International Orgs Midterm
The politics of failure
"Expertise serves an important function ... in that makes failure intelligible, ergo excusable, to principals. It provides a basis on which the organization can not only deflect criticism and avoid punishment, but also justify expansion."
WHICH NORMS (AND WHEN) ARE LIKELY TO REACH THE TIPPING POINT?
"Legitimacy": affects timing. States may adopt norms if their domestic legitimacy wavers. [I like Moravcsik's argument better: if your power wavers, you adopt norms that perpetuate your ideology.] "Prominence": norms held by prominent states (e.g. powerful states, war victors) are likely to be adopted (e.g. liberalism, capitalism post cold-war). "Intrinsic qualities": some intrinsic qualities of a norm may make it more likely to be adopted (but the authors advise caution on this line of argument). Essentially, we're all slowly becoming hippies. We value universalism; individualism; voluntaristic authority; rational progress; and world citizenship. Keck and Sikkink make an argument that norms about bodily harm against vulnerable groups and legal equality of opportunity will be more appealing cross-nationally. "Adjacency": If the norm is like an existing norm, or somehow derivable from it. "World time": A depression or shock can lead states to look for new norms; the end of a war can lead states to adopt the victor's norms.
THE LIFE CYCLE OF A NORM
"Norm emergence." Norm entrepreneurs arise (randomly) with a conviction that something must be changed. These norms use existing organizations and norms as a platform from which to proselytize (e.g. UN declarations), framing their issue to reach a broader audience. In Stage 1, then, states adopt norms for domestic political reasons. If enough states adopt the new norm, a "tipping point" is reached, and we move to stage 2. "Norm cascade." In stage 2, states adopt norms in response to international pressure--even if there is no domestic coalition pressing for adoption of the norm. They do this to enhance domestic legitimacy [comment: seems to imply domestic demand], conformity [b/c leaders don't want to stick out], and esteem needs [because being shamed as non-conformists by the int'l community makes them feel bad]. We need more psychological research to consider how this works [apparently]. "Norm internalization." Over time, we internalize these norms. Professionals press for codification and universal adherance. Eventually, conformity becomes so natural that we cease to even notice the presence of a norm.
Obligations: national treatment
"The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded treatment no less favorable than that accorded to like products of national origin." (Examples: safety standards, sales tax, labeling requirements) Case study: US complaint over Canadian indirect non-tariff barrier, such as imposing environmental charges on beer cans = disguised trade restriction; implications for domestic policy
Insulation
Absence of a competitive environment can insulate bureaucracies, holding them less accountable Can lead to the creation of an organizational worldview, distinct from the larger environment
Globalization of liberal economic norms
Adam Smith and beyond: human beings act in rational ways to maximize their self interest - the medium is markets, and what maximizes individual welfare does so collectively, as well. Governments: provide basic order, through institutional architecture, such as enforcement of property rights and facilitation of free trade But emerging economies as well as less developed economies face issues that require intervention, such as access to finance resources
NAFTA: Overview
Agreement has phased out most restrictions on foreign investment and barriers to trade, allowing MNCs to shift production to low-wage centers in Mexico NAFTA, unlike the EU, is not highly institutionalized but bases its legitimacy on the agreement's lengthy and detailed specifications One institution, the Free Trade Commission, oversees the agreement, though compliance cannot be mandated Winners and losers from the agreement (US: lost jobs and Mexico: closing of domestic industries, sectorial winners and losers, too, depending on capital/labor intensity)
Collective security: use of sanctions
Always problematic, unless alternative markets can be effectively blocked Iraq: Hussein had nothing to gain by cooperating, and the sanctions produced a humanitarian crisis among the population = can fuel resentment and provide legitimacy for ruinous economic policies of targeted countries Since 1994, no comprehensive sanctions have been imposed Sanctions in return for small policy changes can be more successful than requests for a regime change
Universalism versus cultural relativism
Amartya Sen (9917) no dichotomy between Asian and "western" values in the UN's Declaration of Human Rights Vienna Declaration and Program of Action (1993 World Conference on Human Rights): "All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and interrelated ....[regional arrangements] ... should reinforce universal human rights standards ... the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind."
