India after Independence 1

There were some positive features of colonial rule as well

Communication means were well developed. Indian capitalist class also grew after 1914 and by end of Second World War, more than 60% of industry was driven by Indian capital. Indian capitalist class was more enterprising and took bold steps after 1914. Similarly, Indian capital had also made significant inroads in banking and insurance sector.

Pursuance of independent foreign policy and an ability to raise her voice in international for a was also a challenge for India

Concrete shape to such ideas was given in form of 'Non-Aligned Movement', principled distance from world superpowers and non-involvement in Cold War. It doesn't meant indifference to others, but avoidance of only the unreasonable. It never came in way of strengthening our relations with the USSR and nor did it came in way of India's joining of Commonwealth. Niether it meant utopian pacifism as India used force when it realized that it is necessary to do so as in case of 1947, 1965 and 1971 wars. India also remained active member of the international bodies like UN, IMF, World Bank etc and sent its forces actively in international peacekeeping operations

This subservient and disadvantaged position led to extremely poor domestic savings - less than 3% of GNP, as compared to 33% today

Even this chunk of savings was misappropriated by the colonial rulers in form of economic drain, military and administrative spending. From 1890 to 1947, military spending amounted 50% of total government budget.

Nehru did vigrous campaigning in which he laid stress on voter education and awareness.

In some places polls were celeberated like festivals and less than 5% votes were invalid which showed that people had used their rights judiciously. More than 40% of eligible women voted which showed their active participation as well. In total, 46% used their voting rights. Congress swept elections with more than 75% seats in Lok Sabha and 68% in states forming government in all of them, but still getting less than 50% voteshare

Neveille Maxwell, a Times correspondent, in a series of articles wrote that Indian democracy will disintegrate

'under the burden of caste, communalism, regionalism, economic disparities, linguistic jingoism and other economic challenges' It was advocated that unlettered masses of India require a leadership with iron fist and not liberal democracy which they are likely to squander away. Extreme leftists argued that Green Revolution would be turned into Red revolution and India too needs like a Russian Revolution of 1917 and workers revolution of China of 1952-3

Three pillars of Nehruvian strategy of development strategy were

1) planning for rapid industrial and agricultural growth 2) a public sector to develop strategic industries 3) a mixed economy

It was argued that democracy and integration of India are imposed from above and not a result of natural evolutionary process.

An immature citizenry will fail to appreciate this change and will be eventually disillusioned by failing mountain of expectations. Despite all this skepticism, democracy in India had started deepening its roots aided by a stable early period in Indian polity. Early charismatic popular leaders and their accommodative stance helped in allaying many of the fears of various groups.

Even before independence, 'Asia Relations Conference' was held in Delhi in March 1947 attended by 20 nations whch set tone for independence of Asian countries

Another one was called in 1948 against Dutch (Netherlands or Holland) aggression in Indonesia in an attempt to recolonize it and it resolved that Asian countries will deny shores to Dutch ships

Moneylenders, landlords and middlemen made the situation worse and they too find exploitation of sharecroppers, tenants and laborers easier than investing in agriculture

At the time of independence, 70% land was with landlords and landlessness was at historic high level of 28% Land holdings had fragmented to uneconomical sizes.

First five IITs were opened on lines of MIT, USA starting with establishement of IIT Kharagpur in 1952.

Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1948 with Homi Jehangir Bhabha as its chairman for development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. First nuclear reactor also went critical in 1956 in Trombay. Similarly, in field of space TERLS was established in 1962. However, Indian scientific endeavor also suffered due to hierarchical structure, brain drain and high entry barriers.

National movement also projected an image of strong and self-reliant India and an antipathy to economic imperialism

Both agriculture and industry were accorded high priority. 1931 Karachi Resolution on 'Fundamental Rights and Economic Program' was presided over by Sardar Patel and drafted by Nehru echoed state participation in major field of economic self-reliance. Gandhiji primarily supported cottage industry, but said that he is not opposed to machines which are for the larger benefit of community and doesn't replace human labor. Agrarian reforms were identified as key focus area.

