Introduction to Sociology - Test 2

Advantages & Disadvantages of Bureaucracy

(+) Efficient & Division of Labor (-) "Service without Smile" - Goal of efficiency overtook the members of the organization so much that any attempt at personal connection is gone. (-) "Rules are rules" - Blind following the rules. Leads to Trained Incapacity. (-) "Goal Displacement" - So effective that sometimes the original purpose of the organization is subverted to another purpose. Can cure the problem (March of Dimes). (-) "Work expands to fill the time available" - Known as Parkinson's Law. (-) "Peter Principle" - People will be demoted to the level of their incompetence.

Merton's 4 Categories of Prejudice & Discrimination.

1) All Weather Bigot 2) Fair Weather Bigot 3) All Weather Liberal 4) Fair Weather Liberal

How do people find themselves enslaved?

1) Debt - If you can't pay your bill, the restaurant makes you roll up your sleeves & wash the dishes. 2) Violation of Law - Especially problematic; Sentence might be a slave to the people you've harmed. 3) War & Conquest - Usually a sign of your side losing & being enslaved by the victor.

Ways to Determine Race

1) GENETICS - There is actually more variation within races as there is across races, so it's not a good way to categorize race. 2) LEGAL - The 1/8 rule. If you are 1/8 nonwhite, you're not white. Used for segregation. 3) SOCIAL - If we present ourselves as a member of that race, then other people categorize you as that race. It's a self-selection model; you can choose different races. How you present yourself & if others respond/buy into that presentation.

Main Characteristics of Bureaucracy

1) Hierarchy 2) Division of Labor 3) Written Rules 4) Written Communications & Records 5) Impersonality

Economic Stages

1) Hunting & Gathering 2) Pastoral/Horticultural 3) Agricultural 4) Industrial 5) Post-Industrial

Why are Total Institutions Effective

1) Isolation from the outside world - The flow of information & influences are controlled & they are swayed toward the goals of the organization. With isolation comes... 2) Spending all time in same place with the same people - People in charge or others that are part of the organization with you. Culture becomes all-important & people hold you accountable. 3) Giving up clothes/possessions for uniforms - Erasing or taking away identity so that you're primed for having new ideas/identities impressed upon you. We are strongly drive by a desire to differentiate ourselves, so this is particularly hard. 4) Clean break with the past - Little or no contact with friends & relatives. Your "new" self replaces undesirable "old" features. 5) Loss of freedom of action - All behaviors are under the control of authority (when you wake up, when/what you eat, when you're allowed to shower). Overtime, we develop Learned Helplessness because we stop fighting the authority & give in/allow it to happen. This primes us for replacing the old norms with new norms.

What does Surplus allow?

1) Populations to grow. 2) Populations to settle in one place. No longer nomadic. 3) Populations to develop a specialized division of labor. 4) Populations to trade among different groups.

Justifications for Punishments

1) Retribution 2) Deterrence 3) Rehabilitation 4) Social Protection *All four overlap.

Models of Social Stratification

1) Rock Layers - There is very little mobility/flexibility. Limestone in the middle of the rock doesn't get to be on top. Only if a flood comes and top three layers are eroded away, which probably won't ever happen. 2) Ladder Model - Easier to climb or to fall back down.

Systems of Stratification

1) Slavery 2) Caste 3) Clan 4) Class

Perspectives of Deviance

1) Statistical (non-sociological) 2) Absolutist (non-sociological) 3) Normative (sociological) 4) Relativistic (sociological)

Main Ways that Crime Data is Collected

1) Uniform Crime Reports 2) National Crime Victimization Survey

Ways to Categorize Crime

1) Violent 2) Property 3) Victimless 4) Felonies 5) Misdemeanors

2) Aggregate

A collection of people in the same place at the same time. Ex: Everyone in the Eastern Iowa Airport right now. Everyone at a particular concert on a particular day. Everyone who got to Wrigley Field for the Cub's opening day.

