JOUR QUIZ 4

o States

Lowercase in all state of constructions: the state of Maine, the states of Maine and Vermont. Four states Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia are legally commonwealths rather than states. The distinction is necessary only in formal uses: The commonwealth of Kentucky filed a suit. For simple geographic reference: Tobacco is grown in the state of Kentucky. Do not capitalize state when used simply as an adjective to specify a level of jurisdiction: state Rep. William Smith, the state Transportation Department, state funds. Apply the same principle to phrases such as the city of Chicago, the town of Auburn, etc.Follow these guidelines: SPELL OUT: The names of the 50 U.S. states should be spelled out when used in the body of a story, whether standing alone or in conjunction with a city, town, village or military base. No state name is necessary if it is the same as the dateline. This also applies to newspapers cited in a story. For example, a story datelined Providence, R.I., would reference the Providence Journal, not the Providence (Rhode Island) Journal. See datelines. EIGHT NOT ABBREVIATED: The names of eight states are never abbreviated in datelines or text: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas and Utah. Memory aid: Spell out the names of the two states that are not part of the contiguous United States and of the continental states that are five letters or fewer. IN THE BODY OF STORIES: Except for cities that stand alone in datelines, use the state name in textual material when the city or town is not in the same state as the dateline, or where necessary to avoid confusion: Springfield, Massachusetts, or Springfield, Illinois. Provide a state identification for the city if the story has no dateline, or if the city is not in the same state as the dateline. However, cities that stand alone in datelines may be used alone in stories that have no dateline if no confusion would result. ABBREVIATIONS REQUIRED: Use the state abbreviations listed at the end of this section: In conjunction with the name of a city, town, village or military base in most datelines. See datelines for examples and exceptions for large cities. In lists, agate, tabular material, nonpublishable editor's notes and credit lines. In short-form listings of party affiliation: D-Ala., R-Mont. See party affiliation entry for details. Following are the state abbreviations, which also appear in the entries for each state (postal code abbreviations in parentheses): Ala. (AL) Md. (MD) N.D. (ND) Ariz. (AZ) Mass. (MA) Okla. (OK) Ark. (AR) Mich. (MI) Ore. (OR) Calif. (CA) Minn. (MN) Pa. (PA) Colo. (CO) Miss. (MS) R.I. (RI) Conn. (CT) Mo. (MO) S.C. (SC) Del. (DE) Mont. (MT) S.D. (SD) Fla. (FL) Neb. (NE) Tenn. (TN) Ga. (GA) Nev. (NV) Vt. (VT) Ill. (IL) N.H. (NH) Va. (VA) Ind. (IN) N.J. (NJ) Wash. (WA) Kan. (KS) N.M. (NM) W.Va. (WV) Ky. (KY) N.Y. (NY) Wis. (WI) La. (LA) N.C. (NC) Wyo. (WY) These are the postal code abbreviations for the eight states that are not abbreviated in datelines or text: AK (Alaska), HI (Hawaii), ID (Idaho), IA (Iowa), ME (Maine), OH (Ohio), TX (Texas), UT (Utah). Also: District of Columbia (DC). Use the two-letter Postal Service abbreviations only with full addresses, including ZIP code. PUNCTUATION: Place one comma between the city and the state name, and another comma after the state name, unless ending a sentence or indicating a dateline: He was traveling from Nashville, Tennessee, to Austin, Texas, en route to his home in Albuquerque, New Mexico. She said Cook County, Illinois, was Mayor Daley's stronghold. HEADLINES: Avoid using state abbreviations in headlines whenever possible. MISCELLANEOUS: Use New York state when necessary to distinguish the state from New York City. Use state of Washington or Washington state within a story when it's necessary to differentiate the state name from the U.S. capital, Washington. It's written Washington, D.C., with the added abbreviation only if the city might be confused with the state.

time zones

Capitalize the full name of the time in force within a particular zone: Eastern Standard Time, Eastern Daylight Time, Central Standard Time, etc. Lowercase all but the region in short forms: the Eastern time zone, Eastern time, Mountain time, etc. See time of day for guidelines on when to use clock time in a story. Spell out time zone in references not accompanied by a clock reading: Chicago is in the Central time zone. The abbreviations EST, CDT, etc., are acceptable on first reference for zones used within the continental United States, Canada and Mexico only if the abbreviation is linked with a clock reading: noon EST, 9 a.m. PST. (Do not set off the abbreviations with commas.) Spell out all references to time zones not used within the contiguous United States: When it is noon EDT, it is 1 p.m. Atlantic Standard Time and 8 a.m. Alaska Standard Time. One exception to the spelled-out form: Greenwich Mean Time may be abbreviated as GMT on second reference if used with a clock reading. See GMT.

