KIN 202 FINAL EXAM

kilocalorie

(kcal or Calorie) 1,000 calories

Glycemic index

- Increase in blood glucose during 2-h period after consumption of a certain amount of CHO compared w/ equal CHO from reference food

central nervous system

- The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

nutrition

- There are a variety of scientific disciplines - The science of how living organisms obtain and use food to support processes required for life.

passive transport mechanism

- Transport mechanism that enables substances to cross cell membranes without expenditure of energy (ATP).

active transport mechanism

- Transport mechanism that enables substances to cross cell membranes, requiring the expenditure of energy (ATP).

Umami

- an earthy, savory flavor which is present in food.

Anal fissure

- is a small tear in the thin, moist tissue (mucosa) that lines the anus. - may occur when you pass hard or large stools during a bowel movement. - typically cause pain and bleeding with bowel movements. You also may experience spasms in the ring of muscle at the end of your anus (anal sphincter).

Intestinal phase

- motility and secretion has increased and is releasing food into the small intestine.

Macronutrients

- over a gram required each day - waters, carbs, protein, lipids -needed in large quantities

Enteric nervous system

- receives info from sensory receptors. Neurons located within the submucosa and muscularis layers of the digestive tract.

Tolerable upper intake levels DEFINITION

- reflect safe maximal intakes -Highest level of usual daily nutrient intake likely to be safe/ pose no risk of adverse health effects

involuntary phases

- soft palate rises, in turn preventing the bolus from entering the nasal captivity. The epiglottis covers the trachea, blocking the opening to the lungs. The bolus enters the esophagus and is propelled toward the stomach by peristalsis.

Voluntary phase

- the tongue pushes the bolus of the food against the hard palate. Next the tongue pushes the bolus against the soft palate triggering the swallowing response.

Micronutrients

- vitamins and minerals -often micrograms or milligrams each day - only need small amounts of them

Peristalsis

- wavelike rhythmic contractions and relaxation involving the circular and longitudinal muscles, propels food forward through the GI tract. Starts in the esophagus all the way to the rectum.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) DEFINITION

-A chemical used by the body to perform work. - tiny rechargeable battery - fuels all types of chemical reactions

Digestion of Triglycerides by Pancreatic Lipase

-In response to lipid-containing chyme entering the duodenum, the small intestine releases the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK). -These enteric hormones signal the pancreas to release pancreatic juices containing the enzyme pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase completes triglyceride digestion by hydrolyzing additional fatty acids from glycerol molecules in the micelles. -two of the three fatty acids are removed from the triglyceride molecules, resulting in the release of a monoglyceride and two free fatty acids

calorie

-amount to the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. - a unit of measure used to express the amount of energy in a food.

carbohydrates

4 kcal/g

protien

4 kcal/g

lipids

9 kcal/g

trans double bond

A carbon-carbon double bond in which the hydrogen atoms are positioned on opposite sides of the double bond.

cis double bond

A carbon-carbon double bond in which the hydrogen atoms are positioned on the same side of the double bond.

sterol ester

A chemical compound consisting of a sterol molecule bonded to a fatty acid via an ester linkage.

bomb calorimeter

A device used to measure the amount of energy in a food.

a trans fatty acid

A fatty acid containing at least one trans double bond.

medium-chain fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid having 8-12 carbon atoms in its backbone.

short-chain fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid having <8 carbon atoms in its backbone.

long-chain fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid having >12 carbon atoms in its backbone.

omega-6 fatty acid

A fatty acid in which the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbons from the methyl or omega (v) end.

omega-3 fatty acids

A fatty acid in which the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbons from the methyl or omega (v) end.

unsaturated fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid that contains at least one carbon-carbon double bond in its backbone.

polyunsaturated fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid that contains more than one carbon- carbon double bond in its backbone.

monounsaturated fatty acid STRUCTURE

A fatty acid that contains one carbon-carbon double bond in its backbone.

functional food

A food that contains enhanced levels of an essential nutrient, phytochemical, or zoonutrient and thought to benefit human health.

marasmus

A form of PEM characterized by extreme wasting of muscle and adipose tissue.

kwashiorkor

A form of PEM often characterized by edema in the extremities (hands, feet). no real evidence of protein deficiency

oil

A lipid that is liquid at room temperature.

c. 77

A meal you ate at a restaurant contained about 1,000 kilocalories. How many additional kilocalories would 11 grams of alcohol add to your meal? a. 0 b. 44 c. 77 d. 99 e. 1,077

facilitated diffusion

A passive transport mechanism whereby substances cross cell membranes from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration with the assistance of a transport protein.