Obligations: MFN
Article 1, GATT treaty: "any advantage, favor, privilege, or immunity granted to any contracting party to any product originating in or destined fro any other country shall be accorded immediately and unconditionally to the like product ... of all other contracting parties" "Any advantage ..." means more than tariff rates and can include, for example, an obligation of safety standards ... "Special" column for "regional" trade pacts, conferring better than MFN tariff = a paradox of sorts, but logical from point of view of trade promotion
Overview: IMF response to financial crises
Asian crises, late 1990s: large bailout packages to Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea in return for adjustments from mercantilist to market-oriented policies Reforms produces positive economic effect, but social unrest Imposition of higher interest rates pushed the economies into recession Problem of moral hazard Crises response = ad hoc? Critics: tool of the powerful?
Challenges for GEG: Global Financial System
Backdrop: excess credit against insufficient equity in the housing market, financial sector and consumer credit markets, explosion of unregulated, highly leveraged, little understood financial instruments, and unsustainable trade imbalance with China and oil-exporting countries IMF "missing in action" at the start of the global financial crisis in 2008 New role for China and BRICS? Crisis in the EU Global markets suffer from weak governance
Expertise and the creation of the Polak model
Balance of payments system was presumed "self-regulating" before the establishment of the IMF = no in-house expertise at the time Self-regulation based on quantity theory of money = supply of money determines general level of income, output and prices in a country, with money supply set by fixed relationship between money and a country's stock of gold - deficits paid with increased exports after price levels and the rest declined Model = static and not robust to shocks in the system.
IMF Organs
Board of Governors - The Board of Governors consists of one governor and one alternate governor for each member country. Each member country appoints its two governors. The Board normally meets once a year and is responsible for electing or appointing executive directors to the Executive Board. While the Board of Governors is officially responsible for approving quota increases, Special Drawing Right allocations, the admittance of new members, compulsory withdrawal of members, and amendments to the Articles of Agreement and By-Laws, in practice it has delegated most of its powers to the IMF's Executive Board. The Board of Governors is advised by the International Monetary and Financial Committee and the Development Committee. The International Monetary and Financial Committee has 24 members and monitors developments in global liquidity and the transfer of resources to developing countries.[60] The Development Committee has 25 members and advises on critical development issues and on financial resources required to promote economic development in developing countries. Executive Board - 24 Executive Directors make up Executive Board. The Executive Directors represent all 189 member countries in a geographically based roster.[61] Countries with large economies have their own Executive Director, but most countries are grouped in constituencies representing four or more countries
Bureaucratic universalism
Bureaucracies flatten diversity, as a result of generating universal rules Historical and social context may be bracketed
How IOs structure power
Classification of information: definitions and identities - who, for example, qualifies as a refugee? Fixing of meanings: naming/labeling the social context, such as "development" - what is it, who "does" the development, and who receives it? Norm diffusion: spread messages and values such as the promotion of market economies on the part of IMF
Inequality measures, continued
Concept 1: convergence/divergence of countries Concept 2: difference whether China is included or not Within-country distributions = become more unequal over time Countries within continents show closely correlated movements in pay dispersions = macro forces at work? Little movement between high inequality to low inequality as countries become richer = contrary to Kuznets inverted U. Lots of measurement issues = difficult to draw definitive conclusions!
Income inequality between countries
Concept 1: inter-country measures, using average incomes (UN General Assembly measure) Concept 2: inter-country measure, with countries weighted by population Concept 3: Global interpersonal, covering all the world's people as though "one world" Gini coefficient: ("0" = perfectly equal; "1" = perfectly unequal, with 1 member of society receiving all income): relative (rate of growth) versus absolute Gini
Norms and the use of force
Concerns about effects of war on civilians, wounded soldiers, prisoners of war and refugees. The Geneva Conventions, 1949 (see new protocols, added) International refugee law, legal protection for displaced persons Articles 7 and 8 of the ICC's Rome Statute identifies crimes against humanity Most norms regarding armed conflict apply to interstate wars and states, not nonstate actors.