o Religious references

DEITIES: Capitalize the proper names of monotheistic deities: God, Allah, the Father, the Son, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Redeemer, the Holy Spirit, etc. Lowercase pronouns referring to the deity: he, him, his, thee, thou, who, whose, thy, etc. Lowercase gods in referring to the deities of polytheistic religions. Capitalize the proper names of pagan and mythological gods and goddesses: Neptune, Thor, Venus, etc. Lowercase such words as god-awful, *******, godlike, godliness, godsend. LIFE OF CHRIST: Capitalize the names of major events in the life of Jesus Christ in references that do not use his name: The doctrines of the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, the Resurrection and the Ascension are central to Christian belief. But use lowercase when the words are used with his name: The ascension of Jesus into heaven took place 40 days after his resurrection from the dead. Apply the principle also to events in the life of his mother: He cited the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption. But: She referred to the assumption of Mary into heaven. RITES: Capitalize proper names for rites that commemorate the Last Supper or signify a belief in Christ's presence: the Lord's Supper, Holy Communion, Holy Eucharist. Lowercase the names of other sacraments. See sacraments. Capitalize Benediction and Mass. But: a high Mass, a low Mass, a requiem Mass. HOLY DAYS: Capitalize the names of holy days. See holidays and holy days and separate entries for major Christian, Jewish and Muslim feasts. OTHER WORDS: Lowercase heaven, hell, devil, angel, cherub, an apostle, a priest, etc. Capitalize Hades and Satan. For additional details, see Bible, entries for frequently used religious terms, the entries for major denominations, religious movements and religious titles.

