Job Analysis, Research Methods, Performance Appraisal - Part 1, Summary of Appraisal Formats, Performance Appraisal (Part 2), Predictors, Selection, Training and Development - Ch. 8, Individual Differences & Selection, Industrial Organizational Psych...
element
smallest unit of work activity
dunning-kruger effect
some people are so unskilled they aren't aware of how unskilled they are, a social-cognitive bias were some individuals overestimated their abilities and lack awareness they are doing so, because they aren't skilled enough to realize they lack skills they may not be interested in trying to improve, may ignore feedback from performance appraisals
why don't we simply use the average to understand a group?
sometimes the data is skewed with outliers
precision
specific and accurate
two ways to estimate internal consistency
split-half reliability and inter-item reliability
split-half reliability
splitting test in half to see if one half is equivalent to the other
range
spread from lowest to highest point
test-retest
stability of test over time
structured interview
standardized, job analysis-based questions that are asked of all candidates; increased reliability; allows for fair comparisons
why do most HR professionals give the performance appraisal systems of their companies a mediocre grade?
standards used may not be relevant to actual job tasks, ratings are unreliable, may reward employees who are narcissistic and self-promoting
recommendations for fair and just performance evaluations
start with job analysis to develop criteria, communicate performance standards in writing, recognize separate dimensions of performance rather than just one "overall" rating, use both objective and subjective criteria, give employees access to appeal, use multiple raters rather than one rater, document everything pertinent to personnel decisions, train the raters, if possible (if not, give them written instructions for conducting the performance appraisal)
correlation coefficient (r)
strength of the relationship between two variables
Experimental Design
Involves randomly assigning participants to conditions, while varying each condition and then measure the outcome in each condition COMPLETELY RANDOM
Lexical Hypothesis
The idea that, if people find something is important, they will develop a word for it, and therefore the major personality traits will have synonymous terms in many different languages. This man rounded up all 4,504 original words
Mediator
The interveening variable that explains the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable.
Science
The logical approach of investigation, usually based on a theory or hypothesis.
Discriminant Validity
The measure is only modestly or negatively correlaed wit measures of dissimliar constructs
What an I/O Psychologist does
The use psychological principles and research methods to solve problems in the workplace and improve the quality of life. They study workplace productivity and management and employee working styles.
When to use ANOVA
This is used when the experimenter wants to study the interaction effects among the different test data
reliability
how consistently a test will measure the variable of interest - if you took the same test twice would it give you the same score?
current base rate
how many current employees considered successful
what does science try to describe?
how things happen
retraining incumbent employees
identification of low performers and developing employees for promotion
what does a job analysis do?
identifies the KSAOs required for the job and is then used to determine if job applicants have those required KSAOs
how to begin with job analysis?
identify relevant criteria for job success and then locate, develop, create, or modify predictors that are valid indicators of criteria
example of self-efficacy
if an elderly worker is convinced that computers are too complicated, she won't learn it well
time frames
if different raters are making ratings at different times they may not be judging the same set of tasks and behaviors
Internal Consistency (aka inter-item reliability)
if the items on a test measure the same construct, they should all correlate with one another
80% rule of thumb
if the selection rate of one particular group is less than 80% of the majority group, that may indicate discrimination
equal pay act
illegal to provide unequal pay and benefits to men an women who are holding jobs that are equal - there must be sizable and reasonable differences in work to support unequal pay
serious health condition
illness, injury, impairment, or physical or mental condition that involves in-patient care or condition that involves in-pateient care or continuous treatment by a health care provider
realistic job preview (RJP)
important for recruitment that applicants get a realistic view of what it would be like to work for the organization (organizations may want to "look good" to applicants, but if applicants feel deceived after joining the organization their work performance and job satisfaction will decrease)
common-metric questionnaire (CMQ)
improvement over PAQ, items are more behaviorally specific, reading level is lower, applies to both managerial and non managerial jobs
why doesn't presence of adverse impact alone not indicate illegal discrimination?
it can sometimes be justified for other work-related reasons
Convergent Validity
it should correlate highly with conceptually similar measures
Divergent Validity
it should not correlate too highly with conceptually dissimilar measures
correct rejections
it wasn't there, and we didn't see it
false alarms
it wasn't there, but we thought it was
hits
it's there, and we saw it
power test
items are more difficult, test taker is expected to be able to complete all items within the testing time
what is the most important building block for I/O psychology (performance appraisal, selection, training) and the foundation for most work in I/O?
job analysis
what is training needed for?
job or organization-specific training, changes in technology, and continued development of employees
what does KSAO stand for?
knowledge, skills, abilities, other
experimental methods
lab experiments (high control = bringing people in a lab), fired and quasi-experiments (less control)
con of archival research?
lack of control over quality of data is a concern
disadvantages of graphic rating scales
lack of precision in dimensions and lack of precision in anchors
why does central tendency occur?
laziness of raters, lack of knowledge about actual performance, easiest thing is to give an average rating (especially if there is nothing particularly outstanding about the employee), format of rating scale
types of distributional errors?
leniency, central tendency, and severity
cognitive ability tests
most frequently used predictors in selection because mental functioning or intelligence is important for most jobs
lab experiments
most take place in a contrived setting for control, very high internal validity, external validity (generalizability) questioned
variance
most useful measure of dispersion
Group Interview
multiple applicants answering Qs during same interview
task
multiple elements combined to specific objective
Panel Interview
multiple interviewers interviewing same applicant simultaneously
example of a job
multiple kinds of professors
more of task inventory approach
rated by incumbents on performance, importance/criticality, relative time spent on job performing task
Validity
refers to the accuracy of a measurement instrument and its ability to enable accurate inferences about some else (e.g., job performance)
mechanical ability
tests abilities involving mechanical relations, recognition of tools used for various purposes, and sometimes actual mechanical skills
weighted checklist
series of items previously weighted on importance or effectiveness, items indicate desirable and undesirable behavior
what should you do even if you are using a compensatory approach?
set minimum cutoff scores to exclude those below a certain standard - combination of multiple cut-off and multiple regression
motivational system to improve performance of employees
setting objective goals, continuous coaching and feedback, performance appraisal, developmental planning
what does the CRA does not include of?
sexual orientation or gender identity
distributional errors
should expect performance to be normally distributed - expect some are great, some are poor, but most are average
what is the goal of performance appraisals?
should have a purpose, personnel decisions, feedback and training, research or legal purposes
whole versus part learning
should it be learned all at once? should it be learned piece by piece?
clerical ability
tests both perceptual speed and accuracy in processing verbal and numerical data
Biodata
Refers to instruments that collect biographical information from job applicants/interviewees
examples of reaction criteria
does the process seem fair? is the process emotionally upsetting? do people feel intimidated by the process?
parallel forms reliability
extent that two different tests measure the same attribute (important to measure that the two tests are measuring the same thing)
construct validity
extent to which a test measures the underlying construct it was intended to measure
behaviorally anchored ratings scales (BARS)
similar to graphic rating scales but includes anchors and examples of behaviors that would fit ratings, include critical incidents
multiple hurdle
similar to multiple cut-off, but predictors are given in a specific order, must pass each test to receive the next test
parsimony
simple and elegant, but can explain a lot
who should rate an employee's performance?