Holding election and strengthening of democracy on the basis of universal adult franchise was one of the biggest challenges for such a huge illetrate people.

First general elections were held in 1951-52 and those above 21 years were eligible for vote. Symbols were used for easy identification of candidates. Opposition parties were liberally allowed including Jan Sangh - political front of RSS which was banned just 3 years ago - and CPI which was involve in insurgency just some times back

By 1947, almost 50% bureaucrats were Indians, but top positions were still manned by nonIndians.

Further, bureaucracy was replete with elite class and caste and posed a major challenge in desired social change after independence with its rigid and conservative outlook. Though ICS officers were largely upright, lower level officials were notoriously corrupt and corruption reached great heights during Second World War as government tried to increase control and taxes. It led to massive black-marketing and corruption.

Hallmark of backwardness of Indian industry was virtual absence of capital goods and machinery industry and equipment were largely imported.

Further, industrial development was highly uneven in spread. Modern industry contributed a meager 8% of national income at the time of independence. Similarly, electricity and banking was also grossly ignored.

Towards upliftment of women

Hindu Code Bill was passed in parliament in form of four separate acts and provided for - right to property and maintenance, raised age of marriage and consent, abolished polygamy and gave them right to divorce. However, similar reforms were not introduced in case of Muslim women and neither uniform civil code was introduced.

According to Neveille Maxwell, 'The great experiment of developing India in a democratic framework has failed' and fourth general elections will be the last one.

Imposition of emergency further made this doomsday prophecy look more like a reality. Early wars with China and Pakistan, death of charismatic leaders like Nehru and Indira, communal flares, linguistic violence and Dravida movement, secessionist movements in Kashmir, North-eastern states, rise of left wing extremism, apparent failure of land reforms, agrarian distress, elite capture of politics, uncontrolled population and so on further posed an existential question

Tax structure was highly iniquitous, as peasantry was heavily taxed and upper class like bureaucrats, landlords hardly paid any tax

In 1900, land revenue alone contributed more than 50% of government revenues and salt tax another 16%. As a result, poor investment and lack of modernization of agriculture lead to poor produce and stagnation Prime agricultural land was diverted to commercial crops leading to problems of food security as well.

Mixed economy was preferred earlier for lack of adequate resources, but private sector working under broad framework of planning.

In the long run, state were to occupy commanding heights of the economy, owning and controlling all basic industries and strategic sectors of the economy. Public sector was also expected to generate revenues in long turn for government.

Another big achievement of India was a democratic polity based on universal adult franchise

In words of K M Panikkar, 'adult suffrage has many social implications far beyond its political significance. Many social groups previously unaware of their strength and barely touched by the political changes that had taken place, suddenly realized that they were in a position to wield power'. It was a huge experiment and likes of Churchill predicted that it would fail

Institution building was also a challenge.

Independence of courts and press was carefully nurtured. Parliament as institution was also paid full respect by the early leaders and it was used as a platform of debates and discussion to the fullest. Nehru and others responded positively to opposition criticism and suggestions. Army was also insulated from civil adminsitration and politics. Its size was kept under limits and steps were taken to re-inforce secular nature.

Perhaps biggest of all challenges was in field of social change

India had tacitly declared its socialistic agenda through initiation of land reforms, labor laws, progressive taxation, expansion of education and health, planned economc development and rapid expansion of public sector. Untouchability was abolished in constitution and a commissioner for SCs and STs was established

At international level

India needed to project itself as a nation with independent foreign policy in wake of ensuing Cold War.

Colonialism and capitalism led to a complex integration of colonies into world economy in a subservient manner.

Indian raw material was cheaply exported and finished goods were expensively imported which also destroyed domestic industries, handicrafts and handlooms. Ruined artisans failed to find alternative employment and crowded agriculture as sharecroppers and laborers.

National movement promoted dual objective of 'unity in diversity' and 'national integration' and hence promoted a 'composite national culture'.

