Ericsson: - deliberate practice = yes = drills - complexity of sequence - reflex mental representations have been built up - wonderful example 2) Csik: - flow experience for both son and dad 3) Dweck: - get better experience
3 main reasons why UR love happens - they aren't exclusive
1) Falling Upward 2) Intrusion of romantic feelings into a platonic friendship. 3) Transition from casual dating to serious, possibly exclusive romance
psychological skills training - four components
1) Goal setting 2) Arousal Regulation 3) Visualization 4) Self-Talk
Types of Misregulation
1) Misunderstood contingencies. 2) Trying to control the uncontrollable.
Best Evidence for Talent (innate)
1) Prodigies: something inside them produces accelerated ability, expert levels at young age 2) Savants = limited IQ, autism spectrum = but have one specific area with remarkable ability 3) Seemingly superior basic abilities that predestine one for success in a certain domain (ex: absolute pitch, spatial memory of chess players)
Standards
1) STANDARDS = our goals need to be clear and specific, cannot contradict one another = not muddled or ambiguous
two things that successful goal setting depends on (summary)
1) Selecting autonomous goals. 2) Receiving goal support that is autonomy-supportive. - There are dynamic, reciprocal relations between goal motivation and goal support. - Certain relationships place a premium on autonomy support. - helps find self control resources - help shield distractions - help overcome action crises people in lives to support goals in a more empathic than directive way --also a reciprocal relation - if you are more A motivated, you are more likely to find ppl who are A supportive
Theories to Support Ability Praise (three)
1) Self-efficacy 2) Expectancy 3) Reinforcement
8 barriers keeping us from becoming experts
1) early exposure 2) exposure during critical developmental period 3) keen interest in the domain (genetic?) 4) insufficient self-regulatory skill to maintain practice regimen (genetic?) 5) financial resources 6) lack of top-level instruction 7) demonstrating instruction at critical time 8) excessive practice leading to injury and burnout chances to overdo all 8 = VERY SLIM
Universal action plan
1) focus attention 2) be prepared to give effort (energy) 3) have to persist all three things are accentuated when setting goals
Benefits of self-efficacy
1) focus your attention more effectively 2) exert more effort. 3) optimism in face of obstacles
why is deliberate practice so important
1) goal to attend to the task and improve performance; 2) explicit instructions about best methods of improvement; 3) immediate feedback on one's performance; 4) repeatedly performs the same or similar tasks what these things do: - at the edge of your ability - try to stretch things
Goal Setting
1) manageable # of goals (1-2) — distinguish between training goals and competition goals — trained to never thing about winning medals, winning for country — MINIMIZE expectations ! — focus on personal best
types of practice
1) naive 2) purposeful 3) deliberate
Basic Psychological Needs
1) relatedness 2) competence 3) autonomy
Implementation Study - - Does the type of goal matter? - Does difficulty of the goal affect the success of implementation plans?
no - effect size is maintained! - generalizable !
How can we reach more of our goals? (4 ways)
1. Don't pursue too many goals at the same time. 2. Frame our goal pursuits in a SMAART way. 3. Try to boost your beliefs of self-efficacy. 4. Augment the goals with implementation plans.
Kubey and Cz's recommendations for TV watching
1. Don't try to give up TV totally. - impossible - most of us need TV 2. Watch with other people. - more enriching experience 3. Be a discriminating viewer - make it goal oriented - record - supplement with study (instead of it being zombie-like)
Key Questions to Consider about your "personal" goals
1. Have I reflected on why I am pursuing this goal? 2. Is this goal in tune with my self? 3. Can I make it in tune with my self?
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
1. IM Varies with Perceived Autonomy 2. IM Varies with Perceived Competence 3. External events can have 1 of 3 meanings: - informational // controlling // amotivating Notes: intrinsic motivation taps into basic need to feel autonomous and competent - we like activities that feel interesting and make us feel skillful
SMAART goals = what does the extra A stand for?
A for distinction between Approach and Avoidance
Koestner's Three-Pronged Defense of TV Watching
1. It's ok if you do it with others. — sociable, more complex and interesting — watching tv with someone else is better than alone, more cheerful, benefit from it — only problem is that it's not unique to TV bc most activities are improved with someone else 2. Life as a professor is stressful. I watch TV when I feel exhausted and it helps me relax and recuperate. — worst myth we suffer from is that we have to relax and recuperate — we don't need to relax in the passive way we think we do — time series 3. It's ok if you watch good shows.