Three Dimensions used to Determine an Individual's Social Class

1) Wealth - Property & income. 2) Power - The ability to carry out one's desires, in spite of opposition from others. 3) Prestige - Respect or regard. *All mix together. There's no clear-cut determination of class.

Types of Social Interaction

1. Nonverbal Behavior 2. Exchange 3. Cooperation 4. Conflict 5. Competition

Group

2+ people having something in common that's somewhat meaningful & have ongoing interaction over time. Ex: Students in the same class. There are other situations in which we have bunches of people that aren't technically this... 1) Category 2) Aggregate

1) Category

A collection of people who have similar characteristics. They will never be in the same place at the same time. Ex: All the blondes in the world don't get together for a club meeting.

Primary Group

A group characterized by intimate, long-term face-to-face association & cooperation. Less about a particular function, more expressive. Ex: Family.

Minority Groups

A group of people who are singled out for different & unequal treatment. Treated poorly because they're a member of a particular race. Does not have to do with numbers. It's not just the smallest group in society. Ex: 85% of the population is non-white in South Africa. 15% are white. Most of the power is in the hands of the white people. Even though they're numerically a small fraction of the population, they're still the dominant group. Non-white population is still considered the minority group in this situation.

2) Caste

A status is determined by birth & is lifelong. No matter how beautiful, talented, or brilliant you are, you will remain in the caste you are born into. The only chances of moving up is the whole group or the whole caste moving up because another group or caste moves down. Endogamy - Marriage is within one's own group/caste. Strongly controlled, if not arranged. Known to be a Rock-Layer Model. Bases - Usually religious. Mobility - Some, but only by movement of the whole caste.

Bureaucracy

A system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.

2) Pastoral/Horticultural Stage

Accidentally discover domestication. Society has surplus, or more than they need. Ex: Horticultural - Lisa is a corn farmer, but she trips & drops corn kernels. In a short period of time, there are corn plants growing where she tripped. Realization that they can plant their own seeds. Ex: Pastoral - Killed a mountain goat. Realized it had kids. Ate mama mountain goat, and bring kid mountain goats back to home & realize they can raise them to get bigger & they can have more meat to eat.

Role Set

All roles attached to a single status. Statuses have multiple roles. This is a hypothetical/theoretical construct. Becomes important as we find ourselves in complex situations when we occupy more statuses. Each status has a bunch of role sets. This can lead to problematic situations... Two negative outcomes can occur based on the statuses & roles... 1) Role Strain 2) Role Conflict

Matthew Effect

Also known as Accumulated Advantage. The rich get richer. The poor get poorer. This happens because if you have power, capital, money, or prestige, you can use these things to get more. It takes money to earn money. Concept was made by Robert K. Merton, who got it from the Gospel of Matthew.

Racism

Any attitude or practice that favors one racial or ethnic group over another. Contains attitudinal & behavioral components. Attitudinal = Prejudice. Behavioral = Discrimination.

3. a) Spontaneous Cooperation

Arises from the needs of a particular situation. Ex: All of a sudden, the first row of lights fall on the first row of students. Everyone else in the class will help in different ways, even though there is no "drill" for this particular accident.

1) Hierarchy

Assignments flow downward & accountability flows upward. Allowed to give orders to those below you. Assignments are given to you from those above you. Ex: Coe has a loose hierarchical structure: Board of Trustees > President McInally > VP of Academics > Chair of Department > Professors > Students.

Prejudice

Attitudinal component of racism. An irrationally-based attitude toward certain groups and their members. Ex: I don't like baseball hats. Everyone who wears a baseball hat I call "cappers".

4) Class

Based primarily on money or material possessions. Allows for (but does not guarantee) Social Mobility - Movement up or down in social class. Social Class - Based on Weber, A large group of people who are similar on 3 key traits... (1) Wealth (2) Power (3) Prestige. The three variables account for the amount on variance in social class. Known to be a Ladder Model. Basis - Economic/Money. Mobility - Very possibly, up or down.

