INR 3932 Total War Midterm

Italy in, Serbia out (kind of)

-Serbia knocked out of war, effectively neutralized: Germany, A-H, and Bulgaria team up against Serbia (Serbs retreat messily) -Italy declared neutrality in the beginning by May of 1915 they decided to join the war, sided with entente powers, not a major contributor at this point

Reinsurance treaty 1887

-Germany and Russia -different from other treaties which said if you get into a war, we won't fight against you; this one said if you are attacked, we will stay neutral but we make no promises if you start the war -defensive treaty but doesn't go as far -keep an eye on each other but bound together -had a 3 year life and needed to be renegotiated in 1890: when Willy comes to power he wanted a strong Germany and let this expire

Dual alliance 1879 and then Triple alliance 1882

-Germany reaches out to Austria in 1879 for dual alliance that lasts through WWI -added Italy in 1882: problem b/c bad blood between Italy and Austria

Gunboat diplomacy

-Gunboat named the Panther -Germans said they were preserving German economic interest -eventually becomes an issue between GB and Germany -Germany building up military and sending a gunboat to force their way on another power, GB saw this as a threat

GB commander-in-chief BEF

-Haig

Who is to blame?

-Serbia for assassinating the archduke? -Austria b/c they wanted war and made the first declaration of war? -Russia for fully mobilizing first? -Germans for enacting Schlieffen plan which brought GB in? -a lot of powers and a lot is happening -blame can fall to alliances and war plans (especially Schlieffen plan) for making this war big overnight

Austria, Serbia, and the Ottomans

-Russia takes a sizable amount of Austrian territory, routed 4 Austrian armies -would think the Austrians would make quick work of Serbia but not the case: about 47% of Austrian empire was slavic and then 2/3 of military Austrian recruiting regions were slavic (issue when you are fighting Serbia and Russia, who are slavs too) -Oct 1914 Ottoman Empire joins forces with Germany: possible b/c of Baghdad railway

From Anglo-Russian Entente to Triple Entente 1907

-Russian defeat in Russo-Japanese war showed that Russia wasn't the threat they used to be, paved way for the 3 to come together -1907 Anglo-Russian Entente -same year triple entente forms: set for WWI

Battle of Tannenburg (Aug) and Masurian Lakes (Sep)

-Aug 19th Russians marching nonstop to reach East Prussia, surprised Germany by getting there so quick but they were exhausted from marching on foot -Aug 24th: Battle of Tannenburg; Samsanov commanded the second Russian army. German troops got here fast b/c of railways. Germans completely surrounded them and Russia lost the whole army, Samsanov committed suicide b/c is was dishonorable to lost army -Russians expected Rennenkampf to go to Samsanov's aid but there was bad blood there -this was the greatest encirclement of WWI -Sep the Germans turn to Rennenkampf: slower to mobilize and the Russians are quickly defeated, Russians couldn't match Germans on the battlefield

Franco-Prussian War 1870-71

-3rd of German unification wars, about 6 months long (started in July) -limited objectives: Prussia wanted to capture Paris quickly -modern use of warfare and new developments: mass mobilization (used railways) -Prussia was the only power that maintained a conscription of able bodied males so they had a larger army than France -Prussia had more effective communication -weaponry is on par with one another -Spanish monarch died, asked prince Leopold of the Hohenzollern family (the ruling family of Prussia) to be new monarch: France didn't want this, didn't want the same family on both sides of them so a French minister goes to Ems to talk to Wilhelm I: Leopold has already said no but France wants Wilhelm to agree that Prussia will never consider the idea of a Hohenzollern in Spain but he says no -Wilhelm sends Ems dispatch to OVB telling him what happened but OVB realized he could make French mad, tweaks the dispatch so it sounds like French were threatening Prussians and published it; this enraged the French which is what OVB wanted -French declare war on Prussia: French leader misled to believe they could easily defeat the Prussians -6 month war, Prussians won -French barricade themselves in Paris: Prussians initially didn't want to go after civilians but then made the decision to turn artillery onto city after a standoff -French citizens decide to withstand the siege -French Air Balloon 1970 Siege of Paris -resulted in the unification of Germany: French humiliated that unification was proclaimed in Versailles and Alsace Lorraine taken away

Anatomy of trench warfare

-4 to 8 feet deep (dig in as far as they could and put down sandbags), when it rained, they filled with water -had barbed wire on top which keeps enemies from crossing into your trenches -started with no man's land, then barbed wire, front line trench (sparsely manned, more for observation), machine gun house, support trench (had the most men), reserve trench in the back (ready to fill in support trench), long range artillery in back -distance from first to third trench is 200-500 yards -about 100-300 yards between enemy trenches -trenches were connected -tanks were invented with trenches in mind

Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H)

-Austria annexes B&H in 1908 which makes Serbia made b.c a lot of Serbs in B&H, ethnic connection -Serbia felt B&H should be under Serbian rule b/c they are south slavs -Russia offers to support Serbia, see themselves as protector of the slavs; Russia doesn't have military or diplomatic might to make this happen -Germans support Austria: help negotiate with other powers to make sure annexation happened, strengthens alliance Results: Serbians mad enough to want war but knew they weren't capable (needed to build up military; calls for war with Serbia intensifying in Austria (saw this as an ideal time to attack, before they build up military)