race-related coverage

Reporting and writing about issues involving race calls for thoughtful consideration, precise language, and an openness to discussions with others of diverse backgrounds about how to frame coverage or what language is most appropriate, accurate and fair. Avoid broad generalizations and labels; race and ethnicity are one part of a person's identity. Identifying people by race and reporting on actions that have to do with race often go beyond simple style questions, challenging journalists to think broadly about racial issues before having to make decisions on specific situations and stories. Some guidelines: race Consider carefully when deciding whether to identify people by race. Often, it is an irrelevant factor and drawing unnecessary attention to someone's race or ethnicity can be interpreted as bigotry. There are, however, occasions when race is pertinent: — In stories that involve significant, groundbreaking or historic events, such as being elected U.S. president, being named to the U.S. Supreme Court or other notable occurrences. Barack Obama was the first black U.S. president. Sonia Sotomayor is the first Hispanic justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Jeremy Lin is the first American-born NBA player of Chinese or Taiwanese descent. — In cases where suspects or missing persons are being sought, and the descriptions provided are detailed and not solely racial. Police are looking for a man described as white, about 6 feet tall and 200 pounds, with black hair and blue eyes, wearing a plaid shirt and a Seattle Mariners baseball cap. Such descriptions apply for all races. The racial reference should be removed when the individual is apprehended or found. — When reporting a demonstration, disturbance or other conflict involving race (including verbal conflicts), or issues like civil rights. In other situations when race is an issue, use news judgment. Include racial or ethnic details only when they are clearly relevant and that relevance is explicit in the story. Do not use a derogatory term except in rare circumstances — when it is crucial to the story or the understanding of a news event. Flag the contents in an editor's note. See obscenities, profanities, vulgarities. racist, racism Racism is a doctrine asserting racial differences in character, intelligence, etc., and the superiority of one race over another, or racial discrimination or feelings of hatred or bigotry toward people of another race. The terms racism and racist can be used in broad references or in quotations to describe the hatred of a race, or assertion of the superiority of one race over others. The townspeople saw their votes as a rejection of racism. Deciding whether a specific statement, action, policy, etc., should be termed racist often is not clear-cut. Such decisions should include discussion with colleagues and/or others from diverse backgrounds and perspectives. In the AP, that conversation should also include senior managers. Begin by assessing the facts: Does the statement or action meet the definition of racism? That assessment need not involve examining the motivation of the person who spoke or acted, which is a separate issue that may not be related to how the statement or action itself can be characterized. In general, avoid using racist or any other label as a noun for a person; it's far harder to match the complexity of a person to a definition or label than it is a statement or action. Instead, be specific in describing the person's words or actions. Again, discuss with senior managers, colleagues and others from diverse backgrounds when the description may be appropriate for a person. Do not use racially charged or similar terms as euphemisms for racist or racism when the latter terms are truly applicable. Cases in which the term racist might be used include identifying as racist support for avowed racist organizations, statements calling another race or ethnic group inferior, or employing negative stereotypes for different racial or ethnic groups. The video shows the candidate wearing blackface and making racist statements including, "You're not white so you can't be right." Always use specifics to describe the words or actions in question. But do not use a derogatory term except in rare circumstances when it is crucial to the story or the understanding of a news event. If racist is not the appropriate term, give careful thought to how best to describe the situation. Alternatives include racially divisive, racially sensitive, or in some cases, simply racial. For details, see racially charged, racially motivated, racially tinged, and other entries in race-related coverage. racially charged, racially motivated, racially tinged Generally avoid using these vague phrases to describe situations in which race is or is alleged or perceived to be a central issue, but that do not meet the definition of racist or racism. As alternatives, racially divisive or racially sensitive may be clearer, depending on the context. In some cases, the term racial is appropriate: racial arguments, racial tensions. Always give specifics about what was done, said or alleged. Do not use racially charged, racially divisive, racially tinged or similar terms as euphemisms for racist or racism when the latter terms are truly applicable. Mississippi has a history of racist lynchings, not a history of racially motivated lynchings. He is charged in the racist massacre of nine people at a black church, not the racially motivated massacre of nine people at a black church. See racist, racism, and other entries in race-related coverage. black(s), white(s) (n.) Do not use either term as a singular noun. For plurals, phrasing such as black people, white people, black teachers, white students is often preferable when clearly relevant. Black officers account for 47% of the police force and white officers nearly 43%. The gunman targeted black churchgoers. The plural nouns blacks and whites are generally acceptable when clearly relevant and needed for reasons of space or sentence construction. He helped integrate dance halls among blacks, whites, Latinos and Asian Americans. Black and white are acceptable as adjectives when relevant. black (adj.) Acceptable as an adjective. African American is acceptable for an American black person of African descent. (Use Negro or colored only in names of organizations or in rare quotations when essential.) See obscenities, profanities, vulgarities. boy, girl Generally acceptable to describe males or females younger than 18. While it is always inaccurate to call people under 18 men or women and people 18 and older boys or girls, be aware of nuances and unintentional implications. Referring to black males of any age and in any context as boys, for instance, can be perceived as demeaning and call to mind historical language used by some to address black men. Be specific about ages if possible, or refer to black youths, child, teen or similar. dual heritage No hyphen (a change in 2019 from previous style) for terms such as African American, Asian American and Filipino American, used when relevant to refer to an American person's heritage. The terms are less common when used to describe non-Americans, but may be used when relevant: Turkish German for a German of Turkish descent. African American No hyphen (a change in 2019 for this and other dual heritage terms). Acceptable for an American black person of African descent. The terms are not necessarily interchangeable. Americans of Caribbean heritage, for example, generally refer to themselves as Caribbean American. Follow a person's preference. Asian American No hyphen (a change in 2019 for this and other dual heritage terms). Acceptable for an American of Asian descent. When possible, refer to a person's country of origin or follow the person's preference. For example: Filipino American or Indian American. COMPOUND PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: No hyphen in designating dual heritage: Italian American, Mexican American (a change in 2019). Caucasian Avoid as a synonym for white, unless in a quotation. people of color, racial minority The terms people of color and racial minority/minorities are generally acceptable terms to describe people of races other than white in the United States. Avoid using POC. When talking about just one group, be specific: Chinese Americans or members of the Seminole Indian Tribe of Florida, for example. Be mindful that some Native Americans say the terms people of color and racial minority fall short by not encompassing their sovereign status. Avoid referring to an individual as a minority unless in a quotation. biracial, multiracial Acceptable, when clearly relevant, to describe people with more than one racial heritage. Usually more useful when describing large, diverse groups of people than individuals. Avoid mixed-race, which can carry negative connotations, unless a story subject prefers the term. Be specific if possible, and then use biracial for people of two heritages or multiracial for those of two or more on subsequent references if needed. Examples: She has an African American father and a white mother instead of She is biracial. But: The study of biracial people showed a split in support along gender lines. Multiracial can encompass people of any combination of races. transracial The term should not be used to describe people who have adopted a different racial identity. Chicano A term that Mexican Americans in the U.S. Southwest sometimes use to describe their heritage. Use only if it is a person's preference. Latino, Latina Latino is often the preferred noun or adjective for a person from, or whose ancestors were from, a Spanish-speaking land or culture or from Latin America. Latina is the feminine form. Some prefer the recently coined gender-neutral term Latinx, which should be confined to quotations, names of organizations or descriptions of individuals who request it and should be accompanied by a short explanation. Hernandez prefers the gender-neutral term Latinx. For groups of females, use the plural Latinas; for groups of males or of mixed gender, use the plural Latinos. Hispanics is also generally acceptable for those in the U.S. Use a more specific identification when possible, such as Cuban, Puerto Rican, Brazilian or Mexican American. Hispanic A person from — or whose ancestors were from — a Spanish-speaking land or culture. Latino, Latina or Latinx are sometimes preferred. Follow the person's preference. Use a more specific identification when possible, such as Cuban, Puerto Rican or Mexican American. American Indians, Native Americans Both are acceptable terms in general references for those in the U.S. when referring to two or more people of different tribal affiliations. For individuals, use the name of the tribe; if that information is not immediately available, try to obtain it. He is a Navajo commissioner. She is a member of the Nisqually Indian Tribe. He is a citizen of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. Some tribes and tribal nations use member; others use citizen. If in doubt, use citizen. Avoid words such as wampum, warpath, powwow, teepee, brave, squaw, etc., which can be disparaging and offensive. In Alaska, the indigenous groups are collectively known as Alaska Natives. First Nation is the preferred term for native tribes in Canada. Indian is used to describe the peoples and cultures of the South Asian nation of India. Do not use the term as a shorthand for American Indians. tribe Refers to a sovereign political entity, communities sharing a common ancestry, culture or language, and a social group of linked families who may be part of an ethnic group. Capitalize the word tribe when part of a formal name of sovereign political entities, or communities sharing a common ancestry, culture or language. Identify tribes by the political identity specified by the tribe, nation or community: the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, the Cherokee Nation. The term ethnic group is preferred when referring to ethnicity or ethnic violence. Orient, Oriental Do not use when referring to East Asian nations and their peoples. Asian is the acceptable term for an inhabitant of those regions. indigenous A term used to refer to original inhabitants of a place. Aboriginal leaders welcomed a new era of indigenous relations in Australia. Bolivia's indigenous peoples represent some 62% of the population. Aborigine An outdated term referring to aboriginal people in Australia. It is considered offensive by some and should be avoided. ghetto, ghettos Do not use indiscriminately as a synonym for the sections of cities inhabited by minorities or poor people. Ghetto has a connotation that government decree has forced people to live in a certain area. In most cases, section, district, slum area or quarter is the more accurate word. reverse discrimination A term sometimes used to describe bias or perceived bias against majority groups. Limit its use to quotes; generally just discrimination will suffice to describe such allegations or practices.

