Lab 5: Respiratory System (Lab Manual: Activities 25-26)

25.5: Q: What are the three generations of conducting airways?

25.5: Q: Right and left primary (main) bronchi, secondary (lobar) bronchi, tertiary (segmental) bronchi

25.6: Q: Describe the Heimlich maneuver.

25.6: A: Abdomen is compressed to elevate the diaphragm, with enough force, the pressure generated may remove the object

25.5: Q: Identify the lobes and fissures of the left lung.

25.5: A: Lobes: superior, inferior. Fissure: oblique

25.5: Q: Identify the lobes and fissures of the right lung.

25.5: A: Lobes: superior, middle, inferior. Fissures: oblique, horizontal

25.5: Q: Respiratory airways include what types of airways?

25.5: A: Respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveolar sac, alveoli

25.5: Q: How many bronchopulmonary segments are in the right lung?

25.5: A: Ten

25.5: Q: What is the position of the lungs in relation to the heart?

25.5: A: The heart is centrally located within the mediastinum, the lungs are positioned on either side of the heart

25.5: Q: Why do you think there are more respiratory airways than conducting airways?

25.5: A: The lung's purpose is gas exchange, which does not occur in the conducting airways. More of the lung is composed of respiratory airways to maximize the space involved in gas exchange

25.5: Q: How many secondary bronchi are found in the right lung?

25.5: A: Three

25.5: Q: How many secondary bronchi are found in the left lung?

25.5: A: Two

25.5: Q: Describe the terminal bronchioles

25.5: A: less than 0.5 mm (diameter), end of the conducting airways

25.6: Q: What is lysozyme?

25.6: A: An enzyme that kills harmful bacteria that enter the respiratory tract

25.6: Q: Describe a tracheostomy.

25.6: A: An incision is made in the anterior wall of the trachea to insert a tube to allow air to enter into the lungs

25.2: Q: Describe where the laryngopharynx extends from.

25.2: A: Extends from the epiglottis to the cricoid cartilage

25.2: Q: Describe where the oropharynx extends from.

25.2: A: Extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis

25.2: Q: What is the opening between the vocal cords called?

25.2: A: Glottis

25.2: Q: Where is the cricoid cartilage positioned in relation to the larynx?

25.2: A: Inferior border of the larynx

25.2: Q: What are the three pharyngeal regions?

25.2: A: Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

25.2: Q: Are the vestibular ligaments involved in sound production?

25.2: A: No

25.2: Q: Describe the oropharynx's position in relation to the oral cavity.

25.2: A: Posterior to the oral cavity

25.2: Q: Where is the epiglottis and what is its purpose when you swallow?

25.2: A: Projects superiorly so the entrance to the larynx remains open, the epiglottis bends posteriorly to cover the laryngeal opening to prevent food from going down into the lungs

25.2: Q: What is the larynx's function?

25.2: A: Provides passageway for air to enter, contains the vocal cords (sound production)

25.1: Q: What is the nasal septum?

25.1: A: Bony and cartilaginous partition that divides the nasal cavity into right and left halves.

25.1: Q: What is the nose supported by?

25.1: A: Cartilage, bone, skin

25.1: Q: What is the bony structure that forms the roof of the nasal cavity?

25.1: A: Cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone

25.1: Q: The superior and middle conchae are parts of what bone?

25.1: A: Ethmoid bone

25.1: Q: What is the function of the internal hairs that line the passageways of the nasal cavity?

25.1: A: Filtrates small particles in the air, cleanses the air

25.1: Q: Superiorly, what forms the nasal bridge?

25.1: A: Frontal bone, two nasal bones

25.1: Q: What is the paranasal sinus in the frontal bone?

25.1: A: Frontal sinus

25.1: Q: What does the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid form?

25.1: A: Larger superior portion of the bony nasal septum

25.1: Q: What are the two bones that form the hard palate?

25.1: A: Maxilla and palatine

25.1: Q: Describe sinusitis.

25.1: A: Mucus will accumulate in the sinuses if drainage from the paranasal sinuses is blocked due to infection-induced inflammation.

25.1: Q: What is the open space posterior to the nose?

25.1: A: Nasal cavity

25.1: Q: What has respiratory mucosa?

25.1: A: Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, large conducting airways

25.1: Q: What has stratified squamous epithelium?

25.1: A: Oropharynx, laryngopharynx

25.1: Q: What has simple squamous epithelium?

25.1: A: Respiratory airways

25.1: Q: What has simple cuboidal epithelium?

25.1: A: Small conducting airways

25.1: Q: What is the bone that forms the posterior wall of the nasal cavity?

25.1: A: Sphenoid bone

25.1: Q: What other skill bones besides the frontal bone that contain paranasal sinuses?