Mobilization

-Austria mobilizes before they deliver the ultimatum b/c they know Serbia won't meet the terms -Russia partially mobilized after Serbia gets the ultimatum (positioning 4 armies on border with Austria), didn't start mobilizing against Germany -July 28th, Austria declares war on Serbia and the next day they begin shelling Belgrade (capital of Serbia) -Russia orders full mobilization on 29th, get telegram from Willy urging them to back off so the czar calls if off the same day but then on July 30th, it is back on, Russian mobilization means the clock is ticking for Germany -Germany declared war on Russia August 1st and begins mobilizing: France not obligated to get involved until Russia is attacked but they begin mobilizing once war is declared on Russia -GB isn't obligated to come to anyone's aid except low countries (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg)

Germany's blank check

-Austrian prime minister sent a letter to Germany seeking German support for a war, specifically if Russia got involved -Austria didn't tell Germany that they planned on initiating a war -Willy's advisor was Moltke who was in favor of war and advised Willy to support Austria (knew what was coming) -Germany was concerned about Austria b/c they didn't want to be left alone -Blank check shows they were quick to support Austria: maybe concerned that Austria could weaken further and leave Germany alone surrounded by enemies; maybe hoped a display of force would eliminate the threat of Serbia (and with that the key threat to Austria would be gone quickly) -Moltke knew that a war with Serbia would mean a war with Russia and he wanted to fight Russia while it was still relatively weak, pushed for preventative war against Russia -Willy thought this would remain localized, just another Balkans War, he didn't think the Austrians would go to war; didn't expect Russia to get involved b/c it stopped short of military action in the occupation of B&H and Serbia being blocked -Willy sends a telegram of support to Austria and then goes on a 3 week trip

Meeting with France and Italy 1858

-Cavour looking at going to war with Austria and wanted France's help -France wanted Nice and Savoy, so Cavour says if you help us we will give them to you -formalized in a deal in Jan 1859

French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic wars

-France is apex of change, where Enlightenment took hold -revolution began in 1789 and wars started in 1790s -nationalism fired people up -Napoleonic wars saw a mass mobilization of citizen armies

First Moroccan Crisis 1905

-French Jan 1905 made a move to establish control over Morocco with GB approval -a lot of powers had interest in Morocco, Germany interested -Willy saw this as an opportunity to drive a wedge between GB and France: travels to Tangier (tip of Morocco), made it known Germany supported an open door policy in Morocco (no country has exclusive rights) -French protested this so Germans call a conference of European powers to decide what do to about Morocco -Algeciras conference 1906 -France gets their way and Germany looks a little weak by this

Battle of the Marne Sep 6

-French counterattack, GB helps though -when French retreated, they needed more men to stage this counterattack so 400 taxi cabs packed with 5 men each got 6,000 men to the battlefront -race to the sea: Anglo-French forces flank German forces all the way to the English Channel where they can't go any further so they have to dig trenches -no general had trenches as part of their war plan going into this, trenches are the result of the industrial revolution and increased capacity to kill -static war -stuck here until 1918 -scholars see this as where Germany was defeated even though the war went on, Germany needed to win a short war: German resources were finite -Schlieffen plan might have succeeded if it was a short war

Entente powers of WWI

-GB -Russia -France -Portugal -Italy

The Dreadnought

-GB built new battleship that would outclass previous battleships -1906 the HMS Dreadnought put to sea -took 14 years to make (1 year of ship building) -a bigger and faster battleship than any others -had ten 12" guns (other ships had 4), 5.5 mile range -thicker armor -GB did this as Germans were just beginning to build their navy so the Germans build Dreadnought class ships, leveling the playing field, GB quickly outclassed

Verdun Feb-Sep 1916

-Germans attack Verdun, NE France -Why Verdun?: bulge in western front, if they broke through Verdun they had a largely unimpeded path to Paris, had a significant history for France -designed by Germans as a battle of attrition (didn't think they could defeat France in a couple of days), Germans had a massive build up for months before Verdun -known for artillery: poster battle for saturation bombardment (used chlorine gas), effected French morale -aircraft: first time using aircrafts in a broad capacity, early WWI they were used for recon -cameras gave the ability to see what they couldn't o land, increased capacity to kill meant no more scouts -pilots hold bombs and drop them -used machine guns mounted but the propeller got in the way, so a Dutch man developed a way so it shot between propeller -zeppelin used for bombing -Falkenhayn conducted this battle -began with massive artillery bombardment (over 2 million shells fired over 8 hours over 8 miles) destroyed French lines, bombed bridges -Germans have decisive advantage in the air in the beginning: French respond -Lafayette Escadrille: US volunteer forces assisting the French -Germans push French back 5 miles (significant push with trenches that usually have no movement) -do French stand for Verdun: many generals wanted to abandoned Verdun but politicians felt differently (it had political and historic significance), too much of a blow to morale to give up Verdun -Petain is French commander at Verdun: arranged an advanced supply line (Sacred road, had trucks bringing supplies), began rotating men so they could get some relief -Russians launch promised campaign so Germans have to pull men off Verdun