o Titles

In general, confine capitalization to formal titles used directly before an individual's name. The basic guidelines: LOWERCASE: Lowercase and spell out titles when they are not used with an individual's name: The president issued a statement. The pope gave his blessing. Lowercase and spell out titles in constructions that set them off from a name by commas: The vice president, Mike Pence, was elected in 2016. Pope Francis, the current pope, was born in Argentina. FORMAL TITLES: Capitalize formal titles when they are used immediately before one or more names: Pope Francis, President Donald Trump, Vice Presidents John Jones and William Smith. A formal title generally is one that denotes a scope of authority, professional activity or academic activity: Sen. Dianne Feinstein, Dr. Benjamin Spock, retired Gen. Colin Powell. Other titles serve primarily as occupational descriptions: astronaut John Glenn, movie star John Wayne, peanut farmer Jimmy Carter. A final determination on whether a title is formal or occupational depends on the practice of the governmental or private organization that confers it. If there is doubt about the status of a title and the practice of the organization cannot be determined, use a construction that sets the name or the title off with commas. ABBREVIATED TITLES: The following formal titles are capitalized and abbreviated as shown when used before a name both inside and outside quotations: Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Rep., Sen. and certain military ranks listed in military titles. All other formal titles are spelled out in all uses. GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS: In stories with U.S. datelines, do not include U.S. before the titles of secretary of state or other government officials, except where necessary for clarity. In stories with international datelines, include U.S. before the titles. ROYAL TITLES: Capitalize king, queen, etc., when used directly before a name. See individual entries and nobility. TITLES OF NOBILITY: Capitalize a full title when it serves as the alternate name for an individual. See nobility. PAST AND FUTURE TITLES: A formal title that an individual formerly held, is about to hold or holds temporarily is capitalized if used before the person's name. But do not capitalize the qualifying word: former President George W. Bush, deposed King Constantine, Attorney General-designate Griffin B. Bell, acting Mayor Peter Barry. LONG TITLES: Separate a long title from a name by a construction that requires a comma: Charles Robinson, the undersecretary for economic affairs, spoke. Or: The undersecretary for economic affairs, Charles Robinson, spoke. UNIQUE TITLES: If a title applies only to one person in an organization, insert the word the in a construction that uses commas: John Jones, the deputy vice president, spoke. ADDITIONAL GUIDANCE: Many commonly used titles and occupational descriptions are listed separately in this book, together with guidelines on whether and/or when they are capitalized. In these entries, the phrases before a name or immediately before a name are used to specify that capitalization applies only when a title is not set off from a name by commas.