It and other organizations were marked by their all-Indianess and call for a unified nation. There was an acknowledgement of common goal and diverse group always supported each other in time of crisis. Public Safety Bill of 1928 and Trade Disputes Bill (to suppress trade unions and leftists) were unequivocally opposed by not only political leaders, but even by capitalists such as Ghanshyam Das Birla and Purushottamdas Thakurdas etc

However it was gross failure on its objective of local involvement and instead it raised expectations and governemnt reliance

It became highly bureaucratic and BDOs became center piece of it. Major gains were usurped by the rural elites and powerless landless got little benefit out of it. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was appointed to evaluate it and it recommended establishment of a Panchayati Raj framework for decentralisation of developmental administration which happened in form of a 3-tier structure in various states. However, like CDP, it too proved dead duck with states showing little enthusiasm and bureacratic showing little willingness to loosen its grip over rural administration

India finally zeroed in on a federal government with a strong center

It had a peculiar Indian context in which the decision was taken. India had borne the scourge of partition and there were many cleavages in form of communalism, caste, regionalism etc which could be overcome only by a strong central leadership. There was also a strong need to give India a shape of single nation through emotional, social and political integration and a center leaning federation was a necessity rather than a desire.

Another landmark event was 'Bandung Afro Asian Conference', 1955 held in Indonesia

It passed a resolution for world peace and dangers of nuclear weapons and it proved a precursor to 'Belgrade Non-Alignment Conference', 1961 under leadership of Nehru, Naseer of Egypt and Tito of Yugoslavia.

Congress when founded in 1885, as organized on democratic lines

It vouched for liberty of press and individual freedom and called for wider parliamentary reforms. Tilak proclaimed 'liberty of the press and liberty of speech give birth to a nation and nourish it'. It had an accommodative approach and dissent was encouraged and listened to. Moderates defended extremist Tilak's right to speech and expression and similarly, nonviolent congress persons lent extensive support to Bhagat Singh.

Democratization aimed that all challenges will be dealt with equal participation of all irrespective of one's status and capabilities. I

It was also realized that democracy was necessary in a country which aims at national integration. Democracy served on the one hand an empowering tool, a vent for dissent and dissatisfaction on the other. Democracy was also visualized as a tool of social change.

Stance of non-alignement also helped in ensuring economic interests of India and it got help from both Western countries and Soviet union.

Its military procurement net was also cast widely which shows its balanced approach, reduced excessive dependency on one country and better bargaining. It got Hunter and Canberra aircrafts from UK, MI-4 Helicopters and MIG interceptors from Soviet, Toofani aircrafts from France, Jonga jeeps and Nissan trucks from Japan and so on. On one hand through various agreements in 1964-65 Soviet Union became the biggest defense partner, on the other hand, it made US a key ally in bringing Green Revolution.

Ideas of civil liberties, democratic organization and tolerance were inculcated during national movement.

Masses had already starting appreciating ideals of liberty and democracy as a result of mass involvement, active debate and, hence, were ready to utilize adult franchise soon after independence.

But later he also preached separation of two in wake of rising communalization of Indian society.

Movement however failed to reflect a strong anti-caste ideology and also couldn't avert partition and communalization of Indian society

Decision was to continuance of civil services especially Indian Civil Services (ICS).

Nehru was a critic of civil services for their colonial legacy and conservatism. According to him, ICS was 'neither Indian, neither civil nor a service'. While Nehru wanted to replace ICS with another type of administrative machinary which could better respond to needs of new India, Patel felt the doing so will create a great void and discontunity dangerous to unity of country.

Another challenge was developing the field of science and technology

Nehru was well aware of the role of science and technology in alleviating poverty and backwardness. He himself assumed chairmanship of Indian Council of Scientific Research (ICSR) which guided and financed national laboratories and scientific institutions and opened first national laboratory - National Physical Laboratory - in 1947 itself.

Just a few months before his death, Thakur Rabindranath wrote in 1941

The wheels of fate will someday compel the English to give up their empire. But what kind of India will they leave behind, what stark misery? When the stream of their centuries' administration run dry at last, what a waste of mud and filth will they leave behind them'

Constitutional reforms were started after 1857, though real power vested with colonial powers.