1915 focus on eastern front

-Germans make a big push into Russia, don't want to go too far into Russia (want to be able to supply troops) -first artillery saturation bombardment -planes being used for recon and then aerial attacks -300 mile push into Russian territory -by end of 1915 Russia had 2 million casualties (underscores Russia's lack of preparation, couldn't equip 6 million, at best could equip 4 million -became obvious that Russia needed help by allies: entente powers were looking for a way to relieve and supply Russia, Port of Odessa, haven't used the navy yet so this gives GB a way to get more actively involved and use their strength

Central powers of WWI

-Germany -Austria-Hungary -Bulgaria -Turkey -surrounded by other powers, effectively balanced in capabilities

French commander-in-chiefs

-Joffre -Nivelle -Petain

The declaration of war

-July 28: Austria declares war on Serbia -Aug 2: Germany gives ultimatum to Belgium asking nicely to invade them, Belgium rejects it -Aug 3: Germany declared war on France -Aug 4: Germany invades Belgium and GB declares war on Germany -Aug 6: Russia and Austria declared war -Aug 23: Japan (b/c of treaty with GB) declared war on Germany -Italy and US both declare neutrality (Italy not obligated to go to war b/c Germany was the aggressor) - massive armies with latest weaponry (machine guns are standard), innovation in the war is high (mechanized warfare, tanks, planes, submarines), huge development in aerial warfare

Italian unification

-Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia: King Victor Emmanuel is controlling it -Camillo Cavour: prime minister (practicing realpolitik), wanted to unify Italy but foreign powers blocking this -joined alliance in Crimean war to gain allies: sent about 10,000 soldiers, on winning side and had a seat at the peace table -Cavour formed a friendship with other powers, especially France (though they could help them use the most) -Meeting with France and Italy 1858 Austria plays directly into Cavour's hands: conscripting men from nearby Austrian countries so the Italians told them to come over there and join them; Austria tells them to stop this or they we will go war (which is what Cavour wants) -go to war with Austria (French send men), defeats Austrians -Italy gets Lombardy but Venetia remains under Austrian control (French still take Nice and Savoy) -1861 Italy unified but more work to be done -Italy eventually gets Venetia after Prussia and Austria go to war b/c Prussia doesn't want Italy to side against them

Franco-Russian alliance 1894

-Russians and French begin talking after reinsurance treaty expired -1892 form a military agreement that was later formalized in 1894 -intended as a secret treaty (took a long time b/c they didn't want it to be debated in governments so info wouldn't be leaked, done by letters with heads of state) -unlike other treaties that had conditional terms and no names -if Russia is attacked by Germany, France will fight with them -if France attacked by Germany or Austria, Russia will fight with them -specific treaty, Germany is effectively named as the enemy -this surprised Germany, Willy didn't see the risk in these two countries coming together

German chiefs of general staff

-Moltke -Falkenhayn -Hindenburg

The Balkans War (Oct-Dec 1912; Feb-Apr 1913)

-Montenegro declares war on Ottoman Empire Oct 1912 on behalf of other Balkans League members to liberate Macedonia and Albania -Serbia gets involved and takes off toward sea to get control of Macedonia and Albania, they occupy them so they are already there when Ottomans are defeated, Ottomans lose everything but a few cities - only 2 months until back at war: fighting over spoils, no Ottomans involved -most powers fighting against Bulgaria, don't want to see them expand -Serbia takes most of Macedonia -Albania becomes independent: Serbia also wanted this but blocked by Austria and Italy (saw this as an enlarged Serbia as a threat when it had access to the sea), Russians supported Serbia but not able to get anywhere with this -angers Serbia, feel Austria especially blocked them: Austria begins to feel insecure about things (issues with Russians more intense b/c they support Serbia; doesn't think of Italy as a true ally; internal issues with minority groups; power sharing with Hungary who doesn't have the same goals; concerned over the degree of nationalism in Serbia -as Austrian insecurity grew, the risk of them making a decision out of that insecurity also grew, can lead to miscalculation -Austria wants to solidify friendship with Germany (if anything happened to Austria, Germany would be standing alone), Germans want to reassure them

Second three emperor's league 1881-87

-OVB tries again to bring Russia back into the fold -second attempt to get Germany, A-H, and Russia in an alliance, doesn't last -OVB decides if they can't work together then they will sign a separate one with Russia

Turks-Italian War 1911

-Ottoman Empir collapsing and all powers knew this, Italy wants to be a colonial power so they want territory from Ottomans -Tripolitania and Cyrenaica: two provinces that are later called Libya, taken by Italy -about a 3 month war, minor affair and Italy gets the territory -precursor to Balkans war (signal to everyone that this is it, powers in Balkans rebelling Ottoman authority -Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece form the Balkans League

France Plan XVII 1913

-Plan 17, wants Alsace Lorraine back -defensive not offensive like Germany -if France put all their defensives in one place, Germany would go around those defensives which would give the French sufficient time and warning, wanted to absorb first blow and then strike back with a strong counter defensive -hoping this would give the British time to show up, relying on GB and Russia (M+14, mobilization plus 14 days)

Russo-Turkish War 1877-78

-Russia invades Ottoman Empire -Bosnia and Bulgaria declared autonomy from Ottomans and Russians came to support them in this -outcome: Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro gained independence; Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina become autonomous; Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1871 (big problem b/c Serbia is south slav and believed that Bosnia should be a part of Serbia and Russia is protector of slavs, precursor to WWI) -Russia and Austria go their separate ways and three emperor's league ends