upper management, middle management, direct supervisor, peers, subordinates, support staff, customers/public, vendors, self
when should a new selection battery be used?
use a taylor-russel table to estimate improvements
ways to make material meaningful
use job-relevant examples an present information a logical order
methodology
used to conduct quantitative literature reviews (previously only narrative reviews were conducted)
validation study
used to determine the extend to which a predictor(s) is related to a criterion
signal detection theory
used to distinguish a "signal" from the "noise"
documentation of organizational decisions
used to keep track of employees' performance patterns over time, provides detailed account of inadequate performance
cross-validation
using the same predictors and performance criteria with a different sample, will involve similar jobs
interviews (investigator-administered)
usually conducted face-to-face or sometimes over the phone
information needed for estimating utility
valid selection battery, organization's base rate information, and selection ratio
Predictors
variables about applicants that are related to the criteria: -predictors for successful basketball performance could be height and physical speed
hostile work environment harassment
verbal or physical behavior that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment that interferes with one's job performance
quasi-experiments
very common in IO psych, field experiment without random assignment, not always practical to randomly assign participants; use of intact groups (not randomly assigned)
individualists
view self as independent and less connected to others
collectivistic
view self as interdependent and more connected to others
types of technological advances with surveys
web-based surveys and experience sampling methodology (ESM)
effect performance appraisals
well-received by rater and ratees, based on carefully documented behaviors, focused on important performance criteria, inclusive of many perspectives, focused on improving employee performance
manipulation
what is controlled, systematic control, variation, or application of one or more independent variables
questions to consider when doing a performance appraisal
what is the goal of doing the appraisal? who will provide the ratings? how will ratings be made?
what does science try to control/influence?
what might happen
what are ratings distorted by?
what the rater pays attention to, how they interpret or encode the info, what they remember (what they don't), and what they value about the job (or themselves)
independent variable (IV)
what you manipulate to cause an effect (the predictor)
when is casual inference made?
when data indicated that a causal relationship between two variables is likely
severity
when raters only use the low end of the rating scale (some raters may consistently give much lower ratings compared to other raters)
what does science try to explain?
why things happen
Machiavellianism
willingness to use deceit, manipulation, and exploitation to get what one wants, without regard for morality
different forms of paper-and-pencil tests
essay, MC, true or false, short answer
two classes of cognitive ability tests
general cognitive ability tests and specific cognitive ability tests
what can faulty criteria result in?
poor organizational decisions
what does correlation coefficient (r) provide information about?
the direction and the magnitude of the relationship
dependent variable (DV)
the effect you want to measure (the outcome)
induction
theories are able to be created from data
example of objective goals
20 cars produced, 40 units sold, etc.
review of court decisions (1980-1995)
300 court decisions related to performance appraisals
what percent of applicants "fake" personality tests?
33%-50%
Hugo Munsterberg
A founding father of I/O and wrote the first textbook applied to I/O in 1913
G factor
A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity
fluid intelligence
A general learningand reasoning ability, which usually decreases with age
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Criterion Validity
A property exhibited by a test that accurately measures performance of the test taker against a specific learning goal.
Regression
A reversion to immature patterns of behavior in any given sample
Hawthorne Studies
A series of studies during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and group behavior
Meta-Analysis
A statistical method for combining and analyzing the results from man studies to draw a general conclusion
Walter Dill Scott & Walter Van Dyke Bingham
Adapted a well-known test called Stanford-Binet test: Designed for testing one individual at a time
what letter grade do most HR professionals give the performance appraisal systems of their companies?
C = mediocre
what were identified "fakers" more likely to engage in?
CWBs, having lower ratings of integrity, and power job performance
quasi-experimental design
Can manipulate the Independent Variable, but cannot randomly assign individuals to conditions PART CONTROLLED PART RANDOM
Data Analysis Techniques
Different types of techniques used for descriptive statistics, exploratory data and conformitory data analysis', which enable researchers to make inferences
Construct
Display information in a diagrammatic or logical form.
non-experimental design
Does not include manipulation or assignment to different conditions ALL CONTROLLED
Correlation (v causation)
Does not mean causation, the variables necessary must be related to each other
examples of exceptions to the ADEA
EEOC vs. university of texas health science center at san antonio (1983) - upheld maximum age of campus police officers and the age 60 rule
example of a paper-and-pencil test
GREs
Thurstone
He said that cognitive abilit (intelligence) was made of several primary factors like: spatialm numerical, memory and reasoning
Multiple Correlation
How well a given variable can be predicted using a liner function of a set of other variables. This is a correlation between the variable's values and the best predictions that can be computer linearly.
Elton Mayo (Hawthorne effect)
It is the process where human subjects of an experiment change their behavior, simply because they are being studied.
multiple regression
It is used when we want to predict the value of a variable based on the value of two or more other variables
Taylorism
Jobs can be studied and be ranked by different methods of the same work. This is also know as "the one best method" Looking for maximum efficiency, and want to hire employees according to personality and preformance
Criterion
The dependent variable that is the (expected) outcome. Employee trust would be an Independent Variable and the Dependent Variable would be Job Preformance (they're linked(
mean
arithmetic average of a group of scores
observational methods
common in field settings, data will be correlational only, does not involve random assignment or manipulation of independent variables, cannot make casual inferences
miss
it was there, but we didn't see it
recruitment
organizations want to recruit high quality applicants (the quality of who gets hired will depend on who applies), but applicants also evaluate how much they want to work for the organization (if high quality applicants don't find the job or organization appealing, they won't apply)
other types of errors
recency, primacy, and similar-to-me
self-perceptions
self-perception of the rater can influence how others are appraised, individualistic vs. collectivistic selves, and raters with a more individualistic self may feel less discomfort with evaluating others and less lenient
what is also prohibited by the CRA?
sexual harassment
standard deviation
stat describing how close a member would be to "typical"
validity generalization (VG)
used to demonstrate that test validities do not vary across situations
benefits of multi source feedback
when multiple raters are used participants are happier because they are involved in the process, the idiosyncrasies or biases of any single rater are overcome, there are multiple perspectives for a broader/more accurate view of performance
when is error training effective?
when people are high in openness
when is error training NOT effective?
when people are low in neuroticism
what does science try to predict?
when things will happen
what do errors in error training lead to?
a greater understanding of why correct responses are correct
interviews
communication process where both organization and candidate gathers information
what are parallel forms reliability important for?
developing tests for different populations
four types of responses
hits, miss, false alarms, correct rejections
paper-and-pencil tests
most cognitive ability tests in this format, many now in computerized for
mode
most frequent single score in a distribution
deduction
theories lead you to the data
big five personality traits
(O)pen to new experiences, (C)onscientious, (E)xtraversion, (A)greeableness, (N)euroticism
overall decision accuracy equation
(hits + false alarms) / total number of applicants
magnitude of correlation coefficient (r)
-1 to +1
Big 5 Personality Trait
-conscientiousness is personality trait most associated with job performance across different jobs -neuroticism also predicts job success (high neuroticism predicts it negatively)
Employee Recruitment Methods
-online search ads -help-wanted ads -current employee referrals -job fairs etc.