unique

It means one of a kind. Do not describe something as rather unique, most unique or very unique.

o Seasons

Lowercase spring, summer, fall, winter and derivatives such as springtime unless part of a formal name: Dartmouth Winter Carnival, Winter Olympics, Summer Olympics.

o Quotations in the news

Never alter quotations even to correct minor grammatical errors or word usage. Casual minor tongue slips may be removed by using ellipses but even that should be done with extreme caution. Do not use (sic) to show that quoted material or person's words include a misspelling, incorrect grammar or peculiar usage. (This is a change from previous guidance.) Instead, paraphrase if possible. If the quoted material is essential, simply use it as spoken or written, in line with the guidance below. In AP stories, use an editor's note to confirm for other editors: Eds: The spelling "Cristina" instead of "Christina" in the ransom note is as the note reads. If there is a question about a quote, either don't use it or ask the speaker to clarify. If a person is unavailable for comment, detail attempts to reach that person. (Agarwal was out of the country on business; Park did not return phone messages left at the office.) Do not use substandard spellings such as gonna or wanna in attempts to convey regional dialects or informal pronunciations, except to convey an emphasis by the speaker. When quoting spoken words, present them in the format that reflects AP style: No. 1, St., Gov., $3. But quotes should not be changed otherwise for reasons of style. If the speaker says towards, do not change it to toward. When quoting written words, retain the style used by the writer; do not alter the written words even if they don't match AP style. Use quotations only if they are the best way to tell the story or convey meaning. Often, paraphrasing is preferable. In general, avoid using parenthetical clarifications in quoted material. If such a clarification is needed, it's almost always better to paraphrase. If the quote is essential, include the unclear word or phrase before the parenthetical clarification; deleting it creates questions in a reader's mind. For example: "I heard him (the second attacker) yell, 'The sky is falling! Chicken Little was right!' before he drew the knife." Not: "I heard (the second attacker) yell, 'The sky is falling! Chicken Little was right!' before he drew the knife." Better: The witness said he heard the second attacker yell: "The sky is falling! Chicken Little was right!" before drawing the knife. FULL vs. PARTIAL QUOTES: In general, avoid fragmentary quotes. If a speaker's words are clear and concise, favor the full quote. If cumbersome language can be paraphrased fairly, use an indirect construction, reserving quotation marks for sensitive or controversial passages that must be identified specifically as coming from the speaker. CONTEXT: Remember that you can misquote someone by giving a startling remark without its modifying passage or qualifiers. The manner of delivery sometimes is part of the context. Reporting a smile or a deprecatory gesture may be as important as conveying the words themselves. SOCIAL MEDIA POSTS AND TEXT MESSAGES: Social media posts and text messages often contain emoji, GIFs or other imagery that need to be conveyed to readers using words. Treat the visual material as context or gestures when important to include, describing by paraphrasing: Chavis sparked a flurry of responses against the airline after tweeting a GIF of large crowds at the gate, with the message "#missinghoneymoon" and an emoji string of a worried smiley, a ring, an hourglass and an umbrella propped on a beach. Be aware that some GIFs, emoji or other images may contain hidden meanings and nuances requiring consideration and more than just a simple description of the image posted. Do not use parentheses to describe an emoji within a direct quote, to avoid confusing readers by making it seem as if the person being quoted wrote out the description in text. Many story platforms support displaying posts as they actually appear, or hyperlinking to posts on social networks, giving journalists several options to let readers see material for themselves. For example, some production systems may allow you to directly insert emoji into the text of a story. Additionally, most social networks allow for direct embedding of such material, and screen captures may also be acceptable if images are displayed in accordance with your newsroom's visual standards. OFFENSIVE LANGUAGE: See the obscenities, profanities, vulgarities entry. PUNCTUATION: See the quotation marks entry in the Punctuation chapter.