Risk fleet theory

-Tirpitz's theory -if Germany built up a navy so big and powerful, no other power would want to challenge them b/c it would be too be of a risk -therefore other powers (like GB) would seek alliances with Germany but GB would naturally see this as a threat, a challenge b/c they were the naval power, GB thinking why does Germany even need a navy that big, not seeing this as friendly -GB then passed the Naval Defense Act: GB's navy would be more powerful and larger than the 2 next largest navies combined, ensuring no matter how much anyone else grew, GB navy would be larger -the 1900 German naval bill revision would mean that Germany would have 4 more battleships than GB

Boer Republics: Transvaal and Orange Free State

-Transvaal and Orange Free State are what GB needs to make their Cape to Cairo empire, Transvaal had diamonds and gold too -1896 Jameson Raid: decides to lead a raid into Transvaal, expected the British there to rise up and help them; a failure of a raid, British didn't rise up with them, Boers defeated them, militarily and diplomatically a disaster -Boers are descendants of Dutch Farmers, guerrilla fighters -Willy decides to congratulate the president of Transvaal with Kruger telegram

Entente Cordial 1904

-Treaty friendship, GB signed with French -more of an agreement than a formal treaty -France officially gives GB a free hand in Egypt (now consider GB territory) -GB tells French they recognize their west African empire and supported then expanding control in Morocco -this agreement threatens Germany, looking for a way to quickly end this friendship, didn't think this would be too hard

What wars are considered total wars?

-WWI -WWII

OVB out

-Willy fired OVB in 1890: Willy directly went against what OVB advocated (wants a great military, both land and navy, wanted to be a colonial power) -Willy lets reinsurance treaty expire, Russia is concerned about why Germany doesn't want to renew and notices that France is isolated and decides to talk to them (Germany is in the middle of these two powers)

Kruger Telegram

-Willy sends a telegram congratulating Kruger, the president of Transvaal -Willy got involved in something he didn't need to be involved in -GB had periodically laid claim to the Transvaal and Willy was saying he recognized their claim for sovereignty, puts Germany in a position of a friendly power, an ally -GB gets upset over this telegram, creates bad blood and contributes to the arms race -Germany didn't have a navy to help the Transvaal, this is what the first naval bill was sparked by -escalates into Boer war in 1899

Scramble for Africa 1885-1914

-a meeting in Berlin between European powers held by OVB that results in the scramble for Africa -OVB wanted to make sure this didn't end in war, wants to find a way to peacefully divide it among themselves -GB wants Cape to Cairo empire, a solid line up Africa but France wanted and east to west empire

Absolute war

-a theory, not applied in Clausewitz's time -in the Cold War, absolute war comes into play if it would have become a hot war (nuclear weapons made absolute war possible) -absolute war has a political aim while total war has an ideological aim

Otto von Bismarck (OVB)

-architect of unification of Germany, prime minister of Prussia, became chancellor after unification -realpolitk -no aggressive intentions, only wants to unify Germany (no desire to increase the size of Germany or to get colonies)

Willy tries again to break up GB and France

-asks France, Germany, and Russia to come together to alienate Japan and GB -Russo-Japanese war exposed Russian weaknesses b/c they expected to win but shows how strong Japan has become -French said no way -Czar might have liked it but advisor said no

Austrian war plan

-assumes that Austria will be at war with Serbia and Italy (had an alliance with them but didn't trust them) -didn't think they would be at war with Russia, interesting b/c Germans thought if Russians attacked them before 6 week mark than Austria would try to hold off Russia for them -Austria thought their alliance with Germany would prevent Russia from getting involved: the war with Serbia will remain small b/c Germany would get involved

Dardanelles Campaign (Feb 1915-Jan 1916)

-began as naval plan, a relief effort to reach Russia, has to cross Constantinople/Istanbul -GB wanted to chip of weaker opponents in fight, assumed the Ottomans would be the weaker opponent (two birds: weaken Ottomans and supply Russia) -Feb, sent 26 warships: needed to eliminate the forts on either side so they could get passage through, didn't count on Turks fighting back so hard (determined to stop GB from going through, GB warships wrecked, they realize they can't get through with ships) -had to go to plan b (land men on Gallipoli to neutralize forts)

Total War

-began with WWI (WWI and WWII were the only total wars we have seen) -Erich Ludendorff wrote the book The Total War in 1935: he was a German WWI general -the term was used in the 20th century after WWI -term often confused with absolute war -aggressor in total war is a totalitarian power (democracy don't see destruction of enemy as end goal, dictatorships do)

Communications

-byproduct of industrial revolution -before modern communications, needed runners who brought info back and forth (info was usually outdated) -the telegraph in 1844: could send messages more quickly than before -telephone Alexander Graham Bell 1876 -WWI communications used telegraphs, dogs, pigeons -better communications allow for better intelligence on battlefield; if something goes awry, info relayed more quickly

Algeciras Conference 1906

-called by Willy -threatened France if they didn't show up -Willy thinks European powers will side with him but all of the powers (except Austria) side with France: even Italy which was in an alliance with Germany sided with France -this solidified friendship between GB and France -France gets their way and Germany looks a little weak by this