Self-Regulation of Elite Gymnasts
no hanging out no tv watching no going on dates. no spontaneous, uncontrolled eating no giving in to minor injuries.
FLOW definition
A sense of effortless action felt in moments that stand out as the best in our lives. - rock climbing, parkour, badminton - non physical things = chess, scrabble - other activities = knitting, gardening
The Personal Goal Paradigm
1.Select a start point - new year, new semester, start of therapy.. - usually university students, September-May - new year start - patients in treatment, before, during, after. 2. Assess (3) personal goals using Emmons Personal Striving Method 3. Assess goal progress across waves - Self, peer, therapist, objective 4. Assess goal motivation and goal support across waves.
Phase 3 - Intensive Preparation Toward Expertise
10-12 yrs, find best teacher, time to specialize, parent needs to help here, help them focus for specific field (golf vs baseball) — hard to do — at elite level, coach only work with talented kids
Dweck STUDY - change their beliefs about ability
100 students doing poorly in math were targeted for study skills intervention. - Two types of intervention: 1) Traditional study skills 2) Traditional study skills + Growth Mindset intervention "Learned that the brain actually forms new connections every time you learn something new, and that over time this makes you smarter."
Mueller & Dweck - STUDY design (math kids)
128 fifth graders from rural and inner city schools. 50% Caucasian, 19% African American, and 31% Hispanic. 3 sets of problems, each containing 10 Standard Progressive Matrices (non verbal intelligence test) All children received success feedback after first set of problems. "Wow, you did very well on these problems. You got x number right. That's a really high score."
Falling Upward
1st reason comes up a lot - most common: we are falling upward, falling in love with someone who at some level is more attractive or desirable than we are - falling for someone more attractive/desirable than you = love is unrequited
Monitoring
2) MONITORING = carefully and continually monitor progress, check on the effort is in line with what you were hoping to achieve (recalibrate, change the plan), make adjustments when not on track ex) using a fitbit
Arousal Regulation
2) managing level of arousal — most important — not too excited or nervous — mindful relaxation techniques: monitor and control breathing in a fast way — sports psychologists are really good at this — danger = getting lethargic — cannot regulate too much — sumo wrestling = want to get hyper aroused
Intrusion of romantic feelings into a platonic friendship
2nd reason - the way we choose friends is very different than choosing romantic partners - camaraderie and intimacy of friendship may transform into romantic feelings - we don't choose friends for looks or attractiveness necessarily, but romantic feelings may develop - often it only develops for one of the two people (usually the less attractive one, goes back to 1st reason)
Mueller & Dweck - 3 CONDITIONS
3 conditions randomly assigned: - No matter what their actual score, all children were told that they had solved at least 80% of the problems that they answered. -- 1/3 also told "You must be smart at these problems." (ability) -- 1/3 also told "You must have worked hard at these problems." (effort) -- The remaining children received no add. feedback.
Strength
3) STRENGTH = key ingredient = self control resources in order to activate ourselves, need energy/stamina/willpower = our reservoir of self-control energy is a limited resource, so we can use it up on one task so it isn't available for other tasks - some of us have a bigger pool than others - research paradigm = two consecutive tasks that require self-control — control group, no self control first time — 2nd task = depleted state, only do 50% as well — key point: self control doesn't have to be physical, attention, etc, but there is always a predictable depletion effect
Visualization
3) visualization — not only visual — full sensory experience — the more senses the better — activates brain areas
Transition from casual dating to serious, possibly exclusive romance
3rd reason - when we go on a date, understanding that it isn't serious - a couple of dates = romantic feelings may arise - may only arise for one of the two (usually the less attractive one) - this falling upward is the dominant problem
Self-Talk
4) self talk — controlling self critical thoughts instead of letting them control you — make a plan of which thoughts you have during competition
New Year's Resolution definition
A firm decision to do (or not to do) something.