Simple diffusion

A passive transport mechanism whereby substances cross cell membranes from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without using energy (ATP).

partial hydrogenation

A process whereby some carbon-carbon double bonds found in PUFAs are converted to carbon-carbon single bonds, resulting in the production of a lipid containing saturated and trans fatty acids.

glycemic load

A rating system used to categorize the body's glycemic response to foods that takes into account the glycemic index as well as the amount of carbohydrate typically found in a single serving of the food.

adipocyte

A specialized cell that makes up the majority of adipose tissue.

cholesteryl ester

A sterol ester made of a cholesterol molecule bonded to a fatty acid via an ester linkage.

cholesterol

A sterol found in animal foods and made in the body; required for bile acid and steroid hormone synthesis.

hormone-sensitive lipase

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester linkages that attach fatty acids to the glycerol molecule; mobilizes fatty acids stored in adipose tissue.

lipoprotein lipase

An enzyme that hydrolyzes the ester linkage between a fatty acid and glycerol in a triglyceride, diglyceride, and monoglyceride molecule as they circulate in the bloodstream.

lingual lipase

An enzyme, produced in the salivary glands, that hydrolyzes ester linkages between fatty acids and glycerol molecules.

gastric lipase

An enzyme, produced in the stomach, that hydrolyzes ester linkages between fatty acids and glycerol molecules.

linolenic acid

An essential v-3 fatty acid with 18 carbons and 3 double bonds.

linoleic acid

An essential v-6 fatty acid with 18 carbons and 2 double bonds.

intervention study

An experiment in which something is altered or changed to determine its effect on something else.

Outline "authorities"

Anyone with an opinion, regardless of their credentials. Can pose as an authority online.

artieries

Arteries and veins both transport blood; which carry it away from the heart?

veins

Arteries and veins both transport blood; which carry it toward the heart?

e. epiglottis

Brit was eating quickly in order to get to her next class. Though she began to choke when she tried to swallow a large bite of her sandwich, her _____ covered her trachea during swallowing so that her sandwich did not go into her lungs. a. gastroesophageal sphincter b. esophagus c. pyloric valve d. pyloric sphincter e. epiglottis

maintaining preference for overly sweet foods

Chronic overstimulation of sweet receptors on the tongue leads to the need for more sweetness in processed foods to match the sweetness of diet soft drinks and food with artificial sweeteners.

lipases

Enzymes that cleave fatty acids from the glycerol backbones of triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesteryl esters.

what can omega-3s from plants do?

Evidence suggests that a diet free of fish and other animal products is optimal for mood improvement. Research has shown that plant-based diets are associated with healthier mood states - the more fruits & vegetables people eat, the happier, less depressed, and more satisfied they are with their lives.

A Small Portion of Triglyceride Digestion Occurs in Your Mouth

First stage begins in your mouth As chewing breaks apart food, Lingual lipase begins to hydrolyze fatty acids from glycerol molecules. Once food is swallowed, lingual lipase accompanies the bolus into your stomach where this enzyme continues to function.

to the bladder and from there is excreted through the urethra.

From where does urine leave the kidneys?

What are the hormones that participate directly in digestive processes? What kind of control does each hormone exert?

Gastrin stimulates production and the release of gastric juice which breaks down carbs, fats, and proteins. Secretine in the small intestine releases pancreatic juice which is neutralized by chyme. Then cholecystokinin is released and enzymes stimulate the gallbladder to release bile to break down lipids. Ghrelin is released and stimulates hunger.

How do gastrointestinal secretions and motility facilitate digestion?

Gastrointestinal hormones are secreted and facilitate communication to the GI motility. From there pancreatic juice is released and neutralizes the chyme for the chemical breakdown of carbs, fats, and proteins to occur. Then gastric juices are secreted and the enzymes break down the nutrients.

a. carbohydrate content of a food and glycemic index of a food.

Glycemic load takes into account the: a. carbohydrate content of a food and glycemic index of a food. b. carbohydrate and fiber content of a food. c. calorie content and glycemic index of a food. d. fiber content of a food and glycemic index of a food

amphipathic

Having both nonpolar (noncharged) and polar (charged) portions.

c. 77

How many Calories would be provided by a food that contains 2 grams of protein, 6 grams of carbohydrates, and 5 grams of fat? a. 95 b. 85 c. 77 d. 770 e. 850

UL or Tolerable Upper Intake Level

If Jesse chronically consumes more than his _______________ for vitamin A, there is a strong possibility that this will be detrimental to his health

The three functions of the urinary system are filtration, reabsorption, and excretion

In addition to excretion, what are the two other important functions of the urinary system?

down-regulation

In the context of protein synthesis, decreased expression of a gene.

up-regulation

In the context of protein synthesis, increased expression of a gene.

c. stomach, duodenum and large intestine

Jan is about to eat a slice of pizza. in what order will the pizza pass through the organs of her GI tract? a. jejunum, colon, cecum b. small intestine, stomach, duodenum, cecum c. stomach, duodenum and large intestine