Adult Socialization

Because socialization is a life-long process, the 6th agent of socialization (Work place) fits here. The process by which adults learn new roles & statuses. Involves additional information & expectation of norms. Learning new roles & doing things we haven't done before. For example, if you become a parent, you'll be socialized into what being a parent entails.

Discrimination

Behavioral component of racism. Differential treatment accorded to individuals who are assumed to belong to a particular category or group. Ex: I'm going to make everyone who wears baseball hats sit at the back of the room.

4) Industrial Stage

Birth of machines. Invention of the steam engine. Represents the stage in which we have more people who are consumers than people who are producers.

Is Social Status considered Ascribed or Achieved?

Can be either. Mr. & Mrs. Low-Class give their child an ascribed status at birth. However... Baby Low-Class can go to college & achieve a new, higher status.

Capitalism

Characterized by (1) Private Ownership, (2) Pursuit of Profit, and (3) Market Competition.

Socialism

Characterized by (1) Public Ownership, (2) Distribution of Goods Without a Profit Motive, (3) Central Planning.

Trained Incapacity

Compulsive rule-following. When confronted with new situations, the bureaucrats do not know what to do. They cannot innovate.

Ascribed Status

Conferred upon us by virtue of birth or other factors not controlled by our actions/decisions. Ex: Being someone's child. You did nothing to be born; it's not your fault that you were born. You had no say in the matter. Doesn't have to be at birth. Ex: Being the oldest child... Weren't born a sibling, a sibling was born (not by your choice) later in your life.

Mixed Economies

Contains elements of capitalism & socialism. Ex: The US is predominately capitalist, however, not everything follows capitalism.

How are Merton's Modes of Adaptation to Anomie related to Crime & Deviance?

Crime rates are high in societies where people are completely dependent on the labor market for the resources necessary for survival. Crime rates are low in societies that guarantee an acceptable level of income regardless of participation in the labor market. However, researchers have found that not all deviance stems from gaps between goals & means of attaining those goals.

Roles

Culturally-defined rules for proper behavior associated with every status. Ex: Status = Student. Roles that go along with student: Study, participate, attend class, go "out", work, socialize, sleep, eat, register, pay tuition bills, etc.

1) Uniform Crime Reports

FBI Jurisdictions collect & report to the FBI the number of crimes occurring in the past 12 months. This is voluntary - May choose to provide info or not provide info. Types of Violent Crimes: Murder, Rape, Robbery, Assault. Types of Property Crimes: Theft, Auto theft, Burglary, Arson. All 8 types of crime make up this Index. Benefits of the Index - (1) Allows us to see change in crime overtime. (2) Easily Categorized. (3) Allows us to see where the crimes are occurring. Disadvantages of the Index - (1) Doesn't consider the situation. (2) Doesn't cover wide range of crimes. (3) Potential to marginalize/demote groups within cities. (4) ***Only reports the known crime.***

1) Statistical Perspective of Deviance

Defines deviance as a behavior that is rare or infrequent. Whatever the majority of people do is "normal". Completely ignores cultural norms & values. Just focuses on numerical/statistical stuff. Ex: Applied to Alcohol Use: Approximately 66% of adults in the US drink at least occasionally. 34% of adults in the US never drink. Not drinking alcohol is deviant.

4) Relativistic Perspective of Deviance

Defines deviance as a label (not necessarily a behavior) applied to some behaviors performed by some people in some places at some times. This label is applied by others. Deviance is in the eye of the beholder. It is not intrinsic/inherent. Certain people have the power to determine what is considered deviant. Ex: Applied to Alcohol Use: Is it deviant? It depends... If Lisa drinks a beer, we're not surprised. If she drinks a beer during class instead of her usual Diet Coke, then we'll see her as deviant.

2) Absolutist Perspective of Deviance

Defines deviance is a behavior that violates accepted values & the public morality. Some behaviors are absolutely deviant; there is no room for debate. They just are or they are not deviant. "All or Nothing". Deviance is seen as negative. Deviance goes against what "society" views as decent & correct.... Potential for harm: Is this harmful? Ex: Applied to Alcohol Use: Alcohol is either always okay, or never okay. People usually adhere to never using alcohol.