Only 3% of Indians were able to vote by 1919 and just 15% by 1939. British also led administrative unification of India and through a uniform educational, judicial and civil structure they achieved union of India. But paradoxically, they simultaneously also pursued their divide and rule policy as well which culminated into participation and communalization of Indian society.

It is said that it heralded one party domination in India.

Opposition was small, but many leaders were of high caliber Communists were second largest single party in Lok Sabha. Further, independents and local regional parties garnered almost 27% of voteshare and 71 seats. First democratically formed communist government was formed in Kerala in 1957. It was however dismissed in 1959 by Nehru which is still criticised.

India also aimed at self-sufficiency in economic field and hence truly dislodge the burden of dependency

Planned development was sought for social and economic justice apart from growth.

Indian socialism was not an ideological dogma, but a broad guide to development and social change

Socialism was also set as a guiding light. According to Nehru 'Socialism or communism might help you to divide the existing wealth, but in case of India there is no wealth and all you can divide is poverty... How we can have a welfare state without wealth'. So socialism was not a blind ideological goal, but it rather accommodated a lot of other ideas which were necessary for the development of India

Modern industries that were developed were guided colonial interest and they were also stunted in their growth.

They couldn't even replace the erstwhile homegrown cottage industries, handlooms and handicrafts. Before 1900, cotton, jute and tea dominated and before 1930s, cement, sugar and paper dominated

According to Patel, it was because of their hard work and patriotism that India could be united.

They were renamed as Indian Administrative Services, but it is also blamed that we failed to build their character suitable to our needs. It is said that administration has actually deteriorated over the years due to corruption, feudalistic mindset, political nexus, inaccessibilty and so on

Biggest task at hand was consolidation of India and realization of dream of true 'nationhood'

Unity of our nation was fragile and needed to be bolstered up amidst its legendry diversity of race, religion, caste, region and culture. Vision of secular India and idea of not only political freedom, but social and economic emancipation were the spirit behind.

Another big challenge was meeting the expectations of people who had infinite hopes from a government of 'their own'.

Universal adult franchise, lofty promises like 'Garibi Hatao' of Indira Gandhi in 1971 and grass root mobilization further fuelled these expectations. Rise of regional parties in 1960s further stoked the fire of expectations.

India, thus, emerged as a 'union' of states in which states had no right to secede

Unlike federation in which, states are brought together through an 'agreement' out of their own will, union made it clear that their existence is merely for administrative convenience.

Life expectancy was hardly 30 years.

health facilities were also poor and there were just 10 medical colleges by 1947 and epidemics were a regular phenomenon.

State support to industries was zero in contrast to most of the European countries at that time.

While free trade was established with India no tariff protection was given to fledgling Indian industry which was done aggressively at home. Similarly, currency policy was manipulated in colonial favor

Early challenges were

administrative and physical integration of nation communal harmony rehabilitation of refugees migrated from Pakistan communist insurgency social challenges like poverty, inequality, casteism economic challenges like poor industrial base, low per capita income and investment, backward agriculture political challenges like building of a participative representative democracy

One of the effects of five year plans was that private enterprises were hamstrung by the government regulations

allowing public sector companies a free hand. Later, the same public sector which was thought of giving commanding heights to economy proved an inefficient juggernaut

Removal of poverty was also accorded next priority to uprooting of colonialism

along with goal of equality irrespective of caste, religion and gender. Karachi Session declared that 'every citizen shall enjoy freedom of conscience and the right to freely process and practice his religion'. Indians never criticized the British on religious lines, they criticized their oppression. Secularism never conflicted with religion and Gandhiji believed, politics and religion are not opposite to each other as politics is to be based on morality and all religion are source of morality.

States were allowed to work independently in spirit of federalism

and Nehru never coerced them even if there was disagreement over issues like land reforms which were close to his heart. Congress rule at both center and states helped in smoothening this process.