Self-Determination Perspective on Goal Disengagement: Canadian Olympic athletes (STUDY) - RESULTS
ATHLETES WHO WERE ... disengaging for autonomous reasons: - volitional and self endorsed - coped quite well with requirement pressured people - felt guilty about holding on too long, felt pushed by others, felt controlled - had more troubles
Allington study - giving kids books is the key (study)
Allington et al., 2010 Addressing summer reading setback among economically disadvantaged elementary students. The Summer Slide 1000 1st graders assigned to book fair condition; Pick 12 books from wide variety - Pop Culture #1* 500 in control group get puzzle books. Dep. variable: Reading achievement 3 yrs later. Result: Sign. pos effect of books, esp. for lo SES. And "quality" of books did not matter!
Process Praise (dweck)
Emphasizing children's effort (e.g., "good job trying to put that back"),strategies (e.g., "I like it when you do it all different colors"), or specific actions (e.g., "great catch")
how can deliberate practice be useful to non-experts
EVERY DAY ACTIVITIES many activities we think we can't pick up - did anyone try to teach you with patience? - even things we don't think of as skills - ex) faculty meeting skills — skill to communicating and influencing other faculty members — can learn how
How to Distinguish Whether Parental Involvement is Healthy?
Evidence of Psychopathology? Narcissistic parents Ego-involved parents What is the over-arching goal in encouraging sport or music participation?
Application of sports psychology skills to our own activities?
Exams, Public Speaking -- Pre-performance routine; -- Re-focus plan; -- Positive Self-Talk - "All the great artists draw outside the lines" - "This is not a race."
Misregulation
Exerting self control in a way that fails to bring about the desired results because the efforts are misguided or wasted. * does not apply to Kerri Strug - she attained her goal - looks effective
Benjamin Bloom's (1985) Research on the Development of Expertise.
Extensive interviews of 120 young people (and their parents and coaches). Identified as talented in: arts athletics academics
Jack Block's analysis of ego-control
Extent to which impulses and feelings are expressed or suppressed. - Impulsive & distractible; - Compulsive & Joyless Notes: - ego control = self control - continuum - both ends can be problematic - impulsive and distractible - opposite end of dimension of self control = compulsive and joyless best = midpoint towards self control kerri = not healthy self control
Methods for Arousal Regulation
FOCUS PLAN = Pre-performance routine how to get this calm mind & be in the present - pre performance focus plan - ask you about good and bad competitions, what you did beforehand - tweak what you do to prepare - figure skaters = terrible to watch competition (Nancy Kerrigan, stand up comedy before instead) - Bedard = day before race = no one talk to her, even look, wants to be in a bubble = focus on process - different for everyone
The problem of elite gymnastics
Focus on self-control sacrifices satisfaction of essential psychological needs - - Sacrificing needs in terms of extreme career goal not only leads to psychological distress, but it also impairs successful pursuit of the ...
The Free Choice Paradigm - third condition
THIRD CONDITION - introduced like in control condition - at the end: unexpectedly said = we forgot to tell you that we give awards to good pictures - while doing the picture, did NOT think of contingency - unexpected reward didn't affect intrinsic motivation on the other hand - making rewards highly salient (prize, reminders) = effects become MORE NEGATIVE
TV vs Reading = variable ratings
TV - Reading * potency = 4.3 vs 4.7 * relaxed = 5.3 vs 5.3 * concentration = 4.8 vs 5.7 * challenge = 2.4 vs 2. 9 * skills = 3.5 vs 5.0
A Proven Way to Overcome Self-Control Limitations:
Take 5 minutes to outline an implementation plan that specifies where, when and how you will pursue your goal.