Protection of child soldiers
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989: conflict between protection of children and rights of parents NGOs: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 1998 UN General Assembly: Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, 2000 ICC: five members of the Lord's Resistance Army (Uganda) indicted (2005), Thomas Lubanga (Congo), sentenced in 2012
WTO Organs
Council for Trade in Goods - There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles. Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights - Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO's work with other international organizations in the field. Council for Trade in Services - The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required. Trade Negotiations Committee - The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO's director-general.
ASEAN Free Trade Area
Designed to eliminate all tariffs among original six ASEAN members (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand) Plan: to continue eliminating tariffs further, both among the original six members, as well as new members (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam) No binding commitments and trade/foreign direct investment in region has not increased - explore
McNamara's Attack
Double lending during first five years in office, by redirecting funds from IBRD, with little support from staff Focused attention on what states did with funds and outcomes Emphasized poor within economies Altered Bank's structure, changing methods, and bureaucratizing the organizations, consolidating his own power Point: these moves highlight individual agency over structural constraints
Overview: The World Bank
During 1950s, shift from reconstruction to development Funds generated from member-state contributions and international financial markets Unlike private banks, WB stipulates policy changes as conditions to promote economic development and alleviate poverty Shift from 1950s (large infrastructure projects) to basic needs projects in 1970s (McNamara) to private sector involvement and sustainable development in the 1980s Role of NGOs
Regional Trade Agreements
During the years of Doha negotiations, more than 100 regional and bilateral trade agreements have come into force, with 40 percent of world trade conducted through these agreements. Do these agreements result in trade creation or trade diversion? Are these agreements stepping stones or stumbling blocks to global trade negotiations?
Institutional change
ECLA was not forced to adopt ideational shift Repression fails as an explanatory "variable" Demise of socialism had more impact on ECLA, than repressive politics, per se The role of crisis Paradigm shift places power explanations and post-modernism critique in vulnerable position
Obligations: bound tariffs
Each member must publish a list of all its tariff rates ("concessions") = bound tariffs that cannot be raised, unilaterally These tariffs cover 99 percent of developed country imports and 73 percent of developing country imports - the rate need not be zero. HTS: tariffs decided by country and its trading partners = complex negotiations Difficulty in designating category
Mission, structure and autonomy of the IMF II
Each member of the Fund appoints a governor to represent state at the annual meeting Day-to-day policy decisions made by 24-member executive board Five largest shareholders = US, Japan, Germany, France, UK, then comes China,** Russia and Saudi Arabia, and finally 16 other executive directors represent groups of countries Voting power of 184 members weighted according to resource contribution Executive Board decides how much countries may contribute Contributions based not on size of a member's economy, but wealth and prosperity ** China's share has since increased
Regionalism and the WTO: stumbling block or stepping stone
Easier to reach regional, as opposed to global, agreements Enhance competitiveness of domestic industries, prepping them for full liberalization Increase bargaining clout of export industries to then push for full liberalization Domino effect and pressure to rationalize agreements to manage far-flung supply chains
Operationalizing "Poverty Alleviation"
Economists and managers brought on board Inspiration from Barbara Ward and William Clark McNamara intellectually focused on population control, but concern did not match WB organizational structure = most likely case Economists intellectually equipped to deal with "neutral" issues Agriculture: WB had experience lending to farmers, high volume of activity among poorest nations, conducive to economic analysis, attractive projects for borrowing countries
Roots of humanitarian and human rights norms
End of colonialism: "Humanity was no longer something one could create by bringing savages to civilization. Rather, humanity was inherent in individual human beings." (Martha Finnemore, 1996) Holocaust: "never again" Religious basis: Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism: universal ethos, not singular either to geography or government Civil and political rights (Locke), material rights (Marx), rights for specific groups, such as children, minorities and women (global community) Why have civil and political rights dominated the standard setting?
Overview: the IMF
Established to meet short-term fluctuations in currency exchange rates; address balance of payments problems Members contributed to fund, through a quota system New institutional initiatives in response to crisis: Heavily Indebted Poor Countries' Initiative (1996), Exogenous Shocks Facility (2005), and Financial Stability Board (2009) With Mexican debt crisis in 1982, IMF role shifted to help address structural problems within domestic economies Key role played for transitioning economies, post-Cold War
The Power of IOs
First source of power: legitimacy of rational legal authority Second source of power: bureaucratic control of information and expertise Features grant IOs semblance of depoliticization, which, in turn, confers power
Other players in the liberal order
For: MNCs and the role of private capital in economic growth and development Contestation: UNCTAD, NIEO and statist interpretation of international trade = zero sum (use of import substitution, restricted foreign direct investment, export promotion, policies adopted, especially by South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan) Contributing legacy
EEC: trade Liberalization?