2) Division of Labor

Different social statuses have different tasks attached to them. More efficient & effective when someone is more specialized in a certain area. However, it also makes it easier to replace someone. Ex: President McInally doesn't have to write Lisa's tests. Lisa doesn't have to deal with the Caf running out of ranch.

Anomie

Emile Durkheim (Functionalist). Condition that leads to feelings of alienation. Feelings of being detached. Also referred to as being "atomized". We are a single atom of an element, floating around on our own. This is a negative, aversive state. We don't want to feel like we're bouncing around humanity by ourselves. Normlessness - Not having/understanding the norms. Don't fit in with society or follow their norms.

Impression Management

Erving Goffman provided an additional dimension to our understanding of self and socialization. He pointed out that only by influencing other people's ideas of who we are can we hope to predict/control who we become. We like to present ourselves to others in ways that will lead them to view us in a favorable way. By doing this, we use concealment & strategic revelation. Ex: "What should I wear to the party?!" The only reason you're thinking this is because you're trying to portray yourself in a certain way for other people to view you as favorable.

5) Impersonality

Everyone is supposed to be treated the same. Loyalty is to the office, not the individual. Ex: State schools wouldn't know if you are the person who is supposed to take an exam, so they require every student to bring their student IDS to the test to make sure.

Resocialization

Exposure to ideas or values that somehow conflict with what was learned in childhood. Continues to happen as life goes on & we experiences new things; we relearn things that we have already learned. For example, when we come to college, we are resocialized in that we take a shower with shoes on & carry our shampoo with us to the bathroom.

b) Deterrence

Fear of punishment should keep people from committing a crime. Works in different ways... (1) The thought of being caught & punished is what keeps us from doing crime. We're afraid of the consequences. (2) If caught & punished, the punishment should be bad enough that you're not going to want to re-offend. Wants to keep people from becoming a recidivist (repeat offenders). Does not work.

Anomie

Feelings of not belonging or being detached. Also referred to as being "atomized". We are a single atom, floating around on our own. This is a negative, aversive state. We don't want t o feel like we're bouncing around humanity by ourselves. Normlessness: not having or understanding the norms. Don't fit in with society or follow norms. We naturally find ourselves drawn into social groups.

Out-Group

Groups toward which one feels antagonism or hostility. Ex: Starbucks vs. Caribou Coffee. Sororities vs. Fraternities. Coe vs. Wartburg. Ford vs. Dodge. Vikings vs. Packers. Middle- vs. Upper-class. Democrats vs. Republicans.

In-Group

Groups toward which one feels loyalty. Function similarly to peer groups. Have a big influence on us for a few reasons... 1) Provide a sense of identification/belonging or attachment. Helps us avoid anomie. Sense of being a part of something bigger than us. 2) Give feelings of superiority. Cubs fans are still going to feel awesome even though the Cubs are not good baseball team. 3) Command loyalty. Makes us loyal. "I will defend this".

c) Rehabilitation

Improve the conditions of the offender so s/he won't commit future crimes. Thought that maybe people were not immoral/evil, but rather they may not have been brought up in a correct way, the social conditions they're currently in are not good, etc. By helping them, we can improve those individuals' lives & society by reducing the amount of crime. Very expensive (counselors, etc.) Sometimes works, however, most times does not. you have to want to be rehabilitated. Ex: cooking/selling meth & get arrested. part of the punishment is going to rehab. But really like making meth & I make a ton of money; I don't want to stop because I've got power & respect in that job.

5) Post-Industrial Stage

Information Age. Invention of the microchip. Economy that we are officially in right now. Characterized by a number of traits... (1) Extensive trade among nations/societies. (2) Large surplus of goods. We have so much more than we need to survive. However, this doesn't mean that everyone's needs are met.

3) Agricultural Stage

Invention of the plow, which digs a whole row of holes in a faster amount of time. Characterized by the growth of trade. Establishment of importance of cities because everyone who wants to trade comes to the city to sell. Eventually gives rise to currency. It's not a direct barter, but can just sell what you have to people who are looking for it.