3

Less than ___% of Americans get even the recommended minimum adequate intake of fiber. a. 40 b. 3 c. 97 d. 10 25

Ketone

Organic compound used as an energy source during starvation, fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, or uncontrolled diabetes.

lipids

Organic molecules that are relatively insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.

inflammation

Our bodies' natural immune response to injury, foreign intruders or even exercise.

overcompensation

People who knowingly consume artificial sweeteners often end up eating more calories. A study cited in lecture was one where the aspartame-informed group ate significantly more than the aspartame-naïve group that didn't know any different. In other words, knowingly ingesting aspartame was associated with increased overall energy intake

Hawthorne effect

Phenomenon in which study results are influenced by an unintentional alteration of a behavior by the study participants.

Malnutrition

Poor nutritional status caused by either undernutrition or overnutrition.

photosynthesis

Process whereby plants use energy from the sun to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water

clinical

Recall the "ABCD" methods of nutritional assessment. "Skin and bone appearance" would reflect which form of nutritional status assessment? a. dietary b. biochemical c. anthropometric d. clinical

proteolysis

Special protein cleaving enzymes catalyze protein degradation which releases AAs into "labile amino acid pool" (AAs immediately available for protein synthesis and other purposes)

no appetite suppression via caloric feedback loop in the gut

Sweetness is detected via sweet nerve receptors on our tongues, but with artificial sweeteners, there is no downstream energy (calorie) sensing, thus there are no appetite-suppressing effects of the calories coming into our system. Sweetness decoupled from caloric content offers partial, but not complete, activation of the food reward pathways.

true

TRUE OR FALSE: Consuming a wide variety of berries may help prevent cancer and slow the aging process due to compounds such as, anthocyanins, found in their pigments

true

TRUE OR FALSE: In our "Reinterpretation of Fiber Theory" discussion, it was concluded that isolating fiber from its source (i.e., fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and grains) was a flawed mentality.

true

TRUE OR FALSE: Soluble fiber attracts/dissolves in water and forms a gel, which slows down digestion and thus delays gastric emptying therefore making you feel full for longer.

true

TRUE OR FALSE: despite the neglect of nutrition in medical education, the general public considers physicians to be amount the most trusted sources for nutrition-related information

True

TRUE OR FALSE: like vitamins, minerals cannot be used for energy although many are involved in energy-producing reactions

true

TRUE OR FALSE: macronutrients and micronutrients are classified by how much of them we require from our diets

true

TRUE OR FALSE: the national health and nutrition examination survey is an epidemiological study that assesses U.S. diet and health trends.

true

TRUE OR FALSE: the overall rise in temperature in a bomb calorimeter represents the amount of energy originally found in the food sample that was ignited

What would happen if all nutrients in all the food that you eat were 100% bioavailable?

The body takes in the nutrients it needs from the food we eat. If all the food we ate was 100% bioavailable, our body would be consuming too much and become toxic or "overdose" on those essential nutrients.

lipolysis

The breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.

Glycemic response

The change in blood glucose following the ingestion of a specific food.

nitrogen balance

The condition in which protein intake equals protein loss by the body.

alpha

The end of a fatty acid, which consists of a carboxylic acid (-COOH) group.

omega

The end of a fatty acid, which consists of a methyl (-CH3) group.

Systemic circulation

The flow of blood between the heart and the lung is known as what type of circulation?

B. ratio of grams of carbohydrate to grams of dietary fiber, with the goal being 5 to 1 (or less)

The idea of the "5:1 rule" came about when the accompanying editorial to a 2013 meta-analysis on fiber and heart disease implored doctors to enthusiastically and skillfully recommend that their patients consume more dietary fiber. What is the 5:1 rule? A. ratio of grams of dietary fiber to grams of carbohydrate, with the goal being 5 to 1 (or less) B. ratio of grams of carbohydrate to grams of dietary fiber, with the goal being 5 to 1 (or less) C. ratio of grams of dietary fiber to grams of sugars (minus carbohydrates), with the goal being 5 to 1 (or less) D. ratio of grams of sugars to grams of dietary fiber, with the goal being 5 to 1 (or more)

lipogenesis

The metabolic processes that result in fatty acid and, ultimately, triglyceride synthesis.

amino group

The nitrogen-containing component of an amino acid.

r- group

The portion of an amino acid's structure that distinguishes it from other amino acids.

translation

The process whereby amino acids are linked together via peptide bonds on ribosomes, using mRNA and tRNA.

