Intro to Logic First Midterm
Fallacies. Children should be seen and not heard. Therefore, it was wrong for that drowning child to scream for help.
Accident.
In the categorical proposition "All wiretaps that are approved without a warrant are surveillance techniques that are not legal" the quality is:
Affirmative.
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. Some A are not non-B. (F) Contradiction
All A are non-B. (T)
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. All non-A are B. (T) Contraposition
All non-B are A. (T)
Translate the following categorical proposition: None but benefactors are philanthropists.
All philanthropists are benefactors.
Translate the following categorical proposition: Wherever there is water there is life.
All places there is water are places there is life.
Translate the following categorical proposition: He says whatever comes to mind.
All things that come to mind are things he says.
Translate the following categorical proposition: Marriages are not tolerable unless they are loving.
All tolerable marriages are loving marriages.
In the categorical proposition "All wiretaps that are approved without a warrant are surveillance techniques that are not legal" the quantifier is:
All.
Fallacies. The president of our college has promised to stop drinking on campus. Apparently the president has a drinking problem.
Amphiboly.
Fallacies. You had better believe in God, because if you don't, then you'll suffer the torment of eternal damnation.
Appeal to force.
Fallacies. Nobody has ever proved that the Big Bang theory of the universe is true. Therefore, we must conclude that the Big Bang theory is false.
Appeal to ignorance.
Fallacies. Can you believe that some parents want to control their kids' access to the internet? Who are these autocrats who insist on imposing their views on others? This country was born in a spirit of freedom and self determination. Countless patriots have died to preserve our sacred values. We must cherish those values! We must nurture them in our children! End all mind control now and forever!
Appeal to people.
Fallacies. Members of the jury, surely you will not find defendant Carlos guilty of burglary. Carlos is a visitor from our neighbor to the south, where he has eight young brothers and sisters. Those poor kid and their impoverished mother live a desperate hand-to-mouth existence. Carlos was hoping only to send a few more dollars home to ease their suffering. In the name of humanity, you must vote to acquit this caring broth.
Appeal to pity.
Fallacies. Practically everyone has driven me home at one time or other after having had a few drinks. Therefore, you shouldn't have any problem with me driving home now, even though you're a bit tipsy.
Appeal to the people.
Fallacies. Mr. Quigley, who is a lobbyist for the oil industry, says that the government should subsidize oil exploration. In view of Mr. Quigley's credentials, it follows that the government should certainly do this.
Appeal to unqualified authority.
In the categorical proposition "All wiretaps that are approved without a warrant are surveillance techniques that are not legal" the copula is:
Are.
Fallacies. Professor Smyth argues for the adoption of stronger standards covering food imported from China. Both Smyth is a disgusting leftist ex hippie who reportedly has sex with his female students. Smyth's arguments are trash, just as he is.
Argument against the person, abusive.
Fallacies. Benny has argued for a long time for a new national park in Montana, but you really shouldn't listen to him. Benny owns a general store in the proposed vicinity, and if the park is created, he stands to profit handsomely from the flow of visitors.
Argument against the person, circumstantial.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? There appears to be a growing happiness gap between men and women. Women today are working more and relaxing less, while men are working less and relaxing more. Forty years ago a typical woman spent 40 minutes more per week than the typical man performing an activity considered unpleasant. Today, with men working less, the gap is 90 minutes and growing.
Argument; Conclusion: There appears to be... between men and women.
Argument or nonargument? Humans are biological organisms. To understand our behavior and mental processes, we need to understand their biological underpinnings, starting with the cellular level, the neuron. How we feel, learn, remember, and think all stem from neuronal activity. So, how a neuron works and how neurons communicate are crucial pieces of information in solving the puzzle of human behavior and mental processing.
Argument; conclusion: How a neuron works...mental processing.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? It is even more important these days that your computer be protected by a firewall. There are criminal elements lurking in the shadows of cyberspace who send out probes to detect unprotected PCs. Once a vulnerable computer is found, these criminals install software that assists them in committing identity theft and fencing stolen IDs. They also defraud online advertisers by using these zombie computers to visit pay-per-click ads.