Better means of communication like railways were used not for development of hinterlands

but to make inroads for exports of rural goods. Railway freights rates were discriminatory and discouraged internal movement of goods and promoted external trade. India suffered many famines despite good connectivity. Last major famine was Bengal famine of 1943 which took toll of more than 30 lakh lives

India derived its political and economic structure largely from colonial rule

but values and ideals were distinctively derived from national movement and they still serve as political and ethical benchmarks for vast population. Indian national movement was an inclusive one accommodating wide ideological viewpoints. Included not only the elite leadership, but masses also.

India inherited enormous challenges like poverty, deprivation, inequality, illiteracy, underdevelopment, communalism

however, the optimist was also no lesser. Jawahar Lal Nehru's famous speech 'Tryst with Destiny' on the eve of Independence reflected it. One big advantage India had was a consensus on the goals which was a result of spirit of nationalism inculcated through long freedom struggle. Another one was a relatively stable political system.

Colonial rule also established modern principle of 'rule of law'

judiciary was also relatively independent despite the fact that judicial system was expensive and detrimental to the poor. Further, for a long time judicial and administrative functions were not separated and bureaucracy wielded enormous power. Several liberties were also extended and press was also modernized.

It was agreed that developing countries cannot afford to waste precious resources in rivalaries and hence India neiwther joined nor approved regional west supported blocs

like Baghdad Pact, SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization), CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) and so on. Western thinkers tried to malign Indian approach by caling it as 'immoral neutraliity', however it was rebuffed by India by stressing that non-alignment meant deciding issues on their merit, shunning of colonialism and fascism, believing in their own strengths, world peace, disarmament and democratization of international relations. India supported the cause of colonies and development of newly independent countries

Certain negative trends also started like

squabble for tickets, vote bank politics, shifting of loyalities. However, after the successful conduct of first three elections, it became apparent that democracy in India has taken deep roots and it defied the expectation of nay sayers. Constitutional framework was now accepted by one and all including communists and communalists.

Education was also underdeveloped

technical education was even worse with only 7 engineering colleges at the time of independence. Medium of higher education was English throughout the country. It stifled development of local languages and created a gulf between educated intelligentsia minority and unlettered masses creating a social divide. Learning by rote was promoted at the expense of rational inquiry. Mass education and girls' education were grossly neglected.

Rural upliftment was another big challenge

two major programs were launched in form of Community Developemnt Program (CDP), 1952 and Panchayati Raj, 1959. CDP was launched in 55 blocks of 100 villages each and aimed at addressing all aspects of rural life like agriculture, health, education and infrastructure with the help of local community. It aimed at self-reliance, building capacity and leadership at rural level and augmenting durable rural assets and institutions. It was also accompanied by National Extension Services and achieved success in major extensoin work - better seeds, fertilizers, etc. It also led to building of basic infrastructure in form of roads, tanks, primary health setups etc.

Towards peaceful coexistance, Nehru also devised 'Panchsheel' doctrine influenced from Buddhism

which called for mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity non-aggression non-interference in each other's internal affairs equality and mutual benefit peaceful coexistance

Another hallmark of backwardness was high proportion of rural population

which stood at more than 80% at the time of independence. Dependency on agriculture increased from 67% in 1901 to more than 70% in 1947.

Spirit of nationalism was not a result of colonial policies, but result of ardent work of nationalist leaders

who took the idea of nation to every corner of India and help them identify their interests against colonial rulers. Idea of a nation was present even before colonial rule as the notions of 'Bharat Varsha' and 'Hindustan' show which were in currency much earlier. Colonial consolidation only complemented the process which was already going on. Colonial rulers, in fact, tried to misguide Indians by saying that democracy is not fit for them.

Gandhiji had foreseen the challenges that are ahead and commented that

with the end of slavery and the dawn of freedom, all the weakness of the society are bound to come to the surface In social scene, caste was a big malady and condition of lower castes was still deplorable Status of women was also no better, they had little inheritance rights Literacy was an abysmal 7.9%. There was also a lack of a civil code and polygamy was prevalent.