Emulsification

The process whereby large lipid globules are broken down and stabilized into smaller lipid droplets

transcription

The process whereby mRNA is made using DNA as a template.

food

The term "nutrition" refers to the science of how living organisms obtain and use __________ to support all the processes required for their existence a. clorophyll b. food c. sunlight d. protien e. nutrients

cell signaling

The first step in protein synthesis, in which the cell receives a signal to produce a protein. Note that this term is also used for a variety of other processes (aside from protein synthesis) within the cell.

Nephrons that function as filtration and reabsorption units.

What is the functional unit of the kidney called?

allow for the exchange of minerals between blood and tissue.

What is the primary function of the capillaries?

d. Consuming inadequate vitamin C results in a deficiency.

Which of the following statements is an example of a "simple" relationship? a. Avoiding exercise can reduce one's life expectancy. b. Eating organic foods may improve nutritional status. c. Consuming inadequate calcium may result in osteoporosis. d. Consuming inadequate vitamin C results in a deficiency. e. Exercise and genetics can modify the association between fat intake and heart disease.

fat

_____ (fat/water/in)- soluble nutrients are circulated in the lymph.

protein turnover

a cycle involving protein synthesis and degradation in the body

Farmington heart study

a large epidemiological study designed to assess the relationship between lifestyle factors and risk for heart disease

Framingham Heart Study

a large-scale, epidemiological study initiated in the 1940s to investigate lifestyle choices and heart health.

triglyceride

a lipid composed of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids

diglyceride

a lipid made of a glycerol molecule bonded by 2 fatty acids

monoglyceride

a lipid made of a glycerol molecule bonded to a single fatty acid.

nutrient

a substance in foods used by the body to serve one or more of the following purposes: provide a source of energy, provide structure, & regulate chemical reactions in the body.

brush border

absorptive surface of the small intestine

elongation

adding carbons

desaturation

adding double bonds

lymph

aids in the circulation of dietary fat away from the GI tract.

denaturing agents

alter a proteins shape and function

polysaturated fats

an essential fat that we must get from food because our bodies cannot produce it and lowers the LDL(bad cholesterol)

resistant starch

any starch-derived material that is not digested and absorbed in the upper digestive tract and passes through the large bowel.

Fructose

appears to be the sugar that produces the lowest glycemic index-to-sweetness ratio while still bringing in calories capable of turning off the brain's hunger centers.

Estimated energy requirements(EERs) DEFINITION

are average intakes needed to maintain weight in a healthy person of a particular; age, sex, weight, height

Carcinogens

are substances that help facilitate the development of cancerous cells

Gastric phase

arrival of food in the mouth

stomach

as it enters the (mouth, esophagus, stomach) the mashed sandwich mixed with the gastric juices.

Food labels

assist in identifying nutrients and nonnutrients in food.

b. infectious, chronic

at the turn of the 20 century, ___________ diseases were the leading cause of death rather than ___________ ones which are now the leading cause of death in the modern world a. chronic, infectious b. infectious, chronic

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

backflow of stomach acid is the cause of this condition; treatments include: proton pump inhibitors, histamine receptor blockers, antacids, and in some cases, surgical interventions

cancer

begins as an abnormal cell that multiplies out of control

Retroperitoneal

behind the kidneys

liver

bile is reabsorbed through the ileum and returned to the a. liver b. gallbladder c. appendix d. small intestine

digestion

both a physical process & a chemical process by which food is broken down into soluble components

glycolysis

breakdown of glucose

glycogenolysis

breakdown of liver glycogen

trans fat

by-product od processing healthier fats to give them a longer shelf life. raises youe bad cholesterol and lowers your good cholesterol.

energy

capacity of a physical system to do work

Monosaccharides

carb consisting of a single sugar

Disaccharide

carb consisting of two monosaccharides bonded together

Oligosaccharides

carb made of relatively few (3 to 10) monosaccharides.

hemorroids

caused by the weakening of cushions of tissue in the lower rectum, this causes the skin to inflate like a tiny balloon and fill with blood.

steps of protein synthesis

cell signaling communicates the need to synthesize a protein to the nucleus and can be up-regulated or down-regulated. transcription of a gene in the nucleus results in the synthesis of a strand of mRNA. the mRNA leaves the nucleus to bind to ribosomes in the cytoplasm. tRNA translates the info carried by the mRNA by delivering amino acids in the correct sequence to the ribosome resulting in the production of a polypeptide strand.

gangliosides

ceramide* linked to an oligosaccharide

cerebrosides

ceramide* linked to a monosaccharide unit

peptide bond

chemical bond joining amino acids

Polysaccharides

complex carb made up of many monosaccharides

ketosis

condition resulting from excessive ketones in the blood

monosaturated fats

considered a healthy fat, lowers the LDL (bad cholesterol) and maintains good cholesterol

organic compounds

contain carbon-to-carbon bonds or carbon-to-hydrogen bonds; examples of which include: carbs, proteins, lipids, vitamins