From 1958 to 1968, EEC moved to dismantle quantitative import restrictions among members, eliminate internal tariffs and establish the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) Agriculture: more than 40% of EU's total budget
Constructing sound economies
Fund also delivered technical assistance to help underdeveloped economies build stable governing institutions, as well as train professionals Increased conditionality and technical assistance programs has not always produced desired results The Fund does not attempt to exploit information asymmetries, but reduce them
Expertise and the creation of the Polak model II
Fund used system of foreign currency reserves, in addition to gold, in order to settle BOP imbalances without causing deflation Fund needed models by which to identify BOP issues and ways to resolve the imbalances: absorption approach and the monetary approach Absorption approach: BOP deficit = a country is absorbing more resources in consumption and investment than production (hence intrusion into domestic economies) Monetary approach: payments = monetary phenomenon to be resolved through money markets (credit creation and international reserves)
Mission, structure and autonomy of the IMF III
Funding: like a credit union - countries contribute currencies to the Fund when they join, and they can borrow it back, when need arises Quotas occasionally increased, and IMF operating expenses covered by interest charged for borrowing, as well as investments made Fund's autonomy comes from: funding structure, delegation of agenda setting to staff and expertise/knowledge of the staff
Overview: WTO
GATT included most developed economies excluded Soviet Bloc, with developing countries beginning to join in 1980s/1990s GATT (1948) WTO (1995), the latter a "formal organization" Gradual support for LDCs Service, intellectual property and agriculture = complex issues WTO: one country, one vote, but market size still governs ultimate negotiating power Emergence of G-20 and G-90 provides greater representativeness for smaller states, yet introduces more complexity!
UN Organs
General Assembly - The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA/GA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the United Nations, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the United Nations and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. Security Council - The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action. Its powers are exercised through United Nations Security Council resolutions. Economic and Social Council - It is responsible for co-ordinating the economic, social and related work of 14 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. Secretariat - The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the United Nations Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other U.N. bodies. International Court of Justice - The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly. The United Nations Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to help ensure that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security. The trust territories—most of them are former mandates of the League of Nations or territories taken from nations defeated at the end of World War II—have all now attained self-government or independence, either as separate nations or by joining neighbouring independent countries.
New forms of Global Governance
Global Compact on Corporate Responsibility, proposed by UN General Secretary Kofi Annan in 1999 at WEF, Davos Ten principles, from safeguarding of human rights to promotion of greater environmental responsibility Compact as set of nested networks, in which participants learn the ways and practices of other companies No mechanism for enforcing compliance
Pieces of security governance
Global IGOs Norms on the use of force International conventions Regional security organizations Enforcement mechanisms Peaceful settlement mechanisms Peacekeeping Humanitarian intervention Peacebuilding
Poverty
Global poverty can be measured by summing the total number of people living below a standard international poverty line; main source of data = World Bank There has been substantial reduction (about 25%) in the number of people living in extreme poverty between 1981 and 2005; many people still live on under PPP$2.50 a day (almost 3 billion by 2010); a big bunching of people living on between PPP$1.25 and PPP$ 2.50 Issues: poverty line drawn; survey reliability; role of China and India; under-accounting of agriculture and informal sector. Downward bias?
Explanation for paradigm shift
Governments power and "puzzle" The role of epistemic communities - networks of knowledge-based experts Responses to failures or crises, related to an idea's "persuasiveness" (Hall) Accumulation of anomalies The strength of new ideas depends on extent to which they become institutionalized. Is institutional change "sticky"?