Curvilinear Relationship
-relationship between success at sales and extraversion -conscientiousness may have this relationship to job performance
Types of Tests
-tests of ability (cognitive, mechanical, and physical) -tests of achievement (job skills and knowledge tests) -miscellaneous tests (polygraphs, integrity/honesty tests) -personality tests
three criteria for causation
1. The cause must come before the effect. 2. The two variables must occur together. 3. The link between the two variables cannot be explained by the influence of any other variable.
person with a disability
1. has a physical or mental impairment that substantial limits one or more major life activities 2. has a record of such an impairment 3. is regarded as having such an impairment
job elements
KSAOs required for successful job performance
what isn't AAP?
NOT a quota system; purpose is to address historical discrimination
5 steps for developing BARS
SMEs identify and define several dimensions that are important for the job, another group generates a series of behavioral examples (critical indecent technique), sort critical incidents into appropriate dimensions (retranslation stage), rating behavioral examples on effectiveness, choose items that represent performance levels
Estimating Reliability
True Score Variance (differences in scores due to biologically different people) and Observed Score Variance (the portion due to faults in measurement)
When to use a T Test
Use when all you want to do is to compare means, and when its assumptions are met.
Spearman
Used factor analysis and ,ade tests of various mental abilities which showed strong positive correlations
example of teaching in a way that is not effective for the learning goals
a lecture may not be the best training to do surgery
correlation coefficient
a numericalmeasure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
incremental validity
When you want to add another predictor to the measurement, but is not related to the original predictor, a big incremental ability would be a math ability and social skills.
multiple regression
a compensatory approach, high scores on some predictors can compensate for low sores on other predictors
R
a composite score using multiple predictors to describe a linear relationship (from a regression equation)
Realistic Job Preview
a recruitment technique that acquaints prospective employees with a job's daily tasks, duties, and responsibilities, providing them with an accurate description of the positive and negative aspects of a job -related to: --higher job satisfaction --better job performance --lower turnover
Core Self Evaluation
a single construct combining four related existing constructs -self-esteem -generalized self-efficacy -locus of control -emotional stability *good scores are related to better job performance and satisfaction, higher motivation and income, reduced stress and burnout, etc.
attribute
a specific trait or characteristic that varies along individual which can be measured
Factor Analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
meta-analysis
a study of other studies
example of incremental validity
a test PLUS an interview
what are tests, like the focus-2 and meyers-briggs basing their measurements upon?
a theory, which is based upon data, gathered by testing
Situational Judgement Test
a type of test that describes a problem to the test taker and requires the test taker to rate various possible solutions in terms of their feasibility or applicability
Moderator
a variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between two other variables
what is the validity co-efficient for personality and job performance?
about r = .23
"amazing" selection battery
account for 70% of the variance
how is the variance amount in a criterion variable accounted for?
accounted for by a predictor variable
what does evidence suggest about general cognitive ability tests?
accounts for a large proportion of variance in criterion performance (validity coefficient = .53 OR r^2 = .25), predicts performance similarly across countries
realistic job purview (RJP)
accurate glimpse of what the job is actually like
individual tests
administered one person at a time, very costly (time and money)
quid pro quo harassment
advancement or continuation is contingent on sexual favors
importance of person-environment (PE) fit
agreement or match between an individual's KSAOs and values and job demands/organization characteristics
what do IRB committees examine?
all research protocol to determine if the research is ethically appropriate
taylor-russel tables
allow organizations to estimate whether using a new selection battery will be effective
ledbetter fair pay act (2009)
allowed for those who have been affected by unequal pay discrimination to sue for damages without any statue of limitations
family and medical leave act (FMLA)
allows eligible employees to take job-protected, unpaid leave for up to 12 weeks for birth of a child, serious health condition of a family member or one's own serious health condition
regression
allows prediction of one variable from another
interviews
among the most popular selection devices and typically used across all jobs
r^2
amount of outcome explained by the predictor (the variance "accounted for")
comparison between two or more groups
an "experimental" and "control" group
undue hardhsip
an accommodation that would result in significant difficulty or expense given the employer's size and financial resources
error training?
an alternative form of training that encourages making errors during learning - the idea: discoveries can be made from making mistakes
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
personality
an individual's traits or predispositions to behavior in a particular way across situations
narrative comments
analyses of written comments and feedback addition to ratings, research finds that supervisors and subordinates provide better (less vague) written feedback
archival research
answering a research question using existing, secondary data sets (looking for patterns not previously noticed)
Serial Interview
applicant has series of single interviews with different interviewers
faking
applicants may try to describe themselves in ways they think will look good to employers, faking reduces the predictive validity of testing
two ways biographical information is collected
application blank and biodata questionnaire
example of applied
applied social psych has been used to help design advertising campaigns and behavioral interventions
Multiple Regression Model
approach that allows predictors to be combined statistically -issues: based on correlations b/w predictors and criterion -assumes high scores on one predictor compensate for low scores on another
Criteria
are measures of job success/performance: -a criterion for successful basketball performance might be the number of baskets made
how can defendants (organizations) argue against adverse impact?
arguing that incomplete or incorrect data was used in the case against them and by making a business necessity defense that state the selection battery was entirely job-related and treats both minority and majority-applicants fairly
Job Knowledge Tests
assess applicants knowledge related to the particular job
in-basket
assess respond to a series of job-related scenarios and information that would typically appear in a manger's in-basket, takes action, and makes decisions about who to proceed
measurement
assignment of numbers to objects or events using rules in a way that represents specified attributes of the objects
biographical information
assumes past behavior is best predictor of future behavior
integrity tests (honesty)
attempt to predict whether an employee will engage in counter productive or dishonest work-related behaviors
key steps of the performance management cycle
attending to the feedback, process the feedback, and using the feedback
Weighted Application Forms
background info can be translated into numerical values to compare the qualifications
recommendations for implementing 360-degree feedback
be honest about how ratings will be used, help employees interpret and deal with the ratings, avoid presenting too much information
discoverability
behavior can be experience, examined, and discovered, it is possible to observe cause and effect relationships
determination
behavior is orderly and systematic, there is a reason why things happen (cause and effect)
position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)
best known job analysis method, useful in describing many jobs, standardized questionnaire describing general work behaviors, work conditions, and job characteristics
"common law" practice
both employers and employees have the right to initiate or terminate employment for any reason at any time
who uses organizational politics?
both supervisors and subordinates - bosses may manipulate performance appraisals for political reasons (playing favorites with certain employees or departments)
active learning
build on the idea that learning should be an active process, learning by doing, learning is enhanced by being engaged with the process
how is interrupter reliability measured?
by examining the correlation between ratings of two judges
how is decision accuracy maximized?
