IGCSE Sociology Unit 1

Strengths of case studies

-allow different aspects of case to be explored -deep and detailed -if carefully chosen they allow us to draw wider conclusions -can produce findings to be tested by other research elsewhere

Strengths of triangulation

-allow qualitative date to be supported by quantiative data -can use to check validity -can use to check reliability w different sources -can help cross reference researchers interpretations to other data -balance between weaker and stronger methods

Ethical issues in research

-causing harm to participant -informed consent -invasion of privacy -deception

strengths of self completion questionnaires

-cheaper than structured interviews -large numbers can be posted to participants who are far -researcher presence wont affect answers -convenient, can be completed whenever

limitations of longitudinal survey

-considerable commitment of time and research over a long period -inevitable drop out (ppl may die, move away etc) -taking part in this research may make person think more about aspects of life and make them act differently

strengths of interviews

-detailed and valid data -flexible -can assess honesty of statements -can bring out info for further investigation

Common sampling frames

-electoral roll -telephone directories -school registers

Field experiments

-ethical problems -people may be harmed by strange and new situations -can lose a large degree of control over what happens -effective way of getting inside group behaviour

Strengths of historical docs

-high in validity -first hand accounts -descriptive detail and insight

Strengths of participant observation

-high in validity -possible to obtain deep understanding of the group

Factors in deiciding research topics

-interests -new developments in society -funding -if it is practical -ethical issues

limitations of structured interviews

-interviewer may influence answers -take time -several interviewers may approach the task differently -participants may give socially acceptable answers instead of honest ones

strengths of structured interviews

-interviewers can explain -interviewers can probe further -high response rate -interviewer can get valid answers by establishing a good relationship w them

limitations of self completion questionnaires

-low response rate -questions may be misunderstood -can't be sure who answered questions -questions often left unanswered

rules for good interviews

-make interviewee feel comfortable -certain amount of order -language used is understandable and relevant -dont make assumptions -quiet and private setting -fact sheet record to contextualise answers -good recording machine

Limitations of participant observation

-presence of observer may affect behaviour of group -reliability is low bc difficult to replicate -unlikely that generalisations can be made -problems associated w gaining access to group and leaving (+ recording material and gaining trust) -lot of time and energy -researchers may lose objectivity when they become personally involved and identify w the group -may have to do bad shit to fit in

Limitations of content analysis

-quantiative data only so doesnt tell us about attitudes -difficult to decide categories -difficult to allocate material to categories accurately

Strengths of official stats

-readily available free of charge -well planned and organised, likely to be valid, reliable, representative -part of longitudinal studies to show changes w time -allow comparisons to be made

Strengths of content analysis

-reliable -no ethical issues because no people involved -info about media in statistical form can be used to test theories and change media content

ways of improving response rate

-sending a stamped, addressed envelope -explain the research in some detail in a letter. -make questionnaire short and easy -follow up when no response -clear instructions and relevant questions -use people's names to make them feel personally involved -incentives

improving questionnaire design

-short w clear layout -easy instructions -start w short questions w simple answers -ample alternative answers -no indication of a right answer -should be abt stuff respondent knows about -avoid words that are difficilt to understand eg sociological terms

strengths of longitudinal survey

-shows us how lives change over time -show what factors bring changes in people's lives over time -valid data because respondents are personally committed to the research

limitations of stats

-socially constructed, not always objective facts -not always complete and accurate -unlikely to contain exactly what a sociologist would want to know -politics may affect stats, may be biased -comparisons only possible if the accuracy in measuring info has remained the same way at every stage -stats often are biased to reflect interests of ruling class according to marxists

limitations of interviews

-time consuming -difficult to make generalisations -difficult to replicate so less reliable -interviewers should be skilled -interviewer bias -interviewer effect

Limitations of triangulation

-time consuming and expensive -researcher should be skilled w diff methods -difficult to combine positivist and interpretivist methods

Limitations of historical docs

-unrepresentative -need to be fact checked -may be biased

Trend

A change over time in a particular direction

Case study

A detailed in depth study of one group or event

Focus group

A group brought together to be interviewed on a particular topic (the focus)

Sampling frame

A list of members of the same population from which the sample is chosen.