1) Role Strain

Involves one status. When a single role has conflicting demands attached to it. Expectations clash. Ex: Status = student Role = Expectation of getting good grades to get good grades & pass the class. Role Strain = Need to participate just enough, but don't want to be "that kid".

3. c) Directed Cooperation

Join activity under the control of people in authority. Someone is in charge (boss/coach) & everyone else has certain tasks/chores to do, but they're fairly loosely defined. Ex: Team Sports: The punter on a football team's main jobs to punt the ball. If the returning team runs past everyone else, the punter is going to try to tackle the opposing runner. It's not technically a part of his "job", but he still knows he needs to do it.

d) Social Protection

Keep the general non-criminal public safe from dangerous criminals. Can do this by incarcerating in a total institution, by segregating the criminals from the non-criminals. Ex: Prison, execution.

Secondary Group

Large, formal, and somewhat impersonal group based on some interest or activity. Ex: A classroom. Athletic teams. Workplaces. There can be primary groups within these, just as there can be groups within aggregates. Ex: Having class (this) with your best friends (primary group). Going to a concert (aggregate) with your best friends (group).

5) Misdemeanor

Less serious offenses, punished less severely than felonies. Potential punishment is not very high.

4) Written Communications & Records

Major Communications & transactions are written down & kept on file. Ex: Unofficial transcript, Financial Aid, Write-ups.

Merton's Modes of Adaptation to Anomie

Merton built onto Durkheim's functionalist ideas but related the ideas to America. 1) Conformity - People accept the goal of material success & have the means to attain the goal in their society. This behavior is the backbone of a stable & properly functioning society. 2) Innovation - People accept the goal of material success, but do not have the means to attain the goal in their society so they find their own ways. Engage in drug dealing, prostitution, etc. 3) Ritualism - People obey norms by going through the motions, but they lack commitment to their roles & values of the system. Leads to others lacking in commitment to the system as well. 4) Retreatism - People reject the goal of material success & also reject the means to attain the goal in their society. Society drop-outs like drug addicts or wanderers. 5) Rebellion - People reject the goal of material success & also reject the means to attain the goal in their society & substitute new norms for them. Radical social movements/protests opposing the other side.

3) Clan

Most common in pre-industrial societies. Social standing received by belonging to an extended network of relatives. Based on who you're related to. They are the key defining feature in how much prestige you will have within society. The bigger the network, the higher the prestige. Exogamy - Marriage is across groups to expand networks. If the eldest daughter of a farmer gets married to a son in a family big in shipping, we expand our networks. Basis - Tradition/Family. Mobility - Some, but usually through marriage. Not as strict as caste.

3) Normative Perspective of Deviance

Most common perspective of deviance. Defines deviance as rule-breaking or norm-violating behavior within a given culture. Recognizes that we have norms (standards/expectations). Anything outside of the boundaries of a culture's norms is considered deviant. Ex: Applied to Alcohol Use: Some norms are codified/formalized into laws. No drinking & driving, or you'll get a DUI. Blood-alcohol content has to be under 0.08, etc.

4) Fair Weather Liberal

Not Prejudiced & Discriminate Ex: I don't mind aliens, but my boss hates them & requires them to leave or sit in a different room. So when they show up I follow his rules, even though I don't share his beliefs.

3) All Weather Liberal

Not Prejudiced & Not Discriminate. Ex: You don't act out on any negative feelings you have towards aliens because they are non-existent.

Relationships...

Not based on just exchange, or just nonverbal behavior... Based on all five social interactions.

4) Felony

Offenses punishable by a year or more in prison. Potential punishment is high.

3. d) Contractual Cooperation

People agree to cooperate in certain specified ways, with each person's obligations clearly spelled out. Ex: When you re-model your kitchen, you higher a plumber to install the garbage disposal and an electrician hasn't wired it in yet. The plumber can't do the electrician's job just because he's not there.