Argument; conclusion: It 's even more important... protected by a firewall.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? It is likely that innocent prisoners in this country have been executed for crimes they did not commit. From 1973 until 2007, 124 death row inmates have been exonerated. In many of these cases DNA evidence played a crucial role. Yet, in the same time frame, more than 1000 prisoners were executed. For many of these prisoners no DNA evidence was available. If such evidence had been available, how many more would have been exonerated?
Argument; conclusion: It is likely that innocent prisoners... they did not commit.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Illegal immigrants pay local sales taxes, and many of them also pay state, local, and federal income tax and social security tax. They also purchase items from local merchants, increasing the amount these merchants pay in taxes. In addition, they work for low salaries, which increases the earnings of their employers and the amount of taxes these employers pay. Thus, it is not correct to say that illegal immigrants contribute nothing to the communities in which they live.
Argument; conclusion: It is not correct to say... communities in which they live.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Some over-the counter medicines should not be given to very young children. For example, cold medicines contain decongestants and antihistamines. These substances raise blood pressure and heart rate. If an overdose should occur in a young child, the result could be fatal.
Argument; conclusion: Some over-the-counter medicines...very young children.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? The world-wide disappearance of frogs may be the result of agricultural runoff. Scientists have shown that runoff rich in fertilizer causes a pronounced increase in the algae of lakes and ponds. Snails then gorge themselves on the algae, causing parasites living inside them to produce huge quantities of eggs. When the eggs hatch, the parasites infect young frogs, causing severe deformation of their limbs.
Argument; conclusion: The world-wide disappearance... agricultural runoff.
Fallacies. The Bible is unquestionably true because deep in my heart I feel that it is.
Begging the question.
Fallacies. The government has no right to spy on its citizens because citizens have a right to privacy. And this is true because such a right is guaranteed by the constitution- which follows from the fact that our founding fathers recognized the sanctity of individual privacy against the intrusive power of the government. And of course this is true because the government has no right to spy on its citizens.
Begging the question.
Fallacies. Eddie, one of your friends was asking about you the other day. He wanted to know if you were still having sex with 14-year old girls. What should I tell him the next time I see him? Are you still doing it?
Complex question.
Fallacies. Every member of the Viking Society was born in Norway. Therefore, the Viking Society was born in Norway.
Composition.
All non-A are B. (T) Some non-A are not B.
Contradiction (F)
Some non-A are non-B. (F) Some B are A.
Contraposition (Und)
No non-A are non-B. (F) All non-A are non-B.
Contrary (Und)
Some A are non-B. (T) Some non-B are A.
Conversion (T)
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Given that figure A is a triangle, and one of its sides has a length of 1 foot. It follows that its area is less that 1 square foot.
Deductive, invalid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? If organic food contains pesticides, then consumers are misled. Organic food does not contain pesticides. Therefore, consumers are not misled.
Deductive, invalid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? If the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe is billions of years old. And if the Big Bang theory is correct, then the universe was not created in six days. Thus, if the universe is billions of years old, then it was not created in six days.
Deductive, invalid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? No drug cartels are legal operations, so no legal operations are enterprises that engage in smuggling, because all drug cartels are enterprises that engage in smuggling.
Deductive, invalid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Given that x^2+2x=15. It follows that x=3.
Deductive, valid
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? All aerobic exercises are calorie burners and all calorie burners are weight reducers. Thus, all aerobic exercises are wight reducers.
Deductive, valid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Brandon is a polytheist. Therefore, he believes in more than one god.
Deductive, valid.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Either Bill Clinton or George W. Bush was president when the World Trade Center towers were destroyed. But Bush was not president at that time. Therefore, Bill Clinton was president when those buildings were destroyed.
Deductive, valid.
Fallacies. This cherry pie is delicious. Therefore, every ingredient in this pie is delicious.
Division.
The proposition: "No flight delays are occurrences welcomed by passengers" is an: A,E,I,O,U?
E type.
Fallacies. Astronomers study stars. Nicole Kidman is a star. Therefore, astronomers study Nicole Kidman.
Equivocation.
Fallacies. Irving is a wonderful cook. But every cook is a human being. Therefore, Irving is a wonderful human being.
Equivocation.
Fallacies. My friend Connie used a green Bic pen to solve the problems on her last algebra test, and after the test was graded she got an A. So if you want to get an A in algebra, you should work all the test problems with a green Bic pen.
False cause.
Fallacies. The number of alcoholics has risen steadily for the past 20 years, and so has the number of treatment centers. Therefore, to cut down on alcoholism we should eliminate the treatment centers.