Pilot study

A small scale test of a piece of a research project before the main research is started.

Questionnaires

A standardised list of questions in social surveys

Longitudinal survey

A survey taking place at intervals over a long period

Hypothesis

A theory or explanation at the start of research that research is designed to test.

Historical documents

A wide range of documents from the past used as sources of information by sociologists

Objectivity

Absence of bias

Survey population

All those to whom the findings of a study apply and from whicj the sample is chosen.

Structuralism

An approach focusing on large scale social structures in which people play defined roles.

Positivism

An approach to sociology favouring scientific research methods.

Structured interview

An interview in which the questions are standardised and the replies codified to produce quanitative data

Semi-structured interview

An interview with some standardised questions but allowing the researcher some flexibility on what is asked in what order.

Unstructured interview

An interview without set questions that usually involves probing into emotions and attitudes, leading to qualitative data.

Content analysis

An method of studying media and classifying content and counting frequencies

Group interview

Any interview involving a group interviewed together

Interpretivism

Approaches that start at the level of the individual, small scale phenomena, qualitative methods

Laboratory experiments

Artifical setting for the research where external variables are excluded wherever possible.

Consensus

Basic agreement on a set of shared values + shared beliefs and practices, resulting in a stable society.

Quota sampling

Deciding in advance how many people with what characteristics to involve in the research and then identifying them

Conflict

Disagreement between different groups with different values and interests, an unstable society.

Field experiments

Experiments that take place in the natural setting of the real world rather than in a laboratory

Identity

How a person sees themselves and how others see them.

Primary data

Information collected by the sociologist firsthand

Secondary data

Information collected earlier by others and later used in research

Quantiative data

Information that can be expressed in statistical or numerical form

Qualitative data

Information that cannot be presented in numerical form eg attitudes or kinds of actions.

Interviewer bias

Intentional or unintentional effect of the way that the interviewer asks questions or interprets answers

Ethical issues

Issues that have a moral dimension eg causing harm to participants.

Comparative study

Looking at two or more different groups or events in terms of similarities and differences in research

Official and non official statistics

Official statistics are produced by the government and official agencies, non official statistics are produced by other organisations like charities and think tanks

Bias

Prejudice that distorts fhe truth when research is influenced by researcher's personal values.

Response rate

Proportion of responses received from a sample

Self completion questionnaires

Questionnaires completed by the respondent on their own w out researcher present.

Closed/open questions

Researcher gives a set of answers to each question respondent must pick from them/respondent can reply freely in their own words.

Postal questionnaires

Self completion questionnaires mailed by post to be mailed back

Representativeness

The degree to which research findings about one group apply to a larger or similar group

Sampling methods

The different ways in which samples can be created.

Covert participant observation

The group being studied is unaware of the research and is deceived into thinking the researcher is a member of the group

Social surveys

The systematic collection of information from a sample, usually involving a questionnaire or structured interviews.

Hawthorne or Observer effect

The unintended effects of the researchers presence on the behavioir or responses of participants.

Triangulation

Use of two or more methods in same research project

Perspectives

Ways of viewing social life.

Random sampling

When each person has an equal chance of being selected.

Snowball sampling

When one respondent puts the research in contact with others.

Validity

When research accurately reflects the reality it intended to capture

Reliability

When research can be repeated and a similar response is obtained

Generalisability

When the findings about a sample can be said to apply to a larger group of people sharing those characteristics.

Overt participant observation

When the group being studied is aware that research is taking place and they know who the researcher is

Non participant observation

When the researcher observes a group but does not participate in what they're doing

Telephone questionnaire

When the researcher reads out questions to the respondent over phone and the answers are recorded.

Stratified sampling

When the sampling age is divided eg by gender/race

Subjectivity

lack of objectivity, researcher's views influence the approach

Macro/micro

large scale, whole societies/small scale social interactions.

Interviewer effect

ways in which interviewer influences answers thru characteristics or appearance