Gas in western front 1915

-chlorine gas, asphyxiation gas (which was declared illegal in 1899 by Haig) -produced a large green cloud that gave the enemy warning that it was coming -not as deadly as mustard gas, survivable but did burn -got gas masks for everyone (even dogs and horses, shows innovation on the front) -defying the rules of engagements b/c it was outlawed

Russia Plan 19, 1913

-knew they could mobilize 6.5 million men and had a 1.5 million standing army -focused on Austrian threat though they also planned for German threat -sends 4/6 armies to Austria and the other 2 are directed to East Prussia, M+14 understood their agreement with France and that they had to come through -mobilization is an all-in type thing b/c of how big the country is -at this time mobilization for war could be considered the same as an act of war

Limited warfare

-limited aims and limited means -don't have the tech to mass mobilize in 19th century, weapons also not highly developed

Urbanization

-mass exodus from countryside to cities looking for jobs

Boer War 1899-1902

-colonial fight, intended to be low key and run of the mill but the Boers were willing to fight and were equipped with German weapons -Maxim machine guns: GB had machine guns, first time machine guns were used in battle, GB only had 12 (considered unreliable and jammed easily) -GB sends 350,000 men to defeat 60,000 Boers -Sep 1990 Transvaal leadership had stepped down and it looked like they were out of the fight by the Boers continued to fight intense guerrilla warfare -GB used dirty tactics, round up Boer wives and children and also natives and put them in concentration camps (horrible conditions, malnutrition) -28,000 Boer women and kids died and 20,000 natives died -GB won, now Union of South Africa not Transvaal -GB reputation took a hit (Brits had a hard time fighting a colonial war), feeling isolation -GB reconsiders splendid isolation, some say isolation was intentional and other say it wasn't (know they are being mocked, challenged by Kruger telegram, not allies with anyone in Europe, started to believe they need allies)

GB and colonial clashes

-concerned about France, a large naval power, expanding in Africa and Russia another large naval power -wanted Cape to Cairo empire -Fashoda Incident 1897-99 -Boer Republics: Transvaal -Kruger telegram -Boer War

Vienna Settlement 1814 (Concert of Europe)

-cooperation occurs after Napoleonic wars which are settled with Vienna settlement -Concert of Europe (CoE) is a byproduct 1815-53: precursor to League of Nations (LoN), major powers would communicate with each other and work out differences at a diplomatic table and not on the battlefield -powers in CoE: GB, France (added in 1818), Austria, Prussia, and Russia -clause that said if any of the 5 powers started a war (were the aggressive power), then the others would fight against them: this puts checks and balances in -this helps maintain peace for a few decades -holds until 1853 with the Crimean War where Russia was was the aggressive power and everyone else fought against them

Arms race

-countries don't want to be vulnerable to another country -sometimes blamed for WWI -result of one country having the advantage and other countries wanting this -GB was the navy power: needed to supply and protect colonies, extensive trade routes, used navies to create economic blockades (cut the enemy off in the seas), sensitive to other powers with naval strength (France was building up its navy through industrialization and GB felt vulnerable) -1884 GB issued first in a series of naval bills to counter this development (more aggressive GB naval build up) -rapid increase in building of defense firms, armament industries: unification of Germany is the catalyst in 1871 (pre-unification there was multi-polar equilibrium with western European nations on one side and empires on the east, now Germany in the middle) -Germany industrialized quickly, strongest land power, neighbors feel threatened and put more emphasis on need to increase military power

Second Moroccan Crisis/Agadir Crisis 1911

-domestic issues in Fez, pop was rising up against Sultan so French moved to reestablish control and occupy the city, Germans use this as a way to get involved (say French shouldn't occupy city and send a gunboat -Gunboat diplomacy -This further convinces GB that Germans won't use their military in a responsible way and there is reason to be concerned over their build up

Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz

-encouraged Willy to make Germany a colonial power -naval program put into action -1898: German naval bill said they would build 19 battleships over 6 years then in 1900 revised this with second bill that said 36 battleships over 30 years -risk fleet theory

Germany entering 1915

-enters with essentially a reverse Schlieffen plan -had to assess which of the 2 powers they were fighting they could defeat faster, decided to eliminate Russia and then move onto France

Three Emperor's League 1873-78

-first of German alliances -Germany Austria-Hungary (A-H), Russia -Kaiser, emperor, Czar -they are geographically close, isolated France, politically conservative countries -defense agreement to not make war with each other

Fashoda Incident 1897-99

-first of the conflicts, potential flashpoint with France (who wants an east to west empire in Africa) -French colonel Marchand is dispatched in 1897 to meet up with West Africa comes to Faschoda and plants French flag to claim it for France (GB wants territory here) -Lord Kitchener dispatched from Egypt to intercept French, claims it for GB when they arrive -messages sent to home country; French ultimately decide not to go to war and back off Fashoda, recognizes GB claim in canal and French could expand territory in Sahara -settled peacefully but could have gone to war

Changing role of the people

-from subjects to citizens -armies made up of citizens: fighting for family and nation, more intense, fight harder -citizens take active role in country, political shifts: liberalism as a result of Enlightenment (constitutional liberties), gov't responsible for protecting these rights; go from conservative monarchies (subjects served the state) to gov'ts having less power and being responsive to the people, voting is expressing their rights -citizens have a vested interest in country and can vote (would vote for an increase in defense expenditure b/c it increases their role and participation: citizens have to fight wars so they want to make sure they are well armed and capable of winning)