Total Institutions

Places where people are isolated from the outside world & are almost totally controlled by others. For example, mental asylums, prisons, rehabs, boot camps. Resocialization occurs in these places because they are kept separate from the general population & everything that they do is monitored or regulated by superiors.

1) Hunting & Gathering Stage

Predicted on the notion of subsistence. They have just enough to survive, meaning there is no surplus. Everyone in this society is involved in getting food. Very small: 25-30 people because they're very nomadic. They're egalitarian - everyone works for the survival of the society overall; nobody has any more or any less than another.

1) All Weather Bigot

Prejudice & Discriminate. Ex: Hate's aliens so I won't let them inside the restaurant I work out, or if I do let them in, they must sit in a separate room.

2) Fair Weather Bigot

Prejudice & Not Discriminate. Ex: Hates aliens, but let's them live in the apartment complex.

Anticipatory Socialization

Process of learning to play a role before entering it. occurs within adult socialization (because learning new roles). Is the second phase that occurs during the "workplace" agent of socialization.

Race vs. Ethnicity

RACE - Inherited physical characteristics that are believed to distinguish one group from another. It's a perception. Considered an ascribe status. Born into the status. It's arbitrary - a social construction - but it's still a thing. Race is still present. Ex: Skin color, texture of hair, facial features. Random characteristics that were decided to be meaningful. Could have went so many other ways... ETHNICITY - A group that has a distinct cultural tradition with which its own members identify. This is learned. May or may not be recognized by others. Ex: Traditions/religion, Foods, Clothes, Upbringing, etc.

a) Retribution

Redemption for a moral wrong. Making good for some transgression. Religious undertones because the ideas of this justification of punishment derive from morality/belief. Punishment should match the crime. Ex: caught shoplifting a candy bar. Punishment = kicked out/banned from that store, pay for it, community service. Not the death penalty.

Achieved Status

Results (at least in part) of the individual's actions; based on what you have done or have failed to do, you enter a social position. Ex: Being a parent, there is effort involved (whether you're biological or adoptive parents).

3) Written Rules

Rules written down. Ex: Coe's Student Handbook.

2) Role Conflict

Should be called, "Status Conflict". Inability to enact the roles of one status without violating those of another status. In order to comply with expectations, we'll be violating or failing to comply with the roles of a different status. Ex: Status 1 = Student. Role 1 = Study for an exam. Status 2 = Someone's child. Role 2 = Visit mom in the hospital. Status 3 = Someone's friend. Role 3 = Friends 21st birthday. Status 4 = Someone's employee. Role 4 = Short notice, but we'll pay you double. *We could just send flowers to mom, we could blow everything off & just work for the money. We could blow studying off, etc. The idea is that we can't do it all.

Statuses

Socially defined positions that people occupy within a society, in terms of which they interact with one another. We occupy a status. I am a wife. I am a mom. I am a professor. We use these positions as the framework of our interactions. The reason we're interacting with one another in class is because Lisa occupies the status of "Professor" and we occupy the status of "Students". These statuses will last long after we're gone. Exist independently of the individuals that occupy them; they are not tied to those who occupy them. Ex: Lisa gets run over & killed by a school bus. What happens to us? They'll find a substitute by the next class period. Won't be exactly the same, but class would continue to exist. *Chance as life goes on...

1) Slavery

Some people own other people. Most likely has occurred since two societies have came into contact with each other. Clear cut distinction between the groups... (1) Slaves (2) Slave-owners (3) Freed/Liberated Slaves (4) Non-owners. Basis - Legal. Mobility - None.

Social Stratification

The division of people within a society into levels, steps, or layers according to their relative power, property, or prestige.

Primary Socialization

The first 5 agents of socialization (Family, Religion, School, Peers, Mass Media). Mastery of basic information & skills required of members of society. You have learned the norms & values, language & symbols, etc.

Reference Groups

The groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves. See how we compare to that group & use it as a means for self-perception. Ex: Before you came to Coe, current Coe students were a reference group to compare your intelligence or your social level to.