by having highly valid selection batteries
testability
can be empirically verified
generative
can generate new theories and knowledge
usefulness
can help describe, predict, and explain things
empiricism
can use systematic testing to discover cause and effect, can generate theories, make predictions, and test those predictions to support or refute theories
multiple cutoff
candidate must score high on each predictor, non-compensatory
experience sampling methodology (ESM)
captures momentary attitudes and psychological states, participants respond to notifications throughout the day on their phones
reasonable accommodations
changes or exceptions that would allow the qualified disabled individuals to successfully do the job
leanring and memory studied by cognitive, social, and experimental (behavior) psychologists
classical and operant conditioning, components of memory, memory biases
integrity tests
clear empirical support found, appear valid for predicting both counterproductive behavior, faking also appears to be possible on some integrity tests
do co-workers or supervisors tend to be more lenient with ratings?
co-workers
synonym for parallel forms reliability
coefficient of equivalence OR equivalent forms reliability
steps for a concurrent validity study
collect predictor and criteria data from incumbents (at the same time), compute the validity coefficient (correlation between predictors and criteria)
Employee Screening
collecting and reviewing info about job candidates to help select best individuals for jobs -data sources such as resumes, job applications, letters of recommendation, employment tests, and hiring interviews can be used in screening and selecting candidates -any source that's used should be reliable and valid
selection battery
collection of predictors (tests) used to make hiring decisions (better predictions can be made when more than one test is used) - important that each test used is relevant to the job
job
collection of similar positions in an organization
position
collection of tasks assigned to a specific individual in an organization
mental measurements yearbook
collects info about thousands of tests include what they test, their reliability/validity, and cost to administer
raters don't often agree
common rating errors, different standards and comparisons, observation of different behaviors
3 factors that characterize experimental methods
comparison between two or more groups, random assignment, and manipulation
self-administered questionnaires
completed by respondents in absence of researcher
types of testing
computer adaptive testing, speed versus power tests, individual versus group tests, paper-and-pencil versus performance tests
computer adaptive testing
computer administered tests that alters the difficulty level of equations depending on well the test taker is doing, score on earlier questions affects the difficulty of subsequent questions, allows for quick and accurate scoring, believed to provide more precise measurement
basic research
concerned with trying to gain knowledge in it's own right, aim is to gain greater understanding of a phenomenon
applied research
concerning with using currently understanding of a phenomenon in order to solve a real-world problem
example of basic research
concerns how social information influences behaviors in social psych
synonym for extraneous variable
confounding variable
internal consistency
consistency among test items
definition of reliability
consistency or stability of a measure
interrater reliability
consistency with which multiple raters view, and thus rate, the same behavior or person
evidence used to demonstrate construct validity
content validity and criterion-related validity
validity coefficient (r)
correlation between a predictor and criterion, evidence that the test is valid
assessment centers
created in Germany (1930s) and refined during WW2 by Britain and the United States
why is over learning good?
creates mastery, allows for effective performance even in stressful or unexpected situations (KSAs become more "automatic" with over learning)
synonyms for dependent variable
criteria, outcome, or consequence
types of archival research
cross-sectional data and longitudinal data
reasons for training and development
current needs, anticipated needs, orientation of new employees, retraining incumbent employees, implementing new technologies, legal compliance, compensating for gaps in education, organizational culture
who can be a SME?
current workers (incumbents) or others with job expertise or knowledge
continuous employee development
cyclical process in which employees are motivated to plan for an engage in actions or behaviors that benefit their future employability
3 dimensions on which tasks are evaluated
data, people, things
elements of the selection process that allow assessment of utility
decision accuracy, validity, base rate, selection ratio
divergent validity
degree to which measure is NOT related to measures of dissimilar constructs
convergent validity
degree to which measure is related to or predicts measures of other similar constructs
what is what an experiment is designed to assess?
dependent variable
r
describes linear relationship between predictor and outcome
decision accuracy
describes the percentage of hiring decisions that were "correct"
task oriented approach
describing the various tasks performed on the job
what are the two goals of case studies?
description and explanation - but are not typically used to test hypotheses
why does severity occur?
desire to appear "tougher" and false impression that criticism will motivate workers
what do case studies provide?
details about a typical or exceptional firm or individual
what are the 3 assumptions of science?
determination, discoverability, and empiricism
dictionary of occupational titles (DOT)
developed by FJA for department of labor in 1930s, took that matches people with jobs, narrative descriptions of tasks, duties, and working conditions of ~12,000 jobs, hierarchical organization of jobs
occupational information network (ONET)
developed by department of labor to replace the DOT; database of over 950 occupations, identifies and describes key components of modern occupations, based on data gathered in a variety of ways; hybrid approach, provides highly accessible, searchable online database
concerns about success/effectiveness of FMLA
difficult to understand and define what classes of illness qualify under FMLA and some employees simple cannot afford to take 12 weeks unpaid
job element method (JEM)
directly connects job analysis to the selection context through KSAOs
what were judgements in favor of plaintiffs most commonly linked to?
discrimination or unfairness due to age, gender, or race
task practice all at once or over time?
distributed practice and masses practice
demographic (specific groups)
do certain groups of employees need training? technology training for older workers, specialized training for disabled workers, remedial education for poorly educated or non-native english speakers
task
do employees need new KSAOs?
person (individuals)
do some particular employees need training? improving those who are low performers and training to promote those who are high performers
what is the key question with validity shrinkage?
does it shrink by a little or a lot?
criticism of JEM
does not specify job tasks
readiness
does the learner have the pre-requite KSAOs?
why does effectiveness of error training vary?
due to learner characteristics
paired comparisons
each employee compared to every other employee (comparisons made one pair at a time), useful with a small number of employees, becomes too cumbersome with many employees
advantages of checklists
easy to develop and easy to use
advantages of graphic rating scales
easy to develop and easy to use
pros of self-administered questionnaires
easy, can be used for very large groups, answers can be anonymous
what does psychology use?
empirical methods to gather data, generate theories, and make predictions
providing performance feedback
employee development is largely a function of their receptivity to feedback and the organization's approach to, or emphasis on, feedback
rank ordering
employees ranked form best to worst, useful for promotion decisions, subject to bias
continued development of employees
employees remain high performers with training, investing in employee training increases their job satisfaction and commitment to organization, increases productivity and decreases turnover
random assignment
ensures both groups start out the same, each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to each condition
interrater
equivalence of two raters
parallel forms
equivalence of two test forms
evaluating another individual's performance accurately and fairly is difficult
errors often result from this process and understanding of these errors is important to appreciating the complexities of performance appraisal
what should effective trainers do?
establish specific objectives and communicate these clearly to the trainees, possess solid understanding of how people learn and the role played by approach or style, display effective communication skills, realize that different trainees may require different style or different treatment from the trainer
employee comparison procedures
evaluation of raters with respect to how they measure up to, or compare with, other employees
why do we need to train?