Goal of total war

-goal of aggressor (totalitarian power): destruction of the enemy -goal of defending power: to eliminate the threat

Industrialism to militarism

-industrial revolution: brought social and political changes (people went from subjects to people); began in GB mid-late 1700s with mechanized farming (which increased production, people were better fed, pop boom) then less people needed on farms so they move to cities for jobs, mass producing textiles -industry moves from a focus no trade and consumer goods to an arms race by end of 1800s -industrial revolution does more than provide goods, increase trade, or globalization, it leads to militarization -mass production of weaponry, interchangeable parts: standardized weaponry and ammo to mass produce guns (important to equip and arm large citizen armies), greater rate of fire and more accuracy with these guns which increased the capacity to kill -Great Britain (GB) could produce 100,000 guns while Prussia could produce 22,000: Prussia in danger if they ever went to war with GB, domino effect in Europe b/c the rest of the countries need the same tech to be able to compete (need to keep up with production figures)

Key components of total war

-mass mobilization of military might (conscription of able-bodied males) -mass mobilization of resources, food supplies, anything needed to sustain troops -mass mobilization of civilian population: mobilized farms and industries to produce clothes, food, weapons, also mobilized those unable to fight (meaning they took jobs the men vacated), this is why civilians become targets with total war b/c they are mobilized -militarization of civilian institutions: industries convert to wartime industries: might have produced cars for people but now need to make tanks or something -militarization of economies in general: wartime economy, state runs economy to support war (even democracies go from capitalist economies to state-led economies to support the war) -rationing of food supplies: sacrifice by civilians on home front -instituting fixed wages/price controls: keep food cheap so it is more feasible to feed military -nationalization of transportation networks: private railways become taken over by the state to support war effort -willingness to kill: comes from type of armies employed, nationalism shift in civilian armies who are invested in the war, total wars become more intense b/c of nationalism -capacity to kill: combined with willingness to kill, innovation in weaponry (like machine guns) increased the capacity to kill -willingness to defy rules of engagement: war usually fought within the rules (moral and legal codes that governed war), no longer see moral restraints (civilians as targets) -propaganda: put war effort in moral right, demonize the enemy (easier to kill them this way) -creativity: unconventional use of resources -social change: a war that has such an impact it creates social change, quantifiable things (divorce or crime rates), not quantifiable things (changes in thinking and social structure) -no country has fulfilled all of these elements but if you see a large number all together then it is probably total war

Baghdad Railway

-multiple countries wanted this railway, German won the bid to build it in 1899 -creates extensive rail network from Berlin to Baghdad, access to the sea -this alarms GB (Germans seem to be gaining a lot of economic and political advantages) -Ottoman empire was falling, what would Germany's role be once it is completely dissolved -GB concerned Germany will gain access and control over oil fields -this makes GB more receptive to France's wish for an alliance, they feel the isolation

Chantilly conference Dec 1915

-mutiny starting in Russia by end of 1915 -allied leadership meant in Chantilly Dec of 1915 -Planning their assault for 1916: the focus shifts to western front, crucial front for this war -summer offensive, main thrust was the Somme, intended to be French led, plan to attack where France and GB lines met, Russia was going to help weaken the Germans but the Germans were also thinking about 1916, they attacked first at Verdun

Austria tries diplomacy

-needs Hungary's support so tries diplomacy with Serbia -Austria issues an ultimatum -made a point of making the terms so harsh that Serbia wouldn't be able to meet them -ten point ultimatum: Serbia had to fulfill all 10 points, no compromises -Delivered July 23rd (almost a month since assassination of archduke) -Serbs had 48 hours to respond -terms: Serbia had to deal the Black Hand, arrest conspirators in assassination, dismiss any anti-Austrian members of the military (which would be most of the military), remove the maps that showed Serbia, had to allow Austrian involvement in Serbian affairs (Austria would send representatives to Serbia to oversee and monitor) -issue of sovereignty, a sovereign nation wouldn't allow members of another nation to dictate terms for them, Serbia couldn't meet the terms -Serbia sends call for help to Russia asking for support; Russia said do everything you can to meet the terms but we have your back (in essence their own blank check) -July 28, 1914 Austria declared war on Serbia (exactly one month after the archduke's assassination), should have been a third Balkans war (but nationalism and arms race are big issues), alliances make it difficult for war to remain local

Objective of WWI

-no clearly defined objectives like limited wars -there is an alliance system and war plans that bring a whole lot of countries into a war -everything comes together (nationalist movement, arms race, alliance, war plans, bad feelings) -this should have been the 3rd Balkans war but instead becomes a European and then a world war

Kaiser Wilhelm II (Willy)

-not as astute as his father, would go with the last person who talked to him, not solid on his own opinions -had big ambitions, wanted an expansive Germany and to become a colonial power -at odds with OVB (who made powers around Germany know it was dedicated to survival and benign), fired OVB -went to Africa for colonies (need navy to get colonies)