self-control definition
The capacity to alter or over-ride one's typical way of responding - we are habitual creates = difficult to override
SMART: Achievable
UNDER YOUR CONTROL not achievable: - unrequited love difficulty - weight loss: diets make us lose weight, but progression slows down and tend to gain weight -- wrong diet ? -- not enough SCR? -- truth = very difficult to keep weight off
Violin players - PEAK - critical STUDY
Violinists at best music school in Germany 3 groups of ten performers identified by profs. Also included 10 adult members of philharmonic Carefully assessed time doing deliberate practice until age 18. -- no "naturals" -- none that were in bottom group that had done crazy number of hours but just didn't get better - everyone in top group did incredible number of hours
Computer Mediated Activities
all a matter of HOW you're using these mediums!!! 1) internet surfing distinction between: — Ritualistic (more zombie like) — Instrumental (goal oriented) 2) social networking — to maintain or enrich old friendships 3) video games —high in flow - concerned about sons bc so obsessed - complex multi player games - more and more challenging - clear goals and feedback 4) email
pursued vs pursuer - perspective taking
also noticed - perspective taking - pursued = they really take the perspective of the other person, understand that they are putting their heart out their, are empathic and act kindly - pursuer = shows no empathy and perspective whatsoever for what the person he/she is pursuing is experiencing
Phase 2 - Moderate Skill Building - Internalization
around 5-7 yrs, lessons, finding good teacher, 1st teacher should not be expert, but who makes it fun interesting and recognize importance of practice — problem with using expert too early in child's life — parent has to help coach teach the child the process of internalization: — child gradually shifts from being told, to being able to figure it out themselves — compulsion and rewards = make kids hate the practice = do not internalize the meaning of practice = VITAL parent role — competitions = goal to strive for in order to work harder
Autonomy support vs Directive support STUDY results
autonomy NOT directive support: - Greater goal progress over time - Greater well being - Better relationship satisfaction - significantly more progress - well being increases when you have ppl like this in your lives - relationships with these people also improves when they care about your goals and they are more empathic than directive
Baumeister unrequited love study
correlational, not experimental - few hundred uni students - asked everyone to ask a narrative of when they were the pursuer or the pursued - 95% had an experience of UR love - more than half had UR love experiences in both directions (pursuer and target) - Baumeister made the decision to only include students who had BOTH kinds of experiences - WHY is this a good strategic decision: - they understand both perspectives - only collecting pursuers and only pursued, you might wonder if there is something with the personality that makes the participants a pursuer or target - every account here is matched for both experiences - takes individual differences away - only about how the role is
Simulation Training
critical for preparation for competition: - maximum training - ex) trained using altitude tent to adapt to condition of competition
Mueller & Dweck - RESULTS
dependent measures = kids' beliefs and goals - what kind of achievement goals the kids had -- Achievement goals were measured after they had worked on the first set of (success) matrices and received feedback. -- "problems that I'm pretty good at, so I can show that I'm smart." -- "problems that I'll learn a lot from, even if I won't look so smart," RESULTS: 2 choices: - be good (performance) or get better — (demonstrate skill or improve) results: - ability praise = 70% chose performance goal - effort praise = most chose the get better option (90% about) difference in achievement goals !!
why can monitoring be difficult for us - students especially
difficult thing - see how you do on exams and papers - however we don't get a lot of feedback - until after midterm for example - how can I measure how well I'm processing this material - quizlet / peerwise = useful to see how you're doing for example
Directive Supportive Parents - pattern of results over school year
directive support = no effects common for us to rely on parents - can have important impact - exclusive to having A supportive - very low A support = difficulty having goal progress
what to say to teachers who disagree ( But don't children need to receive feedback on their performance in order to learn? But isn't it important to create a warm classroom environment? But is it not important to encourage children so that they feel optimistic and confident?)
distinguish between praise and feedback - praise = teacher's evaluation - teachers can provide neutral info - kids do not need praise but FEEDBACK praise is not the only way (or best way) to be warm - not necessary to praise to be warm encouragement is different from praise - encouragement is before a task - praise comes after
JUMP math - results
double the expected improvement - consistent with Dweck - importance of mindset
counter argument for chess player's spatial memory ability
dynamic spatial ability - shown that this isn't true - give world class chess players, but put the pieces in completely goofy places (break the rules) = are no better than average person - chess masters, and prodigies, the repeated practice allowed them to create complex mental representations that give them an advantage in efficiency and processing time - these mental representations do not emerge naturally = product of training and practice !!!!