Intellectual shifts
Gunnar Myrdal, Asian drama: an inquiry into the poverty of nations ... and subsequent critics on neoclassical development theories WB initiated new lending policies, including the extension of grace periods and new support for IDA loan, focus shifted to education and agriculture, increase in proportion of non-US-citizen staff Enter: Robert McNamara in 1968, believer in power and foreign aid
Global health governance report card
HIV/AIDS = "good" Traditional health functions, such as management of infectious diseases = "average" Improving health systems in poor countries = "poor"
Actors in development: United Nations
Ideas and goal-setting: MDGs and SDGs Institutionalization of the idea: UNDP and ECLA Data gathering Health and WHO
Overview: WTO and complexity
Intellectual property: WTO and TRIPS more effective enforcement than UN WIPO HIV/AIDS drugs for the developing world well illustrate the problem Doha round: illustrates growing power among developing countries New member, China (2001) and conditions set (SR costs to new members for LT gains?) Do labor and environmental standards compromise national sovereignty and lend an advantage to developed countries?
Actors in development: regional banks and states
Inter-American Development Bank Asian Development Bank African Development Bank European Bank for Reconstruction and Development States: ODA and OECD's DAC
World Bank Organs
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), established in 1945, which provides debt financing on the basis of sovereign guarantees; International Finance Corporation (IFC), established in 1956, which provides various forms of financing without sovereign guarantees, primarily to the private sector; International Development Association (IDA), established in 1960, which provides concessional financing (interest-free loans or grants), usually with sovereign guarantees; International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), established in 1965, which works with governments to reduce investment risk; the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), established in 1988, which provides insurance against certain types of risk, including political risk, primarily to the private sector.
Five mechanisms of pathologies
Irrationality of rationality Universalism Normalization of deviance Organizational insulation Cultural contestation
IGOs and regional security organizations (Karns and Mingst, chapter 8)
League of Nations and UN Charter: basic principles for preventing war, with the former requiring unanimity among council members for action, while the latter calls for 9 votes total and no opposition from permanent members Both = collective security, as opposed to collective defense organizations UN Security Council has sole authority to use force and obligate member states to impose sanctions Regional agencies require sanction from the UN Security Council
Economic globalization and africa
MDG (UN, 2001) to address inequities of globalization The story of Africa brightening, at present (private capital flows greater than development assistance in 2006) The role of China The role of IOs Not one Africa
Regionalism and the WTO: stumbling block or stepping stone II
Magnify power disparities: strong-arming weaker partner Diversion of scarce bureaucratic resources Spaghetti bowl of crisscrossing PTAs: multiple tariff schedules and rules Provide exporters with access to markets of their choice, limiting incentive to fully liberalize Enable governments to exempt sensitive political sectors from liberalization
Expertise and power at the IMF
Mandate of the IMF has evolved to become intimately involved in the domestic economies of member countries The changes cannot be understood simply as result of demands by states Expansion of mandate is result of IMF's expertise and persistent failure to stabilize the economies of member states.
Dysfunction in IOs due to:
Material interests within organization Material interests external to organization Ideational interests within organization Ideational interests external to organization
Cultural contestation
Most organizations develop overlapping and contradictory sets of preferences among subgroups
Agency and structure
New Bank president, Robert McNamara, brought poverty concerns with him Ideas need to be institutionalized to exert maximum effect Resulting focus on small farmers and provision of urban services reflected organizational needs rather than any intrinsic merit of these approaches over others
Development as concept
New, more inclusive measures: human rights and sustainability Liberal economic development and modifications Dependency theory Alternative theories: state-led growth and institutional configuration
Norms
Norms isolate single standards of behavior, whereas institutions emphasize the way in which behavioral rules are structured together and interrelate (a collection of practices and rules)
Mission, structure and autonomy of the IMF
Original mission: promote international monetary cooperation; facilitate expansion and balanced growth of world trade; promote exchange rate stability; assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments and elimination of foreign exchange restrictions; make resources available, under adequate safeguards, for balance-of-payments disequilibria; and shorten duration and lessen the degree of balance-of-payments disequilibria