even the best selection batteries are limited in their ability to predict performance, there will still be variation in how people actually perform
case studies
examination of single individuals, groups, companies, or societies
worker-oriented approach
examining broad human behaviors involved in work activities (physical, interpersonal, mental factors) - characteristics of a person to be good at a job
inter-item reliability (Cronbach's alpha)
examining correlations among all test items to determine consistency
critical incidents
examples of both poor and excellent performance, usually collected through logs employee performance records can be used
2 types of research designs
experimental methods and observational methods
Face Validity
extent to which a measure is subjectively viewed (by applicants, hiring managers, etc.) as being a reasonable/relevant measure -tests of general or job specific abilities/skills usually score high -when applicants think a measure lacks face validity, they often deem it unfair
concurrent validity
extent to which a test predicts a criterion that is measured at the same time the test is administered
implicit person theory (IPT)
extent to which an individual believes that other people can change impacts performance appraisal, supervisors who believe that people can change are perceived by subordinates as more fair and just in their appraisals
internal validity
extent to which casual inferences can be drawn about variables, requires more control to minimize confounds
external validity
extent to which results generalize to other people, settings, time - means less control, but more like the real-world
predictive validity
extent to which test scores obtained at one point in time predict criteria obtained at some later time
data
extent to which the job requires handling information, ideas, and facts
people
extent to which the job requires using interpersonal resources (understanding, courtesy, mentoring)
things
extent to which the job requires using physical resources (strength, speed, coordination)
Person-job Fit
extent to which the personality traits, interests, KSAOs of an individual match the requirements of the job they must perform
Person-organization Fit
extent to which the values of an employee are consistent with the values held by most others at the organization
public lawsuits over use of some systems
extent to which underrepresented groups tend to be disproportionately ranked in low category, forced distributions particularly problematic in this regard
internal validity
extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings.
what is any other variable that can contaminate results or is an alternative casual explanation?
extraneous variable
Army Alpha
first modern group intelligence test dapted from the original Standford-Binet Test (walter dill scott and van dyke bingham)
criticisms of worker-oriented techniques
focuses less on specific tasks and more on the human characteristics that contribute to successful job performance, more effective for comparisons across jobs
rater error training (RET)
focuses on describing errors and showing raters how to avoid them and reduces errors, but accuracy is not necessarily improved
frame of reference training (FOR)
focuses on enhancing raters' observational and categorization skills; establishes a common frame of reference, improves with behavioral observation training (BOT)
what are 3 ways to control?
hold extraneous variables constant, systematically manipulate different levels of extraneous variables (make part of experimental design), and use statistical control
Schneider's Attraction-Selection-Attrition/Retention (ASA) Model
focuses on fit -job seekers are attracted to orgs that have good fit with their personality/values -orgs select for applicants with certain kinds of values and personalities who will fit in at org -people who don't feel like they fit it at org are more likely to leave over time
situational interview
focuses on future behavior; interviewees are asked how they would handle work dilemmas or situations
behavior description interview
focuses on past behavior; interviewees are asked to describe specific ways in which they have addressed past situations
what are observational methods useful for?
for discovering and describing possible relationships
example of ledbetter fair pay act (2009)
for instance, if you discovered that your had been unfairly paid for 20 years... you can recover the lost wages even if you hadn't known previously
application blank
form requesting historical and current information; off-the-shelf forms are nota good idea unless validated
steps of the research process
formulate the hypothesis, design the study, collect data, analyze the data, and report the findings
James McKeen Cattell
founded the psychological corporation in 1921, the first to apply psychology to business and industry, coined term "mental tests"
what type of feedback are beneficial?
frequent feedback, positive feedback, and negative feedback
overlearning
frequently repeated practice leads to overlearning
steps for a predictive validity study
gather predictor data on all applicants, hire some of the applicants to fill open positions, after several months gather data (criteria for validation study), and compute a validity coefficient between the predictor score and the criterion score
hybrid method
gathering information about the work and the worker at the same time
general cognitive ability test
general form of intelligence
why does employee morale decrease with distributional errors?
good employees may feel sighted
examples of elements
grading, lecturing, and preparing a syllabus
rating formats
graphic rating scales, behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS), checklists, employee comparison procedures
leaderless group discussion (LGD)
group exercise designed to tap managerial attributes, requires small group interaction, given an issue to resolve, no roles assigned, observed by assessors
biodata dimensions for position of customer service preventative
helping others, negotiation skills, interpersonal intelligence, patience, empathy, extraversion, oral communication
leader-member exchange theory (LMX)
high LMX means frequent positive social interactions between supervisor and subordinate
pros of interviews
higher response rates and ambiguity about questions can be resolved
functional job analysis (FJA)
highly structured task job-oriented approach, data obtained about what tasks a worker does and how those tasks are performed
correct
hiring the right people, but also not hiring the wrong people
equation for decision accuracy
hits / (hits + false alarms) OR hires that were correct/total number of hires
telework does not appear to decrease performance evaluations
in many organizations, employees are only eligible for telework after they have already demonstrated excellent work performance
when is interrupter reliability relevant?
in performance appraisal
legal issues in performance appraisal
in the US it is illegal to discriminate in performance appraisals on the basis of non-performance related factors (such as: age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and disability)
two popular assessment center exercises
in-basket and leaderless group of discussion (LGD)
incremental validity
increase in validity form a new version of a test, may include the increase in validity by combining procedures
issues with multi source feedback
increasing in popularity BUT not very well researched, may be seen as more fair by employees BUT interrater reliability tends to be low
what is anything systematically manipulated or an antecedent to other variables?
independent variable
measures of dispersion
indicates how closely scores are grouped around the measure of central tendency
internal consistency reliability
indication of relatedness of the test items that indicates how well test items are hanging together
feedback orientation (FO)
individual's overall attitude toward feedback or receptivity to feedback - includes perceptions of feedback utility, accountability to use feedback, social awareness through feedback, self-efficacy in dealing with feedback
parts of ethical considerations
informed consent and deception
developmental purposes
informs employees of their performance strengths/weaknesses, facilitates employee advancement (good for the organization - helps plan for the future)
Structured Interview
interviewer asks (1) a preplanned series (2) of job-related questions of each interviewee, and (3) has a standardized system for rating each response -removes much bias -can be a more valid predictor of job performance -higher face validity
types of surveys
interviews and self-administered questionnaires
predictive validity studies
investigate how effective predictors are at forecasting applicant job performance
when are realistic job previews better?
invoking multimedia, focused on the career, represent multiple levels of the organization
cybervettting
involves assessment of an individual's suitability for a job based on internet information, use of social media in recruiting allows organizations to broaden their potential pool
multi source feedback (360 feedback)
involves multiple raters at several organizational levels (supervisors, co-workers, customers, self ratings), each employee rated by multiple people at different levels, feedback from the different rating provided to the employees
t-test
is a hypothesis test that is used to compare the means of two populations
ANOVA
is a statistical technique that is used to compare the means of more than two populations
self-efficacy
is the learner confident in their own ability to learn?
motivation to learn
is the learner motivated to learn? will they apply the effort necessary to learn well?
organizational
is the organization achieving its goals? what is the organizational culture? does the organization want to invest in its employees
forced distribution
limit how many employees can receive top ratings, ratings based on a normal curve, only those employees in top 2% receive "excellent" ratings (2 standard deviations from the mean)
cons of self-administered questionnaires
low response rate (may lead to a biased sample) and responders can't ask questions for clarification
who will provide the ratings?