Transportation

-now can army military but need to get them to where they need to be -1800s saw advancements in transportation: in the beginning they were connected to trade and moving goods: building roads and connecting them, canals and waterways improved, and new railways built -steam technology revolutionized transportation: steam locomotive, steamboat (used in First Opium War in China, steamboats could drag the other boats and go up river) -transportation allows for rapid mobilization in war: military used to walk which took a long time for reinforcements and supplies to come; trains allow for faster mobilization and reinforcements come quicker

Battle of Jutland 1916

-only major battle at the sea, British

Serbia's role in the assassination

-only one person known to have anything to do with it: chief intelligence officer in the Serbian army definitely knew about it and may have helped execute it -the assassination has no link to the Serbian government -prime minister of Serbia had been alerted to the fact that there was a plot and he ordered that these men were arrested when they crossed the border but he didn't tell the Austrians about the plot

Impact of Crimean War on the stability of Europe

-peace from CoE was gone, Crimean war ends CoE; only cooperation comes from carving Africa up for territory -Ottoman Empire comes out on winning side but its days were numbered -Austria: sided against Russia which Russia saw as a stab in the back (b/c they helped Austria maintain control over revolution and preserve a conservative monarchy so they expected Austria to side with them) -Russia on losing side of war: learned they needed to modernize (so they emancipated their serfs b/c free people fight harder and began industrializing) -Europe less stable after this war, enter a period rife with conflict -Crimean war created the things that allowed for unification of Germany and Italy

Nationalism

-people start to develop new identities: used to localized identity prior to industrialization, first moved identity as workforce, then national identities (languages become standardized) -pride in national identity -working for something bigger than yourself, making a contribution and have a vested interest in contribution -social landscape changing: from subjects to citizens -when fighting for nation, more is at stake so fight harder b/c nationalism

The Somme June-Nov

-planned in Chantilly -supposed to French led offensive but they were bogged down in Verdun so now it is GB led -Haig oversees it, marred his reputation -started with major artillery barrage -Germans dug in, dug a tunnel and packed it with dynamite -Germans backed up so GB didn't do the damage they thought they did -tanks (designed for trench warfare), called land ship, limited visibility, no ventilation and engine was in inside, horrified Germans, learned to duck down and then shoot at it -not a game changer in this battle -known for fighter aces

Realpolitik in 1800s

-power politics, practical policy (not taking morals or ethics into account) -countries making decision of what is best for them in the moment regardless of who they step on or how they hurt another country -Players: OVB, Cavour, Napoleon III

Russian Brusilov Offensive June-Aug

-promised Russian offensive, only one named after Russian general -Russia reforms industries producing more so they could equip more men, study battle plans -spring artillery offensive against A-H -four armies, largely targeted at A-H but northern army goes into German territory -one army was the main force and other 3 were diversionary, north one was the main one -need to coordinate attack but northern army (the main one) didn't go at the same time b/c the general decided they weren't ready, other armies had to play the role of the main attack -Russians successfully push into A-H take 15,500 miles, stopped b/c Germans come in -seen as a success and failure at the same time: success (push Germans and A-H back, successful invasion), failure (intended to eliminate A-H)

Crimean War 1853-56

-see fruits of industrial revolution, technological advancements playing out on the battlefield, larger armies, nationalism is rearing its head -Ottoman Empire was steadily being chipped away at, general weakening and everyone knew and wanted to gain territory -question over rights of Christian minorities in Ottoman Empire: Russia wanted to be protector but so did France, the Turks in Ottoman Empire sided with France as protector -The Balkans: rapidly eroding Ottoman control, Russia has a greater role in Balkans which threatened Austria b/c then Russia would surround them; Russia takes over Ottoman territories Moldavia and Walachia in 1853 -all CoE powers sided against Russia: GB was concerned about Russia expanding in region of Black Sea, concerned about trade and access to their empire; Prussia waited until the end to join against Russia (were modernizing their military and wanted to try it out in actual war), Piedmont-Sardinia unifies into Italy and sides against Russia (wanted concessions and to get into the good graces of other powers) -shows progression in tactics from Napoleonic wars -industry at play: extensive use of rail networks (to move supply, not mobilize troops) -use of electric telegraph: reports what is happening on battlefield -new weaponry: French rifled musket and minie ball: spins to increase velocity, has greater accuracy; Russia didn't have these so they were largely outgunned, sitting ducks; ability to kill was outpacing the ability to defend -first photographed war which makes it more real for the people back home -armored warships: GB and France had these which was an advantage -improved care of wounded: telegraph and photos were important in showing conditions of hospitals, increases morale if you know you won't die from a minor injury; Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole

Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassination June 28, 1914

-takes a trip to Bosnia (part of the Austrian empire at this time) with his wife Sophie -heir to the throne, his uncle was the emperor -a man in the crowd threw a grenade at their car but missed the archduke and his wife but hit their guard -the archduke and his wife wanted to go to the hospital to visit the guard but their driver didn't know the streets of Sarajevo very well and hit a dead end where another man who was part of the group who tried to assassinate them earlier was -Gavrilo Princip: thought they missed their opportunity to assassinate the archduke but he was at this dead end, part of a group that travelled to Bosnia from Serbia to assassinate the archduke -fired two shots: one to Sophie's abdomen and the other to the archduke's jugular -tried to kill himself after this but witnesses wrestled him to the ground and he was arrested; imprisoned in Terezin and died of TB and lack of treatment -the archduke was not a well-liked man, he was very unpopular because he was very progressive: wanted the minorities to have rights but the emperor was opposed b/c the entire empire would unravel b/c the minorities would want their own control -the archduke wanted 3 way rule: they already had 2 way rule with Hungary but wanted to get the slavs involved (Serbs didn't like this idea b/c they didn't want slavs under Austrian rule under any conditions) -sophie was not a noble and nobles were supposed to marry nobles. Archduke fell in love with Sophie and was ostracized from Europe's high society and nobility -not a lot of people attended his funeral, not even his uncle the emperor: no one seemed to care that he died but it gave Austria the moral high ground and the excuse to move forward against Serbia (Serbia needed Hungary's support though and H wasn't interested in going to war but said they will support the war if diplomacy was used first and Austria had Germany's firm support)