Collective security: use of force
Post Cold War: chapter VII invoked for NATO (Bosnia and Afghanistan); US (Haiti); Australia (East Timor); France (Rwanda); Great Britain (Sierra Leone) ... peacekeeping missions must secure mandate under chapter VII, blurring lines Korea The Gulf War Bosnia and Kosovo: the dilemma Afghanistan Anti-piracy Libya
The meaning of development late 1960s
Poverty a concern, but linked with human capital theory, rather than human rights, focus on development of industry As decolonization progressed, debate moved to international realm, and sovereignty norms came under scrutiny Original WB goals associated with productivity, investment, capital formation and more, effectively equating poverty alleviation with GNP growth
Goal proliferation and organizational dysfunction
Powerful member states are arbiters of the Fund's overall policy direction, but such does not fully explain pattern of goal proliferation Goals that are internalized and supported by core competencies = more likely to be successfully implemented Proliferating goals can stretch the competencies available and might create conflicts in terms policies mandated
ECLA
Prebisch and ECLA: structural theory of development, involving center/periphery and disadvantageous TOT for developing countries New economic (causal) ideas do not enter ideological vacuum (example: ISI in the 1940s and 1950s = principled idea, deriving from nationalistic overtones in Latin America) Major shift towards neo-liberalism in 1980s, legitimized, in part, by ECLA, surprising, given its erstwhile association with ISI Shift towards discourse on competitiveness
ECLA II
Prebisch and ECLA: structural theory of development, involving center/periphery and disadvantageous TOT for developing countries New economic (causal) ideas do not enter ideological vacuum (example: ISI in the 1940s and 1950s = principled idea, deriving from nationalistic overtones in Latin America) Major shift towards neo-liberalism in 1980s, legitimized, in part, by ECLA, surprising, given its erstwhile association with ISI Shift towards discourse on competitiveness
ICC Organs
Presidency - The Presidency is responsible for the proper administration of the Court (apart from the Office of the Prosecutor). It comprises the President and the First and Second Vice-Presidents—three judges of the Court who are elected to the Presidency by their fellow judges for a maximum of two three-year terms. Judicial Divisions - The Judicial Divisions consist of the 18 judges of the Court, organized into three chambers—the Pre-Trial Chamber, Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber—which carry out the judicial functions of the Court Office of the Prosecutor -The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) is responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions.[43] It is headed by the Chief Prosecutor, who is assisted by one or more Deputy Prosecutors. Registry - The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration and servicing of the Court.
Peaceful settlement of disputes
Preventive diplomacy: diffuse crises before they escalate into violence, preventive deployment of peacekeeping troops = innovation, late 1950s to provide independent role for the UN during the Cold War - does it work? Mediation: third party attempts to broker agreement for parties unable to devise their own solutions - negotiation with muscle, or dependent on the skill of the mediator? Adjudication and arbitration: solution based in international law, all involved parties must consent to process: ICJ and Nicaragua versus the United States.
Expertise and the creation of the Polak model III
Problems lay with deficit state: disequilibrium caused by excess aggregate demand relative to output = decrease absorption or increase productivity Focus trained on deficit states because the Fund had no tools to induce adjustment in surplus states (problem for the system, not the individual country) - the model created the policy Old elasticities approach focused on imports/exports, the monetary approach linked BOP issues with credit expansion, fiscal policy and more
WTO: contentious issues
Products versus process Emergence of "regional" trade blocs Interim waiver under TRIPS, allowing states to export generic pharmaceuticals made under license to developing countries in cases of national emergencies (e.g., HIV/AIDS anti-retroviral drugs) The Doha round and agricultural subsidies China's accession to WTO in 2001 and commitments Russia's accession to WTO in 2012 and response to recent sanctions
Back to theory
Realists: little difference between interstate and intrastate conflicts = same organizing principles at play (relative power) "Soft realists": alter cost-benefit calculus of parties involved through diplomacy and mediation Liberals: international law and IGOS, NGOs and ad hoc groups working together to avert war Constructivists: shifts in norms on the use of force and "who" should be protected, as well as taboos with regard to particular weapons (nuclear taboo, by N. Tannenwald)
The issues