Protein

contains 4 kcals per gram.

pyloric spincter

controls the movement of food from the stomach to the duodenum

mechanoreceptors

detect stretching and/or distension in the walls of the GI tract

Soluble fiber

dissolves in H2O; attracts H2O and forms a gel, which slows down digestion

Insoluble fiber

does not dissolve in water; it is considered "gut-healthy" because it adds bulk to the diet and it helps prevent constipation via its laxative effect - speeding up the passage of food and waste through gut.

interplay between insulin and glucagon

ensures that cells throughout the body and especially in the brain have a steady supply of blood sugar

what happens when protein and energy needs have been met?

excess amino acids are converted into fatty acids and stores in adipose tissue

Visceral

fat around our viscera

bile, lymphatic

fat from the peanut butter and sesame seeds are emulsified along with the watery fluids, by _________(bicarbonate, bile, chyme). now the intestinal lipases can begin to break down the fat into smaller fragments that can be absorbed through the small intestine wall and into the ______________(integumentary, lymphatic, nervous) system.

saturated fatty acid STRUCTURE

fatty acid that contains only carbon-carbon single bonds in its backbone.

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

federally funded epidemiologic study to assess trends in diet and health in the U.S populations

functional

foods such as soy milk and tomatoes that when consumed do more to promote health than simply helping the body meet its basic nutritional needs

EAR or Estimated Average Requirement

if 1000 healthy 40-year-old men eat a daily diet supplying their _______________ of iron, then 500 of them, on average, will need to take supplemental iron to meet their physiological requirements.

a. fat

if Max has his gallbladder removed, he could experience some problems digesting _____. a. fat b. carbohydrate c. fiber d. vitamin C e. bile

conditionally essential

if a toddlers only source of a nutrient is from food but an adult can make the nutrient in an amount sufficient to meat his needs, the nutrient is considered to be

200 mg/dL

if all Americans kept their cholesterol below _________ as recommended by the American heart association millions would develop coronary artery disease.

Le Chatlier's principle

if there's a change to the equilibrium of a system, the system will counter that change in order to bring itself back into equilibrium

celiac disease

immune- medicated condition triggered by dietary protein present in wheat, rye and barley genetically susceptible persons.

reductionism, corrosive

in the Churchill and Churchill editorial, it is noted that the field of nutrition often can be more about marketing profitable products than educating people about the fundamentals of health and wellness. A key component of commercialization is ___________________ (reductionism/ deductionism/ compartmentalism) with regards to creating small, marketable units out of medical services, health products and nutritional components. This force is not only cheap, but its ___________________ (comparable, corrosive) to a more holistic concept of health.

this lowers blood glucose

in the liver insulin promotes the formation of glycogen

diverticulitis

inflamed, bulging pouches commonly found in the lower portion of the large intestine, can be acute or chronic; treatment is aimed at decreasing pressure in the bowel.

this lowers blood glucose

insulin enables insulin-dependent glucose transporters to take up glucose from the blood into tissue cells such as muscle and adipose

AIs or Adequate Intakes

intake levels of sodium that appear to support adequate nutritional status in healthy populations, known as the _______________ for sodium, have been established.

Acute inflammation

is an immediate and necessary part of the healing process. Left unchecked, or further intensified, inflammation can prolong healing time from injuries or sickness and also increase soreness and swelling, slowly recovery between workouts and competitions.

Lactose intolerance

is common. Inability to digest the milk sugar lactose; caused by a lack of the enzyme lactase.

simple relationship

is one that is between two factors and is not influenced or modified by another factor.

fiber

is only naturally found in plants; there is no fiber in meat, dairy or eggs, and little or no fiber in non-fortified junk food.

what is the goal of triglyceride digestion

is to cleave two of the fatty acids from the glycerol backbone.

biochemical measurements

laboratory analysis of biological samples, such as blood and urine, used in nutritional assessment

Lactase persistence

lactase is the enzyme that breaks down lactose. The older we get the less dependent we begin to stop making lactase and needing breast milk from our mothers. A mutation for survival.

Gastroesophageal sphincter

located between the esophagus and the stomach, relaxes briefly to allow food to enter the stomach.

ulcerative colitis

long-lasting inflammation and ulcers in the digestive tract; symptoms range from mild to severe and may change overtime; affected individuals remain well for a long time, while others have frequent flare-ups; the goal of treatment is to minimize inflammation in order to decrease the frequency and likelihood of flare ups

hypoglycemia

low blood sugar

circulatory system

made up of veins, arteries and lymphatic vessels and delivers nutrients and oxygen and aids the body in elimination of cellular waste products

mad hatter's disease

mercury poisoning

segmentation

mixes and slowly moves food through the GI tract. Circular muscles contract and relax creating a chopping motion.