Master Status

The one of many statuses a person occupies that seems to dominate in patterning that person's life. Ex: Right now, "Student" is our master status. Being someone's friend, someone's kid, being a athlete, or being someone's employee are all based around your master status of "Student". Strength of master status varies from person to person. Either ascribed or achieved...

Life Chances

The probabilities concerning the fate an individual may expect in life. Ex: Access to healthcare, education received, being able to travel, etc. There are not equal life chances. These are related to our wealth, power, and prestige.

Social Evaluation

The process of making judgments on the basis of individual characteristics or behaviors. These are individual. We all do this; we feel the need to be able to understand with whom we're dealing with. Ex: Encountering someone who's gender is unclear. Even if you're someone who is completely accepting, you feel uneasy because you actually need to categorize that person as a male or a female, and it's bothering you that you can't. Our brain uses heuristics (shortcuts) to sort people into categories. Ex: Age, gender, sex, size, etc. Simply an idea or a thought.

Social Inequality

The uneven distribution of privileges, material rewards, opportunities, power, prestige, and influence within a society. Actually treating people differently. Ex: Not allowing certain people into your store because of their race. When this becomes part of the structure of a society, we have social stratification.

3. b) Traditional Cooperation

Tied to custom. Things are done in a way because they've always been a certain way. Ex: Hide-and-seek: Someone has to hide & someone has to seek. Ex: Gender division of household labor: women cook, clean & raise the children while the men do the physical labor & bring in the money.

2. Exchange

Type of social interaction. Doing something for another person with the expressed purpose of receiving a reward in return. Ex: "I'll cook dinner if you do the dishes." These rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

3. Cooperation

Type of social interaction. People act together to promote common interests or achieve shared goals. The outcome is seen as beneficial for everyone in the party. Separated into four different versions... a) Spontaneous b) Traditional c) Directed d) Contractual

4. Conflict

Type of social interaction. People struggle against one another for some commonly prized object or value. When there's something desirable that's in limited amount & we compete with others for it. Ex: Scholarships, acceptance to a program, jobs, internships, access to the best doctors, etc. Zero-Sum Game: There's a fixed quantity. In order for someone to get more, someone else has to get less.

5. Competition

Type of social interaction. Specialized conflict. Form of conflict in which individuals/groups confine their conflict within agreed-upon rules for achieving an outcome. Ex: Any kind of game: Sports or board games in which there are rules you have to follow in order to be victorious.

1. Nonverbal Behavior

Type of social interaction. Ways we use our body movements & positions to express ourselves. Gestures are a subset of this type of social interaction. They're intentional & replace words, like flipping someone off. Ex: Gendered ways of sitting in a desk (spread out & slouched or legs crossed & good posture).

2) National Crime Victimization Survey

US Dept. of Justice Representative nationwide random sample twice a year. Followed by a questionnaire that only asks about 6 of the 8 types of crimes. Excludes murder (because you'd be dead, not answering the phone). Excludes arson (because you can't determine the cause of a fire yourself).

2) Property

Unlawful act committed with the intent of gaining/damaging property, but that doesn't involve the use of threat of force against a person. Ex: Graffiti on garage door, stealing stuff off the lawn, etc.

1) Violent

Unlawful event that may result in injury to a person. A threat with the use of force. Ex: Holding up a liquor store with a banana under your court (instead of a gun).

3) Victimless

Violations of criminal laws where there are no apparent victims. Who is the perpetrator & who is the victim? Usually all parties involved are sort of to blame. We're not saying that people aren't victimized or harmed, it's just that there's not a clearly defined perpetrator & victim. Ex: Lisa buys heroin from a deal. Lisa isn't going to call the cops & neither is the dealer. It's a crime, but both have committed it.

Wealth vs. Income

Wealth may or may not include income. Ex: Can inherit $300 million dollars and rent out the guest house to a friend for $500 a month. $6,000 a year makes you look like you're poor, but you're actually wealthy. If you have income, you have a part of wealth, but you also need to include property. Wealth = income + property.

Parkinson's Law

Work is generated strictly to keep busy.