management, co-workers, subordinates, customers, or the employee themselves
group tests
many applicants can be tested at the same time, more cost effective
meaningfulness of material
material is learned and remembered better if it's meaningful to the learner, information should be presented ini ways the learned can understand, relate to, or apply
deception
may be used in research if properly justified, participants may be mislead to prevent them from guessing the purpose of the study
disgruntled employees
may decrease effort, ignore feedback, or leave the organization
adverse impact of public lawsuits
may indicate illegal discrimination against particular group, some groups are more negatively affected than others
employees who are narcissistic and self-promoting
may not reward the best workers, but instead the workers that brag the most about their accomplishments
example of approaches to selection
may not want to accept a student with a SAT verbals score of 0, even if they got a perfect math score
why don't ratings discriminate with distributional errors?
measure loses sensitivity, employees get lumped together, and it does not distinguish between good and bad workers
overt integrity test
measures attitudes toward theft and actual theft behaviors
performance appraisal discomfort scale (PADS)
measures how comfortable raters are with making ratings, raters who are uncomfortable with the process also tend to give more lenient ratings
psychomotor tests
measures of sensory abilities that evaluate the speed and accuracy of motor and sensory coordination
trust in the appraisal process survey (TAPS)
measures perception of how others are making ratings, raters who lack trust in the process tend to give more lenient ratings
personality-type integrity test
measures personality characteristics believed to predict counterproductive behavior
Multiple Cutoff Model
method of setting a minimum cutoff scores for each predictor -issues: assumes predictors are non-compensatory -have to determine where to set the cutoffs
Multiple Hurdle Approach
method that uses an ordered sequence of screening devices
3 parts of central tendency
mode, median, and mean
who is distributed practice good for?
more effective for learning, but may be less practice for organizations
concurrent validation studies
more viable than predictive validity studies
assessment centers
multiple raters evaluate applicants or incumbents on a standardized set of exercises that stimulate the job, involves multiple methods of assessment, assessors, assesses, last 2 to 3 days, used by many large companies, are expensive (time and money)
longitudinal data
multiple time periods
biodata questionnera
multiple-choice items, brand questions, asks many questions in broad areas; predicts performance well, r = .32 to .52
research conducted by universities
must be approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
observational methods
naturalistic observation, archival research, and surveys
is perfect reliability possible in I/O psych?
no
unstructured interview
no consistency of questioning across applicants; less useful - tough to make comparisons
selection ratio
number of job openings divided by the number of applicants
selection ratio
number of jobs available / number of applicants
setting objective goals
objective meaning that it would be easy to count whether the goal was achieved
how will ratings be made?
objectively or subjectively (tend to be more biased)
naturalistic observation
observation of someone or something in its natural environment
unobtrusive observation
observer objectively observes individuals without drawing attention to themselves; does not try to blend in (or is unable to be seen)
participant observation
observer tries to "blend in" with those who are observed
central tendency
occurs when raters only use the midpoint of the scale and raters less likely to give extreme ratings
Telephone Interview
often used to screen applicants
non-compensatory
one low score on any predictor would prevent hiring
griggs vs. duke power (1971)
one of the most important cases involving the civil rights act - griggs (african american male) was not hired and presented adverse impact (AI) data against african americans and duke power said Al was unintentional, but lost largely because job relatedness of its selection battery could not be demonstrated
cross-sectional data
one point in time
what is a validation study initially based on?
one sample
what is the description from a case study based upon?
only on a single individual or organization of concern
The Big Five
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
first impression (primacy effect)
opposite of recency, raters pay too much attention to initial experiences with ratee
what are internal and external validity often?
oppositely related and the more you manipulate the situation, the less it becomes like the real world
issues with cybervetting
organization may learn things about applicants that are not relevant to the job, but may bias their hiring decisions
feedback environment (FE)
organizational culture can influence the effectiveness of feedback (employees are more responsive to feedback if they are more satisfied with the organization), feedback that is seen as credible, fair, and high quality will be linked to more satisfaction with the process, greater satisfaction with the process linked to greater motivation to use the feedback to improve performance, more loyalty to the organization, more OCBS, and greater satisfaction also makes employees more likely to seek feedback on performance
civil rights act (CRA) 1964, 1991
originally passed in 1964 and updated in 1991 - makes it illegal for employers with 15 or more employees to discriminate in the workplace based on race, religion, national origin, or sex
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
traits of a good theory?
parsimony, precision, testability, usefulness, and generative
web-based surveys
participants can answer quickly, easily, and on their own time, can easily survey thousands of responders
informed consent
participants should have sufficient information about the procedures to appropriately judge whether they want to participate
individualistic vs. collectivistic selves
people vary in the degree to which they feel connected to others, varies with gender and culture
what does SME reference?
people who have expertise with the job?
vendors
people you purchase things for your organization from
base rate
percentage of current employees who are successful on the job, reflects the quality of previous selection batteries and provides a basis of comparison for new battery
decision accuracy
percentage of hiring decisions that are correct
coefficient of determination (r^2)
percentage of variance accounted for by the predictor
trust and justice
perception of fairness in the process will impact performance appraisals, if raters believe that other raters are using a different standard they may adjust their ratings
what happens when LMX is low?
performance appraisals matched objective criteria
organizations (defendants) were most likely to win cases when:
performance appraisals were based on job analysis, written instructions for performance appraisal process were provided, employees had opportunity to review their appraisals, multiple raters agreed on performance ratings, rater training was used
feedforward interviews (FFIs) for performance appraisal
performance feedback that emphasizes the employee's strengths over pointing out weaknesses, idea is that positive feedback is better for encouraging improvement
Person-situation Interaction
personality interacts with situation to predict outcomes -to know relationship b/w personality and outcome, you need to know the situation
purposes of performance appraisal
personnel decisions, developmental purposes, documentation of organizational decisions
age 60 rule
pilots/copilots cannot be employed on or after age 60
developmental planning
planning for future tasks to achieve or future skills to learn
which direction can correlation coefficient (r) be?
positive ore negative
exceptions to the ADEA
possible when a company can demonstrate that age is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)
affirmative action plans (AAPs)
practice employed by organizations to increase the number of minorities or protected class members, range from relatively uncontroversial to very controversial
massed practice
practice or studying completed in one session, may "cram" lots of information at one time
distributed practice
practice or studying distributed over time, involves multiple sessions
advantages of BARS
precise and well-designed scales (good for coaching) and well received by raters and ratees
advantages of employee comparison methods
precise rankings are possible and useful for making administrative rewards on a limited basis
synonyms to independent variable
predictor, precursor, or antecedent
predictors must be used as substitutes for criteria
predictors are used to forecast criteria
characteristics of reliability
predictors must be measured reliably, measurement error renders measurement inaccurate or unreliable, outcomes cannot be accurately predicted with variables that are not measured well
what will happen if validity (R^2) with a different sample doesn't decrease much?