Glucose

most important molecule for humans. Can be a stand alone or build up larger molecules using glucose as a building block.

conditionally essential definition

normally nonessential nutrient that, under certain circumstances, becomes essential

Crohn's disease

not well understood/ no known definitive cause for why the body mounts to an immune response that leads to chronic, destructive inflammation in the gut; while there is no known cure, medications such as steroids and immunosuppressants are used to slow the progression.

epidemiological studies

observation suggest that one factor is correlated or associated with another factor, correlational relationships only.

Chronic inflammation

often brings with the same cellular response but shifts in nature when the immune system fails to heal the injury effectively, eliminate the foreign invaders, or continues to respond to a threat that no longer exists. Once it reaches this stage, inflammation often brings damaging healthy tissues, including muscles and joints.

water

once the nutrients cross the basolateral membrane, they are circulated away from the intestine by either blood or lymph. ________ (water, fat/in) soluble nutrients are circulated in blood.

inactivates, cease

once the sandwich is in the stomach the acid mixes with gastric juices which ___________________ (activates, inactivates, hydrolyzes) the salivary enzyme, causing digestion to ____________(accelerate, cease)

reverse causation

people aren't overweight because they drink diet soda; they drink diet soda because they're overweight.

organic foods

produced, grown, and harvested without the use of most conventional pesticides, fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients, bioengineering, or ionizing radiation.

liver

produces bile, an important secretion needed for lipid digestion

what happens when additional sources of energy are needed?

protein from muscle is broken down and the amino acids are released into the blood

the ideal nutrition intervention study

randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

Acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges(AMDRs) DEFINITION

ranges of intakes for each class of energy source that are associated with reduced risk of chronic disease while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients.

Recommended dietary allowances(RDA) DEFINITION

recommended goals for individuals

salivary glands

release a mixture of water, mucus, and enzymes

Pancreas

releases pancreatic juice that neutralizes chyme (the acidic gastric juice)and contains enzymes needed for carbohydrate, protein, and lipid digestion

refining

removes some of a food's nutrient content.

how is nutrition research conducted?

scientific method 1. make an observation 2. propose a hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis

continue, duct, portal vien

startch digestion will _________ (cease/ continue) when the pancreas sends pancreatic enzymes to the small intestine via the pancreatic portal ____________(vien ,duct, spinchter). Enzymes on the surfaces of the small intestine complete the process of breaking down starch into small fragments that can be absorbed through the intestinal walls and into the hepatic __________ (artery/ portal) _______________(vien/duct)

life expectancy

statistical prediction of years of life remaining for a person at a particular age.

gallbladder

stores and releases bile, needed for lipid digestion

sphincters

structures that regulate the flow of material through the GI tract.

gluconeogenesis

synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources

ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination or egestion

the 4 basic functions of the gastrointestinal tract in all animals

fiber

the _____ covering on the sesame seeds is crushed by the teeth which exposes the nutrients inside to the upcoming digestive enzymes

fat, little

the _________(carb, fat, protein) from the peanut butter forms a separate layer on the tip of the watery mixture. sugar from the banana requires so _________( little/much) digestion as it moved through the small intestine, that it immediately begins to traverse cells upon contact

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

the accessory organs are organs that participate in digestion but are not a part of the GI tract and include the___

toxicity

the body absorbs only the amount of iron it needs then excretes the rest in feces. the body does this to protect ourselves from

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

the body's cells transfer the chemical energy from carbs, proteins, and lipids in food into_______ a. adenosine triphosphate (ATP) b. nucleic acids c. kilocalories d. absorptive calories

nitrates

the cancer causing agents found in cured meat like bacon.

digestive enzymes

the chemicals that break large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble molecules

Bioavailability

the extent to which a nutrient or food component is absorbed is known as______ which can be affected by medications, dietary components present and physiological conditions.

mortality

the fiber hypothesis was tested when 2 groups of women ate the exact same amount of fiber per day- but one group got their giber through whole grain and the other group got it from refined grains. if it was just the fiber that mattered both groups of women should have lived similarly long lives because they ate the same amount of fiber each day. But the whole grain group lived longer than the refined grain group, as indicated by a lower ________ (mortality, morbidity) rate in the whole-grain group.

nutritional status

the health of a person as it relates to how well his or her diet meets that person's individual nutrient requirements.

fructose

the healthiest sweetener

essential nutrients

the human body either cannot make it at all or cannot make them in adequate amounts therefore it must be consumed in the diet.

may confer

the implication that whole foods __________ (might not confer, dont confer, may confer) important heath benefits beyond just the fiber itself. this is also why fiber in the form of supplements ___________ (would not, would) be expected to offer the same benefit.

chronic disease

the leading cause of death

incidence

the number of people who are newly diagnosed with a disease in a given period of time is referred to as the ______ of that disease.