Kermie award example - intrinsic motivation
first day of class - teacher: competition to read the most - rate of reading increased, but seemed impulsive and rushed - wasn't able to say too much about what was read - trying to win changed the way she read - was about wining kermis, not for enjoyment - not worth it - damaging - kids WERE motivated, but no long intrinsic - reading becomes instrumental up to 4th grade = learn to read 4th and 5th = read to learn - channeling reading interested - should only read certain books (socially meaningful, challenging books) - risk with intrinsic motivation = trying to control it = bad - gradually over grade school years: reading interest shifted from intrinsic to extrinsic
Chem 101 example (fixed vs malleable)
fixed theory students - just dropped the class malleable theory students - noticed that the mean of the scores was low - asked for help, change - you think about different ways, strategies - persevere
fixed vs malleable - East vs West
fixed vs malleable - usually in North America = 50-50 - Japan/China/Korea = only 20% say fixed, 80% malleable - doesn't ask just about intelligence, but asks specific - "math ability" = most in N America say it's fixed - other examples: language ability, athletic skills, social skills
praise as VINDICATION OF PREDICTION
for kids who are smart and capable, but are lazy/get distracted/oppositional, but every now again come through, "i told you that you could do it!" — praising child for doing well — praising myself for being insightful to know child would do well — probably won't be received as well most of these aren't so helpful
Autonomy Supportive Parents - pattern of results over school year
found that parental goal support was especially important - peer A support = more goal progress = ONLY effect - parental A support = far ranging effects = if parents support personal goals and higher in A support = greater goal progress, felt more A over school year, ultimately ended up in improving levels of well being
praise as POSITIVE GUIDANCE
friendly banter, create positive atmosphere, generalized praise, show warmth and encouragement — some teachers do this — agreeable and extraverted — harmless praise — doesn't do damage, but doesn't enhance motivation either
the importance of 3rd grade on READING
goes from "learning to read" TO "reading to learn"
Visualization example
golf - Before every shot I go to the movie inside my head. Here is what I see. First I see the ball where I want it to finish ... etc"
3 Ingredients of Successful Self-Regulation - Gymnastics
gymnast standards - kerri strum knew exactly what she had to do - feedback rich environment - standards - can display remarkable self control bc you are compelled to do that - unlike any other sport, 6 hours a day every week for YEARS
praise as SPONTANEOUS EXPRESSION OF SURPRISE or ADMIRATION
has a positive effect - MOST RARE - bc it's spontaneous = contingent, it's specific to what was done, and probably credible - verbally seen, and can see the genuine body language beyond the verbal - spontaneous = RANDOM = NOT systematic - benefits improve over time - the only kind where it will work as a reinforcer
Ericsson's requirements for fields one can become an expert in
has to be a task that is specified and anyone can be asked to do it - 2 standard deviations above normal - use judges (figure skating, gymnastics) - golf = standardized = par Ericsson: one thing you cannot do: CANNOT let people decide for themselves whether they're an expert - beware of ppl selling their services as an expert unless they are given the title - ex: financial advisors (which stocks to invest it) - many studies: no evidence that this advice is anything more than random - task is impossible to show any consistent superior performance - random variations can make it look like you're doing well
Refocus Plan (ex: Coca Cola)
have to anticipate that things may go wrong - athletes trained to REFOCUS - ex) goalie giving up a goal - manage breathing, and get back on track ex) athlete frustrated - cue to remind yourself that you love what you're doing - whenever feeling negative feelings (about teammates) = looked at enjoy coke sign = reminded her to enjoy basketball = it helped!
example of a way we find self-control
higher lever long term goal setting / values - helps us plow through - ex) studying with larger goal of career
acquisition of expert performance - traditional view
historically, the way we viewed musicians in 17/18th century - god given gift - sure, practice was necessary - but many of us with the same practice couldn't achieve the same - parents highlight the "god given gift" talent of their children, needed to actualize this gift - now we think in terms of genes - think about our expert performance in this way quite often - conclusion: notion is giftedness is necessary to reach highest level - ex) hockey = thousands of kids with a lot of practice and interest, but only some make it - most think that what differentiates the ones who succeed is the natural talent ERICSSON = NO - exposure, teaching, training, deliberate practice
observational study of teachers and praise - does it function as a reinforce? - if teacher praise is not part of a systematic reinforcement effort, what function does it serve?