predicts generalize well
what did sex include in the civil rights act?
pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions
important to the success of any training program
principles of instructional design, basic principles of learning, characteristics of trainee and trainer
Selection
process of deciding which applicants to hire, promote, or move to other jobs -to do it well, you need to determine the criteria that reflect job success/performance and find ways of predicting such criteria
job analysis
process of defining the key tasks or duties and the knowledge or skills required to perform a specific job
recruitment/selection
process of recruiting and selecting college applicants is very similar to selecting job applicants, need to advertise available job opening to attract applicants, then need to select who get hired from a variety of predictors
americans with disabilities act (ADA)
prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities in employment decisions and a qualified person can perform the essential functions of the job, if necessary, with the aid of reasonable accommodations
personnel decisions
promotions, firing, transfers, and raises
feedback intervention theory (FIT)
proposes that feedback is most effective when targeted at task rather than at self (but lack evidence) - receiving feedback has a moderate effect (and in some cases actually made performance worse)
revised regulations (2009) of FMLA
provide for extended leave for families of wounded soldiers, clarify what constitutes serious health conditions, require enhanced communication between employees and employers
functions of providing feedback
provides information (so adjustments can be made to behaviors)
what are the functions of providing feedback?
provides information (so adjustments can be made to behaviors), makes the learning process more interesting and increase motivation to learn, leads to goal setting for improving performance
validity of testing
purpose of testing is to predict future job performance, want to maximize predictive validity, predictive validity is a type of criterion-relate validity
supervisor-subordinate relationship
quality of relationship between raters and ratees can impact performance appraisals, leader-member exchange theory (LMX)
Criterion-related Validity
quantitative type of validity reflecting whether a measurement accurately predicts some criterion (e.g., job performance) -past experience is a valid predictor of job performance if knowing past experience allows us to determine who will perform better
Integrity Tests
questionnaire items about applicants' attitudes about, and past experiences with, such things as dishonesty, theft, fraud, etc.
two types of sexual harassment
quid pro quo harassment and hostile work environment harassment
validity of interviews
r = .14
validity co-efficients for work samples close to?
r = .50
field experiments
random assignment and manipulation of independent variable in a naturally occurring, real-world setting (less control over the environment/setting)
what two factors are used in lab experiments to increase control?
random assignment and manipulation of independent variables
what is a selection battery with zero validity equivalent to?
random hiring
3 parts of how "spread-out" the data is
range, variance, standard deviation
satisfaction with the process
ratees reported less anger and more fairness when rater provides justifications for ratings, performance appraisals that are seen as unfair are related to ratees' feelings of emotional exhaustion
social perceptions
rater beliefs about how other people function another source of influence
disadvantages of checklists
rater errors such as halo, leniency, and severity are quite frequent
halo error
rater's tendency to use global evaluation of a ratee in making dimension-specific ratings
forced choice checklist
raters choose two items from a group of four that best describe the employee, purpose is to reduce rather bias/distortion
reasons for low interrater reliability
raters don't often agree and the time frames may be different
recency error
raters heavily weight their most recent interactions/observations of ratee
global evaluation-specific ratings
raters overall opinion influences each specific rating, if the rater has an overall positive opinion they may give good ratings on all dimensions, and if the rater has an overall negative opinion they may overlook specific dimensions that the ratee does with excellence
similar-to-me error
raters tend to give more favorable ratings to ratees who are like themselves
why does leniency happen?
raters want to look good, be liked, keep peace in the workplace or personality traits of the raters
what is one of the biggest issues with performance appraisals?
ratings are made by people, and people are biased, self-serving, and have limited cognitive abilities
personality traits of the raters
ratings by "agreeable" personalities are more lenient than "conscientious" personalities
what happens with distributional errors?
ratings do not discriminate (range restriction) and employee moral may decrease
Inter-rater Reliability
ratings made by different individuals should correlate highly
graphic rating scales
ratings made using a visual depiction of a scale, raters judge how much of each particular trait the ratees possess, or where on the dimension the ratees fall with respect to organizational expectations
upward appraisal ratings
ratings provide by individuals whose status in the organizational hierarchy is below that of ratees
3 types of learner characteristics
readiness, self-efficacy, motivation to learn
jingle-jangle fallacy
refer to the erroneous assumptions that two different things are the same because they bear the same name OR that two identical or almost identical things are different because they are labeled differently
emotional intelligence (EI)
refers to ability of individuals to generate, recognize, express, understand, and evaluate their own (and others') emotions, may help predict other aspects of job performance by cognitive ability, research has shown that EI is correlated with task task performance as well
organizational politics
refers to how some individuals may deliberately try to enhance their status or position in the organization, may involve deliberate attempts to influence others, gain favoritism, or sabotage co-workers, often a source of stress and dissatisfaction among employees
instructional design
refers to how the training is actually conducted, includes teaching and evaluation methods, and good instructional design has clear goals and teaches in ways that are effective for the learning goals
situational judgement tests (SJTs)
refers to pencil-and-paper tests or video scenarios that measure applicants' judgment in work settings, video examples found to be better predicts than pencil-and-paper tests, better when based on job analysis
Construct Validity
reflects whether a measurement instrument/process accurately measures the underlying construct it purports to measure -assessed qualitatively ("Does this measure reflect the construct we're trying to measure?") -assessed quantitatively through convergent and divergent validity
speed test
relatively easy items, short time limit, individual must complete as many items as possible before time expires
leanring
relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience or practice
Reliable
repeatedly gives the same or similar results when applied repeatedly to the same quantity
performance tests
require manipulation of object/piece of equipment, can be used to test physical skills that can't be measured with pencil and paper tests
criticism of PAQ
requires a high reading level, poorly suited for jobs in management, too abstract
social desirability effects
respondent answers may be influenced by interviewer
research
satisfaction with the process
median
score in the middle of a distribution
Convergent Validity
scores on the measure are related to other measures of the same construct
Equivalent Forms Reliability
scores on two different but equivalent versions of the same test, given to the same people, should correlate highly
Incremental Validity
seeks to answer if the new test adds much information that might be obtained with simpler, already existing methods.