o Roman numerals

The Roman letters (I, X, etc.) were used as numerals until the 10th century. Use Roman numerals for wars and to establish personal sequence for people and animals: World War I, Native Dancer II, King George V. Also for certain legislative acts (Title IX). Pro football Super Bowls should be identified by the year, not the Roman numerals: 1969 Super Bowl, not Super Bowl III. Use Arabic numerals in all other cases. See Arabic numerals and numerals. In Roman numerals, the capital letter I equals 1, V equals 5, X equals 10, L equals 50, C equals 100, D equals 500 and M equals 1,000. Other numbers are formed from these by adding or subtracting as follows: -The value of a letter following another of the same or greater value is added: III equals 3. -The value of a letter preceding one of greater value is subtracted: IV equals 4.

temperatures

Use figures for all except zero. Use a word, not a minus sign, to indicate temperatures below zero. Right: The day's low was minus 10. Right: The day's low was 10 below zero. Wrong: The day's low was -10. Right: The temperature rose to zero by noon. Right: The day's high was expected to be 9 or 10. Also: 5-degree temperatures, temperatures fell 5 degrees, temperatures in the 30s (no apostrophe). Temperatures get higher or lower, but they don't get warmer or cooler. Wrong: Temperatures are expected to warm up in the area Friday. Right: Temperatures are expected to rise in the area Friday.

telephone numbers

Use figures. The form: 212-621-1500. For international numbers use 011 (from the United States), the country code, the city code and the telephone number: 011-44-20-7535-1515. Use hyphens, not periods. The form for toll-free numbers: 800-111-1000. If extension numbers are needed, use a comma to separate the main number from the extension: 212-621-1500, ext. 2.

should, would

Use should to express an obligation: We should help the needy. Use would to express a customary action: In the summer we would spend hours by the seashore. Use would also in constructing a conditional past tense, but be careful: Wrong: If Soderholm would not have had an injured foot, Thompson would not have been in the lineup. Right: If Soderholm had not had an injured foot, Thompson would not have been in the lineup.

that, which (pronouns)

Use that and which in referring to inanimate objects and to animals without a name. Use that for essential clauses, important to the meaning of a sentence, and without commas: I remember the day that we met. Use which for nonessential clauses, where the pronoun is less necessary, and use commas: The team, which finished last a year ago, is in first place. (Tip: If you can drop the clause and not lose the meaning of the sentence, use which; otherwise, use that. A which clause is surrounded by commas; no commas are used with that clauses.)

that (conjunction)

Use the conjunction that to introduce a dependent clause if the sentence sounds or looks awkward without it. There are no hard-and-fast rules, but in general: -That usually may be omitted when a dependent clause immediately follows a form of the verb to say: The president said he had signed the bill. -That should be used when a time element intervenes between the verb and the dependent clause: The president said Monday that he had signed the bill. -That usually is necessary after some verbs. They include: advocate, assert, contend, declare, estimate, make clear, point out, propose and state. -That is required before subordinate clauses beginning with conjunctions such as after, although, because, before, in addition to, until and while: Haldeman said that after he learned of Nixon's intention to resign, he sought pardons for all connected with Watergate. When in doubt, include that. Omission can hurt. Inclusion never does.

subjunctive mood

Use the subjunctive mood of a verb for contrary-to-fact conditions, and expressions of doubts, wishes or regrets: If I were a rich man, I wouldn't have to work hard. I doubt that more money would be the answer. I wish it were possible to take back my words. Sentences that express a contingency or hypothesis may use either the subjunctive or the indicative mood depending on the context. In general, use the subjunctive if there is little likelihood that a contingency might come true: If I were to marry a millionaire, I wouldn't have to worry about money. If the bill passes as expected, it will provide an immediate tax cut.