25.1: A: Sphenoid, maxilla, ethmoid

25.1: Q: What are the three bony shelves along the lateral wall of the nasal cavity?

25.1: A: Superior concha, middle concha, inferior concha

25.1: Q: What are the three meatuses inferior to each concha?

25.1: A: Superior meatus, middle meatus, inferior meatus

25.1: Q: What function do the nasal cartilages have?

25.1: A: Support the shape of the nose

25.1: Q: Why does the soft palate elevate and uvula close off the posterior entrance of the nasal cavity during swallowing?

25.1: A: These actions block the nasal cavity so that food does not go up into it but is, instead, directed downward into the esophagus

25.1: Q: What is the smaller inferior portion of the bony nasal septum?

25.1: A: Vomer

25.2: Q: Describe the larynx's anatomical relationship with the laryngopharynx.

25.2: A: Anterior to laryngopharynx

25.2: Q: Where is the thyroid cartilage positioned in relation to the larynx?

25.2: A: Anterior to the larynx

25.2: Q: What are the three pairs of small cartilages located along the posterior and lateral walls of the larynx?

25.2: A: Arytenoid cartilages, corniculate cartilages, cuneiform cartilages

25.2: Q: Where are the vertebral folds and the vocal folds attached to?

25.2: A: Attached to the thyroid cartilage inside the larynx anteriorly and the arytenoid cartilages posteriorly

25.2: Q: What is the passageway's entrance found along the wall of the naropharynx?

25.2: A: Auditory (Eustachian) tube

25.2: Q: Where is the pharynx's location and what is its function?

25.2: A: Cavity posterior to nasal and oral cavities. It serves as a passageway for air to the larynx and food to the esophagus

25.2: Q: How is sound produced?

25.2: A: Sound is produced when air travels through the glottis, vibrating the vocal cords

25.2: Q: Describe the naropharynx's location.

25.2: A: Stretches from the back of the nasal cavity to the soft palate

25.2: Q: Where is the hyoid bone positioned in relation to the larynx?

25.2: A: Superior to the larynx

25.2: Q: Describe the larynx's anatomical relationship with the trachea.

25.2: A: Superior to the trachea

25.2: Q: Which of the pharynx serves as a passageway for air only?

25.2: A: The nasopharynx conducts only air because it is superior to the oral cavity, were food enters

25.2: Q: Explain why the louder the sounds produced, the cords are widely separated and the softer the sounds produced, the cords are separated slightly

25.2: A: The wider apart the vocal cords are, the greater the volume of air that can be forcefully expelled over them, creating more vibrations of the cords and thus more sound.

25.2: Q: How are soft sounds (whispering) produced?

25.2: A: They're produced when the cords are separated slightly

25.2: Q: How are loud sounds (yelling) produced?

25.2: A: They're produced when the cords are widely separated

25.2: Q: How are sounds amplified?

25.2: A: Through the rotational movements of the arytenoid cartilages, which open and close the glottis

25.3: Q: How many cartilaginous C-shaped rings are there?

25.3: A: 20

25.3: Q: At what range of the vertebra is the trachea?

25.3: A: C6 to T5 where it divides to form the right and left primary bronchi

25.3: Q: What is the last cartilaginous ring where the trachea divides?

25.3: A: Carina

25.3: Q: What is the trachea and what is its function?

25.3: A: It's the windpipe, it delivers air to the bronchial tree.

25.3: Q: Why is cartilage missing along the posterior wall of the trachea?

25.3: A: The cartilage is missing from the posterior wall of the trachea because it lies anterior o the esophagus, which must be able to expand when food is swallowed

25.3: Q: Along the posterior tracheal surface, identify the band of smooth muscle.

25.3: A: Trachealis muscle

25.4: Q: Inferior to the cricoid cartilage is what?

25.4: A: 1st cartilaginous ring of the trachea

25.4: Q: Inferior to the cricothyroid ligament is what?

25.4: A: Cricoid cartilage

25.4: Q: What is the soft tissue gap that is located inferiorly to the laryngeal prominence

25.4: A: Cricothyroid ligament

25.4: Q: Superior to the laryngeal prominence is what bone?

25.4: A: Hyoid bone

25.4: Q: What is inferior to the mandible and is part of the thyroid cartilage?

25.4: A: Laryngeal prominence

25.4: Q: Explain why the surface position of the laryngeal prominence is an important landmark for identifying other respiratory structures in the neck.

25.4: A: The laryngeal prominence marks the position of the thyroid cartilage, behind which are the vocal cords. Above the prominence is the hyoid bone, and below it is the thyroid gland.

25.4: Q: The laryngeal prominence is larger in males than in females, why is there a difference?

25.4: A: The thyroid cartilages are larger and join together at a more acute angle, making the male laryngeal prominence more prominent

25.5: Q: Describe the bronchioles.