Hawthorne Studies
studies conducted during the 1920s and 1930s that suggested the importance of the informal organization. It was concluded that work efficiency is influenced by work environment
what does SME stand for?
subject matter experts
what happens when LMX is high?
subordinates received favorable performance appraisal regardless of their objective performance criteria - evidence that being liked by the boss leads to a bit of favoritism with performance appraisals
subordinates and organizational politics
subordinates use impression management to get favorable results (for instance, acting differently when the boss is around)
what is KSAO required for?
successful job performance
reaction criteria
successful performance appraisals should be mindful of how both raters and ratees will react to the process - often neglected with designing performance appraisals
synthetic validity
suggests job components common across jobs are related to the same KSAs or human attributes (we can use large databases to estimate validity without having to do studies of specific examples) - debate over whether this approach is superior or inferior to existing approaches
statistic
summarizes in a single number the values, characteristics, or scores describing a series of cases
inclusive of many perspectives example
supervisor vs. customers
recent trend in organizations is the increased frequency of telework
supervisors do not have the opportunity to observe how work is completed, supervisor must rely on indirect info to evaluate performance (indirect info isn't as valued as direct observation), potential for performance appraisals of teleworkers to be more biased and/or less accurate
low interrater reliability
supervisors, co-workers, and customers may make very different evaluations of the same person because they may use very different criteria for their judgements
performance appraisal
systematic review and evaluation of job performance and the provision of performance feedback
what does psychology seek to do?
systematically study human behavior
criticism of CMQ
takes about 3 hour to complete
cons of interviews
takes more time and money to administer and social desirability effects
task inventory approach
task statements generated by subject matter experts (SMEs)
examples of tasks
task to teach psych 2402
essential functions
tasks that are significant and meaningful aspects of the job
goal of training and development
teach employees KSAOs they need to perform well
fundamental attribution error (FAE)
tendency to explain other people's behavior int arms of their personality or dispositions - especially true for negative behaviors , may overestimate how much individuals are to blame for poor outcomes, may underestimate the role of external influences
leniency
tendency to give ratings that are too positive or forgiving
spatial ability
test ability to understand geometric relations, such as visualizing objects and rotating them spatially to form a particular pattern
Test of Mechanical Ability
test of ability to identify, recognize, and apply mechanical principles -used for jobs requiring operating, repairing machinery , and manual trades
Test of Physical Ability
test used for jobs that require physical strength (e.g., fire-fighter, lifeguard, etc.) -highly likely to cause an adverse impact against women
overview of reliability
test-retest, parallel forms, interrupter, and internal consistency
specific cognitive ability tests
testing specific forms of knowledge
work samples
testing that attempt a standardized mini version of job tasks by creating situations that resemble performance in the job environment or by having applicants provide an example of how they would treat a job-related problem
validity generalization
testing whether the validity of predictor in other organizations or other job types
Mental/Cognitive Ability Tests
tests of general mental/cognitive ability -advantages: high validity, inexpensive and easy to administer -disadvantage: cognitive ability scores sometimes correlate with parent's socio-economic status
who set up guidelines to determine if organizations were being discriminatory in their hiring and promotions based on race and/or gender?
the EEOC
Job Skills/Work Sample Test
the applicant is asked to perform actual job-related tasks to test skills -high validity predictor of job performance
Industrial Organizational Psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. How work-related cognition, effects and bhehavior are all connected
Scientific Management
the application of scientific principles to increase efficiency in the workplace
Bandwidth-fidelity dilemma
the assessment of gain or loss in analytical and predictive power from using broad-band versus narrow-band personality assessments.
Causation
the belief that events occur in predictable ways and that one event leads to another
Validity Coefficient
the correlation coefficient (r) between a predictor and a criterion
validity
the degree that a test accurately measures the variable of interest - are IQ tests true measures of what people think of as intelligence & are personality tests good predictors of people's behavior?
what do I/O psychologists apply learning principles to?
the design and implementation of training programs
Content Validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
Construct Validity
the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
what are ratings impacted by?
the goals of the performance appraisal and the accountability of the rater
predictor variable
the independent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable
what is most research driven by?
the inductive process, but is also possible to start with data
Unstructured Interview
the interviewer asks (essentially) whatever question s come to mind, in whatever order -don't have high levels of reliability and validity as a predictor of job performance -tend to be unsystematic, allowing bias and subjectivity to have a big impact
what does a discrepancy (gap) between actual performance and an ideal, a norm, a minimum, a desired state, an expected state lead to?
the need for training
examples of psychomotor tests
the perdue pegboard test and vision and hearing tests
what happens with a smaller selection ratio?
the potential utility of the selection battery is greater - emphasizes the importance of recruitment for increasing the number of applicants so organization has more options
Employee Recruitment
the process of attracting potential workers to apply for jobs
Study Design
the program that directs the researcher along the path of systematically collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data The guide // the path
R squared
the proportion of the total variation in a dependent variable explained by an independent variable
Test-retest Reliability
the same test given to the same people at two different times should correlate highly
what will happen if validity (R^2) shrinks by a lot?
then there was something about the original sample or organization that doesn't generalize (situational specificity)
business necessity defense that state the selection battery was entirely job-related and treats both minority and majority-applicants fairly
they are accepting that the plaintiff's statistics are correct, but that other factors are leading to the differences (for example, a limited pool of applicants)
what happens to employees low on FO?
they are not motivated by a high FE environment
why are halo errors problematic?
they can't accurately identify areas that need improvement
what happens to employees high on FO?
they tend to seek feedback more often than those low on FO
extraneous variable
things you didn't mean to manipulate that may influence measurements, confounds
who did error training reduce feelings of self-efficacy for?
those high in conscientiousness
disadvantages of BARS
time and money intensive and no evidence that it is more accurate than other formats
what is archival research able to minimize?
time developing measures and collecting data
disadvantages of employee comparison methods
time intensive and not well received by raters (paired comparison), or ratees (forced distribution)
feedback (knowledge or results)
timely and useful feedback is important, work best when delivered immediately after behavior, frequent feedback improves performance over time, both positive and negative feedback can be beneficial (as long as it is delivered with skill AND the learner is open to feedback)
use of meta-analysis
to combine the results of multiple studies to arrive at the best estimate of the true relationship
what are the 4 goals of science?
to describe, explain, predict, and control/influence
what is a control needed for?
to make a predictor
goal of selection battery
to maximize hits and correct rejections and to minimize misses and false alarms
participation
to what extent is the ratee involved in the process? can include self-assessment or expressing ideas during the appraisal session/interview, strong positive relationship between employee participation in the process and perceptions of fairness and justice
criticisms of task-oriented techniques
too narrowly focused on the tasks for a particular job (focus on the details; may miss the big picture), may miss similarities between different job types
R^2
total amount of outcome explained by multiple predictors
how to teach specific KSAOs that will contribute to the organizations goals?
train
when is training needed?
training should be based on a needs assessment, due to a deficiency in knowledge, skill, or ability
validity "shrinkage"
typically validity will decrease a bit for different samples
grutter vs. bollinger (2003)
university of michigan law school sued by caucasian female who argued she was denied admission due to racial preferences and the supreme court ruled for the defendant citing that diversity is a compelling interest for the law school and the school considered elements of diversity on an individual basis (did not make race the defining feature of its decision)
gratz vs. bollinger (2003)
university of michigan sued by two caucasians who argued they were denied admission because preference was shown to "underrepresented minorities" an the supreme court ruled for the plaintiffs because awarding global points ignored individual differences and qualifications
age discrimination in employment act (ADEA)
unlawful to discriminate against a person 40 years or older because of age with respect to any employment-related decision
examples of task oriented approach for a professor
writing syllabi, lecturing, etc.
problems caused by inadequate performance appraisals
wrong people are promoted or fired, legal problems, disgruntled employees
is psychology a science?
yes
example of readiness
you can't learn calculus if you don't understand algebra
example of concurrent validity
your current GPA predicting how well you will do in a class this semester