how common is praise - only 5% of teachers' communication - criticism = 10%
Humanistic Perspective (Sheldon)
human behavior and development in a more holistic way - self actualization - the whole person - not just focusing on goals - also looking at needs - if goals pursued linked with satisfying needs - worst case scenario = sacrifice basic psychological needs and depriving ourselves bc we are so focused on goal (like with gymnastics)
What about children who do not like to read? Wouldn't it be ok to use a reward to get them interested?
if child is not interested - explore WHY not interested - learning disability? - something else going on - introducing rewards does not elicit IM ... only EM ! - rewards have no effect on IM for reading
benefits of disengagment
if you do disengage - depressed symptoms and physical problems = reduced — better mental and physical health
counter argument for prodigies: Wesley Chu and Tiger Woods
learn about how they were introduced —environment was perfectly designed to develop interest and skill - TW dad = wanted to teach son golf before mental capacity to be self conscious would make him too technical or in his own head - INTEREST MAY BE GENETIC BUT NOT ABILITY wesley chu - BOTH parents = piano teachers - hears music, practicing - early exposure and training (high level training) - can accelerate quickly, but cannot SKIP steps !!! not associated with future success - many philharmonic musicians were NOT identified as child prodigies direct relation between quality and amount of practice you do and where you end up - talent has nothing to do with it - INTEREST does
why do people spend time and energy on activities that seem to have no external reward?
like surfing in February - conclusion: do that bc something happens to them when surfing = activity creates optimal experience they rarely find elsewhere
orienting reflex
look when screen changes - ex) visual display = child will look, look away, if it changes, look again - tv shows edited to prey upon this reflex
Doesn't talent show itself by how quickly someone responds to instruction?
many people that we were all exposed to music, but we aren't all good at it - some students pick it up better - DP but there has to be innate skill COUNTER ARGUMENT all about using right training practice - right environment to see their success - ex) Suzuki teachers = carefully designed practice activities that assure success
Expertise among older performers? Why does Steve Nash stay so good?
many stop deliberate practice as they get older - drop off mainly happens to those who lessen DP - not just deliberate practice, but also you must develop ways to make practice more challenging
JUMP math - microsteps
math is like a ladder - teachers don't teach things in micro steps - not enough practice and repetition - miss one step ... become lost - one step may contain as many as seven micro steps - if teachers use this approach, kids can make amazing gains
Is January in Montreal a good time to set new goals?
may not be such a good idea - winter - self control limited are taxed even more in January in Montreal - life is more demanding and difficult for Montreal inhabitants during winter *** set Canada Day Resolutions ! — July 1st — summer = better chance of sticking with things ex) watching Downton Abbey with wife
Wrosch's Goal Adjustment Scale
measures with a series of items - hard process - you have to make yourself disengage from the goal and it's hard work
Goal definition
mental representation of something you want to do in the future, has an intention (different than wishes)
Csikszentmihalyi - study results: Students who showed commitment to their talent vs those who did not:
microanalysis of NON academic (talent area) - reports of experience - feel challenged? absorbed? focused? - predictive of who would stay with the domain - high accuracy in prediction
the paradox of work and leisure
most famous study - idea = almost all of us wish we had more leisure and less work - research w working adults in Chicago - all wished less work more leisure - the paradox = surprising finding is that adults had more flow experience at work - leisure they longed for actually produced relatively low levels of flow — flow more frequent at work — leisure usually low levels of flow
3) autonomy
needing to feel that one owns and agrees with one's behavior. ** most important
Implementation Study - are the results only true for college students?
no - effect size similar - even w people who have self control problems (executive functioning difficulty) implementation plans even MORE useful
Wayne Gretzky - exception?
no - why so great? - worked so hard from young age and never stopped working at it - quantity of practice and quality of practice compounded benefits - constant feed back and expert advice
why is goal adjustment important
prevent cumulative failures - less depression, better health - holding onto unrealistic goals leads to a real cost (health problems) - cannot re-engage and find new goals until you have disengaged from old ones that preoccupy you
sandwich praise
pro sandwich video - high production value anti sandwich video - low production value - lack of clarity and the contingency is not clear depends on different contexts different kinds of sandwiches - most effective corrective feedback for athletes - begin with EMPATHY - corrective feedback
Fathers, sons & hockey - the Sullivans Is the father-son relationship healthy? Or does the father go overboard?