False cause.
Fallacies. Either you spend $200 on a pair of True Religion Jeans, or everybody will think you're out of style. It's up to you.
False dichotomy.
Fallacies. While driving on the freeway a big truck cut me off when it changed lanes. A few days earlier another truck tailgated me, and yet another refused to dim its lights. The conclusion is obvious that truckers these days are as rude as they are reckless.
Hasty generalization.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? After buying a pair of Blue Atlas jeans, Carter was disappointed to find that they fell apart after only one month. The same thing happened to Jeff, Mario, and Ralph. Apparently, Blue Atlas jeans don't hold up very well.
Inductive, strong.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? After hearing Jordan's speech in the student council, Michael rolled his eyes and shook his head. Apparently Michael didn't agree with what Jordan said.
Inductive, strong.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? As the universe expands, it gets colder and colder. Furthermore, this expansion will continue for ever and ever. Therefore, at some point in the future the universe will become too cold to support human life, and all humans will perish.
Inductive, strong.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? James Bloomfield, the widely respected expert on art authentication, says that the painting recently discovered in the basement of the art museum is a genuine Picasso. Therefore, we conclude that the painting is indeed a genuine Picasso.
Inductive, strong.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? The engraved plate beneath this painting in the art museum says "Monet." Therefore, the painting must be the work of Monet.
Inductive, strong.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Astrological calculations indicate that the U.S. stock market will crash in the year 2018. Therefore, you should get your money out of the market before that year.
Inductive, weak.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Canada is similar in many ways to the United States. Both countries share the same language, values, and a free market economy. Also, they share a common border. Therefore, the Canadian flag must look a lot like the U.S. flag.
Inductive, weak.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? Graffiti painted on the vacant building says "Boycott Meat." Therefore, it's clear that we should all become vegetarians.
Inductive, weak.
Identify and evaluate: inductive or deductive? When Jack took his car in for service, the mechanic charged him for lots of work that didn't need to be done. The same thing happened to Niki and Claire. Apparently mechanics these days are just a bunch of crooks.
Inductive, weak.
It is false that some four-sided triangles are commonplace figures. Therefore, some four-sided triangles are not commonplace figures.
Invalid, existential fallacy.
No expensive lawsuits are friendly exchanges. Therefore, no unfriendly exchanges are inexpensive lawsuits.
Invalid, illicit contraposition.
It is false that no exercise machines are cumbersome devices. Therefore, all exercise machines are cumbersome devices.
Invalid, illicit contrary.
Some student loans are not lifetime burdens. Therefore, some lifetime burdens are not student loans.
Invalid, illicit conversion.
Some mistakes are not enduring tragedies. Therefore, no mistakes are enduring tragedies.
Invalid, illicit subalternation.
Some painkillers are not addictive medicines. Therefore, some painkillers are addictive medicines.
Invalid, illicit subcontrary.
Fallacies. Jim, It's clear that you want that job with the Acme accounting agency. Therefore, to improve your chances, you should tell the interviewer that if he doesn't give you the job you will kidnap on of his children.
Missing the point.
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. All A are B. (T) Contrary
No A are B. (F)
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. No non-A are B. (T) Conversion
No B are non-A. (T)
Fallacies. By accident Shelley left her old fashioned flashlight turned on all night. Therefore, it's likely that the batteries are dead.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Dr. David Sherman of the National Skin Cancer Society reports that tanning salons pose a serious risk for skin cancer. Therefore, we should consider legislation to regulate the tanning industry.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Either Kansas or Ohio is situated on the Mississippi River. But Ohio is not on the Mississippi. Therefore, it must be Kansas.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Every squirrel that has ever been observed likes nuts. Therefore, probably every squirrel likes nuts.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Every tile on this kitchen floor is light blue in color. Therefore, the entire floor is light blue in color.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. It's not possible that Jessica prepared this delicious meal all by herself. Jessica is too stupid to read a cookbook, she can't measure anything, she has absolutely no sense of taste, and she doesn't even know how to boil water.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. No spoiled brats are good childhood companions. Therefore, no good childhood companions are spoiled brats.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Nobody has ever heard a monkey talk. Therefore, probably monkeys don't talk.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. Randy, you have a good eye. Tell me: Do you think this dress makes me look too fat?