Role of NGOs in exposing transgressions The debate regarding state sovereignty ICISS, 2001 International law and the evolution of customary law: R2P (criteria: right authority, just cause, right intention, last resort, proportional means, reasonable prospects)
Major action, IGOs, since 1992
Security Council authorization: NATO in Bosnia, 1994, and Afghanistan, 2001, Libya, 2011 Retroactive approval: ECOWAS in Liberia, 1992 Partnership: UN and OAS in Haiti, 1993 Transition to UN operation: SADC in DRC, 1998 AU in Darfur, 2007 AU and EU principle regional partners for the UN, with NATO continuing in Afghanistan (until end-2014) and as support in Darfur
Actors in development: private international finance and NGOs
Since 1980s: accelerating capital flows to developing countries China's role Development and volatile capital NGOs: holding IGOs accountable
Europe: the Single Market
Single European Act 1987: free movement of goods, persons and capital (right to live and work in member states, some restrictions) Member states have begun to recognize each other's educational and professional qualifications Development of common technical standards more problematic, and can hinder trade Encourage free competition for government contracts Maastricht Treaty (1992) outlined steps toward EMU, with member states effectively relinquishing autonomous monetary policy
Expertise, quantification and power
State interests and power insufficiently explain the source of the Fund's expertise and authority: need numbers! The role of numbers and economists Method-driven expertise legitimizes bureaucracy The Fund's analysis = rooted in statistics about national economies Bureaucrats become powerful by appearing powerless! The construction of statistics: agreement must be reached on what is to be measured and how
UN General Assembly Mandate
The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations. Comprising all Members of the United Nations, it provides a unique forum for multilateral discussion of the full spectrum of international issues covered by the Charter. The Assembly meets in regular session intensively from September to December each year, and thereafter as required. The functions and powers of the General Assembly are stipulated in Chapter IV of the Charter of the United Nations.
IMF Mandate
The IMF promotes international monetary cooperation and provides policy advice and capacity development support to help countries build and maintain strong economies. The IMF also makes loans and helps countries design policy programs to solve balance of payments problems when sufficient financing on affordable terms cannot be obtained to meet net international payments. IMF loans are short and medium term and funded mainly by the pool of quota contributions that its members provide. IMF staff are primarily economists with wide experience in macroeconomic and financial policies.
Actors in development: World Bank and IMF
The World Bank Group: IBRD, IFC, MIGA, IDA, ICSID Shifts in approach: large infrastructure projects, basic needs, private sector, governance IMF/WB: structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and debt relief Reform: global power representation
World Bank Mandate
The World Bank promotes long-term economic development and poverty reduction by providing technical and financial support to help countries reform certain sectors or implement specific projects—such as building schools and health centers, providing water and electricity, fighting disease, and protecting the environment. World Bank assistance is generally long term and is funded both by member country contributions and through bond issuance. World Bank staff are often specialists on particular issues, sectors, or techniques.
WTO Mandate
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
ICC Mandate
The core mandate of the ICC is to act as a court of last resort with the capacity to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes when national jurisdictions for any reason are unable or unwilling to do so.
Compliance
The law of comparative advantage and gains from trade Incentives for trade violations: protect a politically important sector or, simply, to cheat during the SR Distributional consequences for trade: win/win, overall, but some gain relative to others (capital- versus labor-intensive industries) Example: VER slapped on Japanese car manufacturers, hormone-treated beef EU versus the US
the politics power and pathologies of international organizations
The main argument made by the two authors is that many IOs stray away from their intended purpose and exercise autonomy from states' interests in ways that were not originally anticipated. The title itself lays out that IOs can form pathologies in which their behavior deviates from what is expected. Specifically, the authors use arguments by Weber regarding bureaucracy and institutionalism to argue that IOs channel their power in particular directions, separate from their originally intended purpose. They do this by creating and defining actors, interests, and different types of political organization. Additionally, the authors acknowledge that IOs are the products of states and because of that they are a bit constrained by states interests but not entirely.