liver

the organ that first gets access to the nutrient-rich blood leaving the small intestine is________. once stored there, it can undergo metabolic changes or be released into the systematic circulation which in turn delivers nutrients to other parts of the body.

cephalic

the phase of digestion occurring when you see an ad for your favorite food place and your stomach begins to growl.

peristalsisq

the vigorous propulsion of food throughout the tract

irritable bowel syndrome

there are a few different types of this condition categorized as: with constipation, with diarrhea, with both or "mixed" and alternating symptoms: this condition with constipation is characterized by stomach discomfort, bloating, and abnormally infrequent bowel movements: when characterized by diarrhea, it comes with stomach discomfort and an urgent need to go to the bathroom

morbidity rates

these are used to measure and asses illness over a span of time

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) DEFINITION

they reflect a populations average need. The amount of a nutrient that meets the physiological requirements of half the healthy population of similar individuals.

microvilli

trap nutrients and pulls them toward the enterocytes

lactose, sucrose, maltose

types of disaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

types of monosaccharides

raffinose and stachyose

types of oligosaccharides

glycogen, starch, dietary fiber

types of polysaccharides

subcutaneous

under the skin

pre, excreted

vitamins and minerals are absorbed. in the large intestine, some fibers from the seeds, bread, peanut butter, and banana are consumed by the bacteria living there; these fibers act as ________ (pre, post, anti) biotics here, or "food" for the good bacteria living there. some fat, cholesterol, and minerals bind to fiber and are _______________ (absorbed, combusted, excreated)

50-10%

what % of all cancer cases are linked to genetics?

90-95%

what % of cancers stem from environmental and lifestyle factors and are potentially preventable

amino group, central carbon, and carboxylic acid

what 3 components are the same for all amino acids?

amino acids

what are proteins made up of?

anthropometry, biochemical measurements, clinical assessments, and dietary assessment

what are the "ABCD" methods of nutritional assesment?

levels increase stimulating the release of insulin from the pancreas

what happens to blood glucose after a meal?

0.8g of protein per kg body weight

what is the RDA for protein?

they are closely linked

what is the relationship between metabolism and immune function?

pancrease increases its release of insulin

what is the response to elevated blood glucose levels?

pancreas increases its release of glucagon

what is the response to low blood glucose levels?

the structure of the R group

what makes one amino acid different from another?

insulin

what promotes energy storage?

glucagon

what promotes mobilization of stored energy?

Alpha (a)

what releases glucagon disrupting homeostasis declining blood glucose

Beta (B) cells

what releases insulin disrupting homeostasis and raises blood glucose

nitrogen balance

when protein loss equals protein intake measure of all protien status

small intestine

where does absorption occur

at the mouth where salivary glands such as amylase start to break down the starch from the bread and peanut butter

where does the digestion of carbohydrates begin?

accessory organs

which participate in digestion but are not part of the GI tract, include the salivary glands, pancreas, and biliary system (liver and gallbladder).

it has gained a hydrogen atom

why is the nitrogen in the R group positively charged?

it has lost the hydrogen atom

why is the oxygen negatively charged in the R group?

carbohydrate DEFINITION

Organic compound made of varying numbers of monosaccharides.

emulsification of lipids by bile

-begins with the arrival of lipids into the small intestine This stimulates the release of the enteric hormone cholecystokinin (CCK), which in turn signals the gallbladder to contract and release bile. -When bile acids and phospholipids are released into the duodenum, their hydrophobic portions are drawn toward the lipid globules, while their hydrophilic portions pull in the opposite direction, toward the surrounding water. -These opposing forces disperse the large lipid globules into smaller droplets, a process called emulsification. -Emulsification makes the ester linkages more accessible to the digestive enzymes in the small intestine. -Bile acids and phospholipids then stay with the newly formed drop-lets, which are now referred to as micelles. Because they are coated with amphipathic substances, micelles do not gel together to reform larger lipid globules.

Glycolipids

-have CHO component in structure -occur in medullary sheaths of nerves & in brain tissue - mainly structural; little contribution as energy source

Therapeutic inhibition of fat absorption: Orlistat (pills) & Olestra (added to foods)

-interferes w/ digestion & absorption of dietary fat - 200kcal/day deficit - inhibits pancreatic lipase - FDA-approved •OTC form: Alli • Rx form: Xenical

how are lipids digested?

-they must be digested, absorbed, and circulated away from the small intestine.

Triglyceride digestion continues in your stomach

-when the food enters your stomach, stimulating the release of the hormone gastrin from specialized cells found in the gastric pits. -Gastric circulates in the blood where it quickly stimulates the release of the enzyme gastric lipase, also produced in the stomach cells. Gastric lipase is a component of "gastric juices" and continues where lingual lipase left off breaking the bonds that attach fatty acids to glycerol molecules.

what are carbohydrates made of?