No fallacy.
Fallacies. The Ionic Blast hairdryer does a great job removing the frizz from Francesca's hair. Therefore, since Gabriella's hair is virtually identical to Francesca's, probably the Ionic Blast would do a good job removing the frizz from Gabriella's hair.
No fallacy.
Fallacies. The Northern Express railway train is headed north. Therefore, every care on that train is headed north.
No fallacy.
Translate the following categorical proposition: Soft drinks are not alcoholic.
No soft drinks are alcoholic beverages.
Translate the following categorical proposition: Easter never occurs in February.
No times Easter occurs are times in February.
Translate the following categorical proposition: All of the tools except the wrenches are rusted.
No wrenches are tools that are rusted, and all tools that are not wrenches are tools that are rusted.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? An element is a collection of atoms of the same type. Each atom contains three fundamental particles-a proton, a neutron, and an electron. The protons and neutrons are in the center, or nucleus, of the atom. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have no electric charge. The electrons have a negative charge and orbit about the nucleus at a specific distance.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Aristotle focused on clarifying the concept of virtue itself. He argued that it was virtuous to choose the proper amount of emotion and/or action called for in a particular situation and that extremes of emotion and action were vices. In all communities there are some men of practical wisdom who have the capacity to judge wisely. Aristotle argued that they have the capactiy to follow the "right rule" whatever the situation.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? If the trade in tiger products is banned, tiger reserves are guarded by well equipped staff, communities abutting tiger habitat are given a stake in protecting tigers, and the makers of traditional medicines can be persuaded that tiger parts are not needed, then tiger poaching will be halted, habitat and life sustaining prey will be restored, and the immanent extinction of tigers in the wild will be averted.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Little is known of the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived around 400 B.C. Nevertheless, the writings attributed to him have provided a number of principles underlying modern medical practice. One of his most famous contribution, the Hippocratic Oath, is the foundation of contemporary medical ethics. It requires the physician to swear that he or she will help the sick, refrain from intentional wrongdoing, and keep confidential all matters pertaining to the doctor-patient relationship.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Numerous studies have indicated that women of color, black women in particular, are over-arrested, over-indicted, and over-sentenced. African-American women are seven times more likely to be arrested for prostitution than women of other ethnic groups. Black women have received significantly longer sentences for crimes against property and served longer periods in prison. For both murder, and drug offenses, Euroamerican women ended up serving one-third less time for the same offenses than black women.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? The earth is of interest to astronomy for many reasons. Nearly all observations must be made through the atmosphere, an the phenomena of the upper atmosphere and the magnetosphere reflect the state of interplanetary space. The earth is also the most important object of comparison for planetologists.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Two million children have been killed in armed conflicts in the last decade. Three times as many have been injured or permanently disabled. Millions of others have been forced to take part in or witness horrifying acts of violence. In countless cases the impact of armed conflict on children's lives remains invisible. The children themselves may be removed from the public, in institutions, or survive as victims of prostitution. But those who have lost parents often experience humiliation, rejection and discrimination, and suffer in silence as their self-esteem crumbles.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Viruses are acellular entities too small to be seen with a light microscope. They are composed of a nucleic acid and a few proteins. Viruses replicate themselves and display other properties of living organisms only when they have invaded living cells. Indeed, some viruses can be crystallized and stored in a container on a shelf for years, but they retain the capacity to invade cells and cause disease.
Nonargument.
Argument or Nonargument? What is the conclusion? Lead is toxic, but do you know why? Lead is toxic mainly because it preferentially replaces other metals in biochemical reaction. In so doing it interferes with the proteins that regulate blood pressure (which can lead to anemia), and sperm production. Lead also displaces calcium in the reaction that transmit electrical impulses in the brain, which diminishes the ability to think and recall information.
Nonargument.
Harnessing the clean, abundant energy of the sun and wind is critical to solving the global warming problem. Technological advances have brought the cost of electricity generated by the wind down by 82 percent since 1981. Solar energy technology has made remarkable progress as new photovoltaic cells have been developed to convert even greater amounts of sunlight directly into electricity. Today the costs of wind and solar power are becoming competitive with dirty coal-fired plants.
Nonargument.
Some A are not non-B. (T) Some A are B.