The meaning of development: overview
The meanings attributed to "development" has shifted over time Poverty became a defining feature during the 1960s and 1970s, with focus also moving from states to individuals During this time, no significant change in the number or condition of the poor, nor political power among LDCs World Bank instrumental in causing this shift
WTO: major contributions
Three major contributions to the international trading system: Establish rules that govern how members can set domestic policies that affect international trade Requires that members maintain public lists of import tariffs for all products which cannot be altered except through multilateral negotiation Sets up dispute-settlement mechanisms Enforcement by member states, themselves, not central authority
Overview: WTO II
Trade Policy Review Mechanism and Dispute Settlement Mechanism (step 1: diplomatic solutions, from reps of all member countries; step 2: ad hoc panel of experts to issue report) Dispute Settlement Mechanism Appellate Body: decisions binding when adopted by consensus in the Dispute Settlement Body Dispute Settlement Mechanism = busiest international adjudicatory body Overwhelmingly used by US and EU Politically weaker states may not wish to disturb "waters" and process = costly
Varieties of governance
Traditional, country-level and diverse stakeholder models Millennium village: problem of attribution OECD's DAC and broadening participation MNCs: new norms and the Global Compact Civil society: HIV/AIDS
UN role in economic development and foreign aid
UN General Assembly: normative and operational roles World Bank mobilizes capital, whereas UN provides technical support UN: source of ideas and discourse, and critical role of developing statistics Millennium Development Goals (2000): unifying framework and use of performance indicators; Sustainable Development Goals (2015) Bilateral aid, private international finance and international trade: the outcome on development and economic growth
Case study: shrimp and turtles
US passed legislation in 1989 banning imports of shrimp from countries that did not use turtle excluder devices US found guilty of contravening Article 1 of GATT Environmental groups angered Alternative: US could have imposed rules on all members Do "like products" encompass production processes? What = implications for sovereign nations?
Constructing sound economies
Use of Fund's resources now conditional upon policy implementation on part of country requesting help Policies have gone beyond the original Articles of Agreement In the 1960s, inclusion of newly independent states with lower level of economic development Domestic credit and budget constraint not as successful in these countries compared with industrialized economies The Fund extended the number and variety of performance criteria for lending during the troubled 1970s
Law and the use of force
Use of force in self-defense accepted, providing basis for Security Council's authorization for action in Kuwait, 1990 Use of force must be proportional to provocation (Israeli response in 2006 and 2009 to attack by Hezbollah and Hamas from Lebanon questioned) UN Security Council and the US invasion of Iraq, 2003
Main points
WB, as arbiter of development norms and meanings Modus operandi: prestige and power, legitimacy as a multilateral institution Structural adjustment programs still framed in terms of "poverty alleviation" Like with the IMF, new meanings and mandates led to greater infringements on national sovereignty.
Enforcement
WTO's powers over enforcement are limited to identifying what counts as a violation of the rules and then authorizing members to punish violators WTO provides institutional path for disputes designed to reinforce the incentives for self-interested compliance Panel of three, Apellate Body, and Dispute Settlement Body About 2/3 of disputes are resolved before reaching the DSB. Imposition of sanctions
WTO: Overview
WTO: enforces a set of rules that limit choices available to member countries and territories with respect to international trade Interpreting WTO rules = an industry on its own (e.g., what = "normal value" of export goods?) Main component = GATT (1947), covering import/export of most goods; GATS = services; TRIPS = intellectual property; host of other agreements covering agriculture, as well as dispute resolution processes In total, 97 percent of world trade is conducted among WTO members and 99 percent of import tariffs of developed countries bound by WTO
Review: Bretton Woods Institutions
World Bank: reconstruction efforts for war-damaged economies IMF: short-term aid for balance of payments problems, ensure monetary stability GATT: diminish barriers to trade, superseding ITO Each institution has shifted mandates and configuration, but the liberal order was still holding strong in the 1990s, with the emergence of the Washington Consensus (public expenditures for pro-growth ends, privatization of industry, liberalization of trade and foreign direct investment, fiscal discipline, deregulation and tax reform) See Rodrik's article
World income and population distribution
World income distribution = share of world's population living in countries across the range of average incomes, measured in PPP Twin peaks: 70% of world's population GDP per capita below PPP$13,000; 15% of world's population GDP per capita above PPP$30,000 - middle income countries falling towards the low end (peaks?) PPP to compare living conditions, but relative purchasing power also of importance (repay debts, import capacity, migration incentives, multilateral negotiating power) Author suggests that wealth concentrated in few, small countries, but what about China and India and respective growing influence?
Regulative vs constitutive norm
we distinguish between regulative norms that describe obligations, prohibitions and permissions, and constitutive norms that regulate the creation of institutional facts as well as the modification of the norma- tive system itself.