1 oxygen, two hydrogen.

How a bomb calorimeter works

1. food is placed in a container that is then filled with oxygen 2. the food sample is ignited 3. the rise in the water temperature reflects the amount of energy originally found in the food. a 1 degree (*C) change in the temperature of 1 gram of water represents 1 calorie of energy

E. All of these

A structure/function claim a. describes the role of a substance intended to maintain the structure or function of the body. B. does not require pre-approval by FDA. C.may describe the role of a nutrient, supplement or dietary ingredient intended to affect the normal structure or function of the human body, for example, "calcium builds strong bones." D.may characterize the means by which a nutrient or dietary ingredient acts to maintain such structure or function, for example, "fiber maintains bowel regularity," or "antioxidants maintain cell integrity." E.All of these F. All of these, except B

zoonutrient

A substance found in animal foods and thought to benefit human health above and beyond the provision of essential nutrients and energy.

nutrient

A substance in foods used by the body for energy, maintenance of body structures, or regulation of chemical processes.

inorganic compound

A substance that does not contain carbon-carbon bonds or carbon-hydrogen bonds.

phospholipid

A type of lipid composed of a glycerol bonded to two fatty acids and a polar head group.

fatty acid

A type of lipid consisting of a chain of carbons with a methyl (-CH3) group on one end and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) on the other can take several forms and can have different chain lengths

fat

A type of lipid that is solid at room temperature.

sterol

A type of lipid with a distinctive multi-ring structure; a common example is cholesterol.

a. half of the participants get something that looks like the additional vitamin A but isn't

Maria has been asked to be a subject in a study to determine if additional vitamin A will promote the growth of healthy, strong fingernails. since she wants the study to be as close to the "ideal" nutrition intervention study as possible she will want to be sure that: a. half of the participants get something that looks like the additional vitamin A but isn't b. only the researchers know which participants receive vitamin A c. she trims her nails prior to the start of the study d. all the participants are between 18-25 years of age e. her chances of getting vitamin A are better than those of anyone else

Anthropometric measurements

Measurements or estimates of physical aspects of the body such as height, weight, circumferences, and body composition.

Ketogenesis

Metabolic pathway that leads to the production of ketones.

a. Both overnutrition and undernutrition have, suppress, increased

Metabolism and immunity are closely linked. ____________________ implications for immune function. Starvation and malnutrition can _______ immune function and increase susceptibility to infections. Obesity is associated with a state of aberrant immune activity and _______ risk for associated inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, airway inflammation, and fatty liver disease. Thus, optimal nutritional and metabolic homeostasis is an important part of appropriate immune function and good health. a. Both overnutrition and undernutrition have, suppress, increased b. Overnutrition (but not undernutrition) has, suppress, decreased c. Both overnutrition and undernutrition have, enhance, increased d. Undernutrition (but not overnutrition) has, suppress, decreased e. Both overnutrition and undernutrition have, enhance, increased

RDA or Recommended Dietary Allowance

Nearly all (97%) healthy pregnant women who consume their _______________ of vitamin B6 each day will obtain enough of this nutrient for themselves and their babies.

protein

Nitrogen-containing macronutrient made from amino acids.

amino acid

Nutrient composed of a central carbon bonded to an amino group, carboxylic acid group, and a side-chain group (R-group).

through the lymphatic system and then to the liver.

Once absorbed, where do the fat- soluble nutrients go?

liver

Once absorbed, where do the water- soluble nutrients go?

protein digestion

gastric cells release gastrin which enters the blood releasing gastric juices. hydrochloric acid in gastric juices denatures proteins and converts pepsinogen to pepsin and begins to digest proteins by hydrolyzing peptide bonds. partially digested proteins enter the small intestine and cause release of the hormones secretin and CCK secretin stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate into the intestine and neutralize chyme. CCK stimulates the pancreas to release proenzymes into small intestine pancreatic proenzymes are converted to active enzymes in the small intestine and turn into tripeptides, dipeptides, and free amino acids. intestinal enzymes in the lumen of the small intestine and within mucosal cells complete it.

this raises blood glucose

glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and releases of glucose into the blood.

gallstones

hard pebble/stones made up of cholesterol or bilirubin

phytochemicals

health-promoting substances found in plants

insulin and glucagon via negative feedback system

how are blood glucose levels regulated?

9

how many amino acids are essential?

11

how many amino acids are nonessential?

20

how many amino acids does the body require?

50% more protein than the average person to help them recover and perform their best

how much protein do endurance athletes require?

nonessential nutrients

human body can make it in sufficient amounts when needed.

a cis fatty acid

hydrogens are on the same side of the fatty acid backbone