prof = goals worries him - originally thought father was over involved - changed mind = more aware now how kids become elite performers = parents invest a lot overboard? - no = reasonable thoughtful dad - created facility
How does Dweck's research relate to E&C's theory of deliberate practice?
prof = not sure that innate talent has no influence -- Dweck research shows that we will be better off if we believed Ericsson is correct (regardless if he is right or not) - E = saying that all abilities are malleable - mastery orientation: — positive motivational behaviors will be seen
reinforcement (supporting ability praise)
reinforcement = praise = social reinforcer = increases frequency of behavior = already working hard at math, praise makes them work even harder
What about Sergei Polunin?
russian ballet dancer - generational talent - mom was ballet phonetic - dad = expert gymnast - started training at age 3 = 6 hrs a day - training = not only in dance but in gymnastics as well - worked very hard "many hours" - age 10 = royal ballet - 10 levels in first year *****NOT natural talent: - amount and quality of the training prior to royal ballet was greater than anyone else - also NOTE: felt like he owed a debt to his parents, very respectful - committed to working as hard as possible - didn't want to ruin parents' dreams
Elaine Winner - Premier expert on giftedness in school contradicting E&C theory
school systems set up to identify gifted students - Ericsson: argues he can question any "gifted person" - theory: there are no gifted kids - these programs identify advantaged kids - there are only ADVANTAGED kids = exposed, reinforced, stimulated, encourages, given activities = had developed their talents - upbringing accounts for that
Recent Comments by Ericsson (2007) on genetic factors:
science doesn't really show genes for certain behavioral outcomes - few engage in the type, intensity, and duration of required practice that would achieve the desired adaptation." - "Intense and sustained training activity produces biochemical side products that trigger the activation of dormant genes in the athletes DNA which in turn initiate anatomical changes.."
self-efficacy (supporting ability praise)
self-efficacy = confidence in ability to do specific things, you can be persuaded to increase your self-efficacy if praised, better performance
what do the mediators in multilevel analyses show?
show that all of the above effects for autonomous goal motivation, and its related mediators, were confirmed at both the within person and between person levels. - they work with you combine all goals or compare one goal with another - between or within ppl effects - more A goals = more progress
two examples of praise (good vs bad)
sometimes you like the praise - increase motivation - more energy - more positive sometimes praise makes you feel bad - embarrassed
expertise most common in?
sports (52) music (22) fine arts (15) language arts (11)
sports psychologists overview
sports psychologists are NOT clinical psychologists - mental training consultants: focus on managing thoughts, feelings, and expectations so not overwhelmed when in high stress competitive setting - help you perform up to your usual standards in an important competition - can use these strategies in everyday life - parallels = underperforming in school bc of pressure or stress - ex) underperforming when pressure is higher
Dweck STUDY RESULTS- change their beliefs about ability
start thinking and believing their brains can get bigger and better! - malleable growth incremental mindset about their abilities! - more effort, handle obstacles better - control = downward trend - growth = recovered and improved
Montessori school - IM
stays stable and high - different system
Autonomy support
support framed as empathic, perspective-taking. - less active, almost invisible - might not think of it as support - mostly about being interested and empathic - "how did you decide to pursue this.." - instead of recommending things and tips, talk about the person's own reasons - supportive without directing
time-series graphs from Kubey and Csikzentmihalyi that relate to the argument that we watch TV to relax
three consecutive reports - after u finish watching tv things return back to baseline for challenge and activation - focus on relaxation: — see there's no difference (not more relaxed) — more relaxing than sports BUT leisure (time with friends) results in MORE relaxation — relaxation disappears 2 hours after TV, more anxious — sports = feel very relaxed 2 hours later NO EVIDENCE that we need to watch tv after a long day - not a good form of relaxation if you want something long lasting
The Free Choice Paradigm - results
three dependent variables - most important = (1) free choice time - performance based = (2)quantity and (3) quality reward condition - showed only half as much intrinsic motivation a week later - KEY FINDING performance results - kids w reward condition = drew MORE pictures, high quantity - however quality was poorer - crappy pictures - this is a trade off - rewards in mind = try to produce what will get you reward, sacrifice quality - distort the way you do activity - after effects of being in a reward condition, interest in activity is diminished
Child-Oriented home - why?