Obversion (T)
Fallacies. Pet owners argue for a law to ensure that pet food is free of lethal contaminations. Apparently they are unaware that half the children of the world eat contaminated food and drink polluted water every day. Thousands of these kids die regularly from cholera. The nations of the world should unite to halt this ongoing tragedy. In the mean time, we can forget about pets.
Red herring.
Fallacies. Your little Tommy wants a slingshot for his birthday, but you shouldn't give him one. If you do, next he'll want a B-B gun. Then a 22 rifle. After that it will be a high powered rifle, and then a Uzi and an AK-47. Soon he'll want a bazooka and after that an aircraft gun. In no time your home will become an armory.
Slippery slope.
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. Some A are non-B. (F) Obversion
Some A are not B. (F)
Given the categorical proposition: "All Emmy winners are celebrities." If both the quality and the quantity are changed, the resulting proposition is:
Some Emmy winners are not celebrities.
Translate the following categorical proposition: There is a bed in the attic.
Some beds are things in the attic.
Which of the categorical propositions is in standard form? No mutual funds are completely without risk. No physicians are immune from making mistakes. Not every restaurant serves organic food. Some carwashes are solar powered operations. All sleep aids are not drugs without side effects.
Some carwashes are solar powered operations.
Given that the categorical proposition: "No corporations are real persons." If the quantity but not the quality is changed, the resulting proposition is:
Some corporations are not real persons.
Translate the following categorical proposition: An eagle circled overhead.
Some eagles are birds that circled overhead.
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. All non-A are B. (F) Subalternation
Some non-A are B. (Und.)
You are given a statement, its truth value in parentheses, and an operation to be performed on that statement. Identify the new statement and the truth value of the new statement. Some non-A are not B. (T) Subcontrary
Some non-A are B. (Und.)
Translate the following categorical proposition: Few students are truly dedicated.
Some students are truly dedicated people, and some students are not truly dedicated people.
Given the categorical proposition: "Some teaching careers are not rewarding occupations." If the quality but not the quantity is changed, the resulting proposition is:
Some teaching careers are rewarding occupations.
Fallacies. Karen argues that it's not right to post the photographs of convicted child molesters on the internet. Obviously Karen supports child molestation. But these monsters have completely ruined the lives of thousands of children. They can't be allowed to wreak their havoc any longer. Clearly, Karen's argument is misguided.
Straw man.
Some non-A are not B. (F) No non-A are B.
Subalternation (F)
Some A are B. (F) Some A are not B.
Subcontrary (T)
Fallacies. Global warming has never been a big problem in the past. Therefore, it won't be a big problem in the future.
Suppressed evidence.
Fallacies. If cleaner cars are produced, then there will be fewer greenhouse gasses. There will be fewer greenhouse gasses. Therefore, cleaner cars will be produced.
This argument contains a formal fallacy.
All advertisements are attempts to deceive. Therefore, it is false that no advertisements are attempts to deceive.
Valid, no fallacy.
All married bachelors are polygamists. Therefore, it is false that some married bachelors are not polygamists.
Valid, no fallacy.
All werewolves are unwelcome companion. Therefore, No werewolves are welcome companions.
Valid, no fallacy.
It is false that some identity crises are tranquil happenings. Therefore, some identity crises are not tranquil happenings.
Valid, no fallacy.
No credit crunches are financial blessing. Therefore, some credit crunches are not financial blessings.
Valid, no fallacy.
No mint juleps are sour concoctions. Therefore, no sour concoctions are mints juleps.
Valid, no fallacy.
Some happy endings are not unplanned outcomes. Therefore, some planned outcomes are not unhappy endings.
Valid, no fallacy.
Fallacies. Those boarding a city bus are never required to pass through a security checkpoint. Therefore, those boarding an airliner should not be required to pass through a security checkpoint.
Weak analogy.
In the categorical proposition "All wiretaps that are approved without a warrant are surveillance techniques that are not legal" the subject term is:
Wiretaps that are approved without a warrant
Fallacies. Our weightlifting coach urges with great conviction about the dangers of steroids, but you really can't take him seriously. I've been told by a trustworthy source that when the coach was our age he popped steroid pills every day.
You, too (tu quoque)
In the categorical proposition "All wiretaps that are approved without a warrant are surveillance techniques that are not legal" the subject term is ... and the predicate term is...
distributed, undistributed.