Karl von Clausewitz

-termed absolute war -Prussian general who fought in Napoleonic war -by 1818, promoted to major general and then became head of Prussia's war academy, known for his writings -wrote Vom Kriege -realist, believed military served the state, an arm of the state

Impact of Franco-Prussian war on Europe

-the end of this war meant German unification was a success: Jan 1871 unification proclaimed in the hall of mirrors in Versailles (adds insult to injury for French) -Alsace Lorraine was taken away from France: inflamed nationalism from French, want revenge -nationalism intensified, countries more focused on self-interest (more realist than liberal)

Schlieffen-Moltke Plan 1911

-the original plan 1897: made the assumption that if Germany went to war with France or Russia they would be at war with both powers (b/c of their alliance), understood would be fighting 2 powers but hoped to avoid a 2 front war -modified in 1906 and again in 1911, not good modifications done by Moltke -take France out first and then deal with Russia, estimated that it would take 2 weeks to mobilize and Russia 6 weeks -Go to France with 1.5 million man army (7/8 of the army) and take Paris (and thus have France) -had a 6 week table on this so they had to move quickly to subdue France before Russia mobilized, needed to act before GB could show up (they had a treaty with the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg and Germany planned to go through some of these places on the way to Paris) -Moltke took out the route that would completely encompass Paris -Germans try to take Belgian fortress but the Belgians fight back and GB crosses the English Channel to meet Germans -GB and France retreat which is not part of the Sclieffen-Motlke plan, defeat was part of the plan: retreats don't win wars but it saved them to fight another day -Germans have to chase GB and France, meaning the supply lines got shorter for GB and France but longer for Germany, same with communication lines -Germans make it 23 miles outside of Paris, French plan major counterattack along the Marne river

German unification

-three wars of unification -1864 war against Denmark: it was ambiguous where Schleswig and Holstein belonged (German speaking but under informal Denmark control b/c of a 15th century agreement), Holstein was officially considered one of the German states in the confederation. In 1863, Denmark passed a new constitution claiming that Schleswig was theirs (German's didn't think so, want self-determination, fires up nationalism); Austria (known to suppress nationalism b/c it is dangerous in multi-ethnic empire) helps Germans out. They were eventually annexed by Prussia -1866 war with Austria: Austria kept forces in Prussian controlled territory after helping them out with, plays into OVB's hands and he claims that these troops were left there to cause problems. OVB needed to ensure other powers wouldn't get involved in this fight (offered Italy Venetia, "supported" France taking territory near them, Russia was friendly toward them b/c they helped with Polish), short war, Prussia won. Austria was being weakened piece by piece eventually had to accept Hungary so it became the Austro-Hungarian empire -1870 Franco-Prussian war: Southern German states would join Prussia if France declared war on Prussia

Gallipoli (Apr-Jan)

-two sets of landings on April 25th (France and Australia and New Zealand in south while GB landed in western part) -no cover for this, no attempt to mislead the Turks or Germans (who were in command position): no deception, did a day landing directly in front of the Turks who have the high ground (easy pickings for them), troops scurry for cover -GB determined they need to get out and they recognize Gallipoli as a disaster, couldn't neutralize the first on the land, entire plan failed -had a more skillful retreat, used deception to get off Gallipoli: evacuated during the night, rigged some guns so that they continued firing, sounded like the men were still there, this made Churchill an advocate of deception -Mustafa Kemal was the hero of Gallipoli and father of Modern Turkey

French Air Balloon 1870 Siege of Paris

-used hot air balloon for recon, get a sense of Prussian position -beginning of air force -French understood they could drop bombs from the balloons -Prussians turn artillery on hot air balloons (first time using artillery in anti-aircraft capacity)

the west in 1915

-west was deadlocked: trench line, battles on western front are bloody battles that result in little to no gains (no movement, static trench warfare) -there are battles but they don't shift the line -GB and French forces didn't accept that trench warfare was the nature of the game, not in strategies or war plans (entente leaders believed they would break the line) -Germans looked at trenches as the new German frontier: did everything they could to not lose territory, made trenches livable (dug deep, got electricity) -Apr 1915, 2nd Ypres battle was major gas attack, first on western front

Vom Kriege

-written by Clausewitz, not finished but published in 1832 after he died -where the term absolute war originates -absolute war as an ideal: using the utmost violence for unlimited aims, remove restraints that make it difficult for generals to do their jobs (win the war), against other militaries (not civilian population), goal is destruction of the enemy (military) -not practical in Clausewitz's day