time money energy invested, typical for parent to work with kids on their skill development, investment in interest in developing skill
praise (general definition)
to commend the worth of someone's behavior or to express approval or admiration
Evidence of Atypical Brain Organization Among Gifted in Math and Music.
to contradict Ericsson: 1. Non-right-handedness. 2. More bi-lateral brain organization - clear evidence that strong math and music children tend to be not right landed - experiments using FMRI - more bilateral brain organization - clear that neuropsychological testing shows that kids that excel have different brain processes and structures
difficulty delivering rejection (no script)
unfortunately these movies show what to do when rejected - give you a script, we know how to play the role - get a lot of sympathy and support - no good role models for person being pursued - if we are being pursued, we try to let down easy - attributional point of view - give external and unstable explanation - "it's not you, just had a bad break up" - bc of this the pursuer thinks that he/she still has a change - person being pursued should give a different explanation = INTERNAL AND STABLE - direct explanation - no circumstances that would make me change my feelings - it IS you - powerful way to put things - social norm doesn't allow for that - PROF = don't think it would work
Book: Breaking Hearts, Baumeister & Wortman
university years are the best years for unrequited love - pursuer and the pursued - book = surprising twist - the person we should emphasize with is the person being pursued - many of us focus instead on the sad plight of the pursuer - research that suggests that the pursuer, the memories of being one, are bittersweet but mostly positive BUT for those of us being pursued, they're mainly negative (surprising)
what about Wayne Gretzky's chameleon eyes? (ex of physical advantage?)
used a bunch of different tricks - special skates - skated head up - tv monitor these are learned ADAPTATIONS that gave him an advantage
Csikzentmihali study - results
variable = other activities vs. TV - relaxed = 4.8 vs. 5.3 - challenge = 3.8 vs 2.5 - skills = 5.4 vs 3.7 -- relaxation seems to be main excuse and it seems to be truer (higher relaxation during TV) -- when challenge and skills are low = not flow
meta analysis of reward effect on children
verbal rewards = usually increase IM - in real life with teacher = changes - depends on context expected = undermines unexpected = no affect engagement = reward just for doing activity completion = reward for finishing quality = reward for quality non-contingent = reward just for coming to study (not related to anything
what results in improvement - deliberate practice, play or work?
very different in how you develop - deliberate practice = we do when we START activities - play and work = do not help improving do not get better unless you have a goal of improving specific skills - doing things for fun or without goals results in no improvement organized sports - playing a game or performing for $$ - produce a certain level that is expected of you - not thinking of improving (too risky) - competitive games = do not get better - only though DP that we create physiological adaptations and mental representations that help us improve most of us thinking competing will help us get better
Allington study - giving kids books is the key (overview)
very young kids - SES - phenomenon in grade school: summer time = kids from poor backgrounds = lose 3 months of reading level over summer - higher SES = gain a month of reading level - poorer SES = year behind
vicarious learning (unrequited love)
vicarious = have seen other people succeed in UR love (movies, songs, books, stories) = UR love is a powerful part of the plot, persistence and success — we learn that it can work (in fiction) — cannot change another person's romantic feelings — not a matter of dress and talk and image
what is unique about a New Year's Resolution ?
we actually keep track on our own progress - many goals of ours we forget - but NYR we do keep score - usually find that we fail
Underregulation
we haven't established clear standards, not enough self control, haven't monitored - most common about 90% of our goal failures are due to this
Mueller & Dweck - Kids' attributions for their poor performance
what do you attribute your failure to? - ability after failure = helpless pattern - praise kids in terms of success and ability - attribute to failure to LACK of ability - explain performance in term of ability - ability is stable internal factor that isn't going to change - changed their mind, i did well before but now i lack the ability better to attribute failure to EFFORT - can raise effort - not ability
self-determination theory
why we set goals and why they do or don't succeed - theory with solid empirical support - most people find resonates in everyday life - basics of theory and how it applies to goals setting and contributes something unique - motivation focused on differently (not just the amount) but specific KINDS of motivation - most important distinction: —— volition based vs. pressured/controlled based motivation —— have to ask about WHY ppl set and pursue the goal - second aspect: —— talks about what we need in everyday life to be happy and grow and experience a sense of meaning