25.5: A: 1 mm (diameter), lack cartilage

25.5: Q: Describe the small bronchi.

25.5: A: 1-5 mm (diameter), have small cartilage plates in their walls

25.5: Q: Where is the apex of the lung located? The apex of the lung extends into what region of the body?

25.5: A: Along the superior margin. The apex extends into the neck.

25.5: Q: What is the bronchial tree?

25.5: A: Branching of the airways in the lungs. It begins where the trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi and ends with the alveoli.

25.5: Q: What is along the medial margin of the left lung?

25.5: A: Cardiac notch

25.5: Q: What are the two functional categories of airways that the bronchial tree contains?

25.5: A: Conducting airways and respiratory airways

25.5: Q: What do the tertiary (segmental) bronchi do?

25.5: A: Deliver air to bronchopulmonary segments

25.5: Q: What is the base of each lung also called?

25.5: A: Diaphragmatic surface

25.5: Q: What do the conducting airways do?

25.5: A: Distribute air to a particular region of the lung

25.5: Q: What is the pleural membrane?

25.5: A: Double serous membrane that lines the lungs

25.5: Q: How many bronchopulmonary segments are in the left lung?

25.5: A: Eight to ten

25.5: Q: What is the pleural cavity?

25.5: A: Fluid-filled space between the two pleural membranes

25.5: Q: On the left lung, identify two unique features.

25.5: A: Groove for the aorta, cardiac impression

25.5: Q: What is on the medial surface of each lung? This region serves as an area of entry or exit for structures that compose the root of the lung, what structures make up the root of the lung?

25.5: A: Hilum. Bronchus, pulmonary artery and veins, lymphatics, nerves, bronchial vessels

25.5: Q: What happens in the respiratory airways?

25.5: A: It's where the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs between the lungs and pulmonary capillaries

25.6: Q: Describe what is in respiratory epithelium.

25.6: A: Ciliated columnar cells, goblet cells (mucus-secreting), and tracheal glands

25.6: Q: Describe the submucosa.

25.6: A: Contains mucus secreting glands and numerous blood vessels

25.6: Q: Describe the cartilage that is part of the adventitia.

25.6: A: It's a portion of one of the C-shaped cartilaginous rings.

25.6: Q: Describe what is in cartilage.

25.6: A: Lacunae where chondrocytes are encapsulated inside it

25.6: Q: Identify the contents of the respiratory mucosa of the trachea.

25.6: A: Pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium, lamina propria, submucosa, cartilage, perichondrium

25.6: Q: What is the mucous membrane that lines the trachea and many of the respiratory passageways?

25.6: A: Respiratory mucosa

25.6: Q: Why do you think it is essential to have cartilaginous plates in the tracheal wall?

25.6: A: The cartilage plates help maintain an open airway

25.6: Q: In the trachea, what is deep to the respiratory mucosa?

25.6: A: The submucosa (connective tissue) and the adventitia (contains thick layer of cartilage)

25.6: Q: Describe the lamina propria

25.6: A: Thin layer of connective tissue

25.6: Q: Describe the perichondrium

25.6: A: It is the fibrous connective tissue layer that covers the cartilaginous ring

25.7: Q: When you look at a slide of the lungs, how can you distinguish between a bronchus and a bronchiole?

25.7: A: A bronchus has columnar epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells. It also has cartilaginous plates in the airway wall. A bronchiole is lined by cuboidal or low columnar epithelium, it lacks ciliated cells and goblet cells. The airways are surrounded by smooth muscle, and cartilage plates are absent

25.7: Q: What is the respiratory membrane?

25.7: A: Barrier where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between air in an alveolus and blood in the pulmonary circulation.

25.7: Q: What kind of epithelium are Type II alveolar cells (Type II pneumocytes)? What do they secrete?

25.7: A: Cuboidal. Surfactant.

25.7: Q: Emphysema is a condition characterized by damage to alveolar walls. It can develop as a result of long-term exposure to air pollutants or by cigarette smoking. Explain how emphysema affects gas exchange between the lungs and pulmonary capillaries.

25.7: A: Gas exchange occurs across the wall of the alveoli. The amount of gas that can be exchanged is directly proportional to the amount of healthy alveoli present in a lung. Alveolar walls are damaged with emphysema, and fewer alveoli mean that less gas exchange can occur.

25.7: Q: What is the purpose of surfactant?

25.7: A: It lowers surface tension along the surface of alveoli, prevents air sacs from collapsing

25.7: Q: What are the blood vessels that travel along the walls of the alveoli?

25.7: A: Pulmonary capillaries

25.7: Q: What other respiratory airways can you find in a lung tissue slide?

25.7: A: Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

25.7: Q: What are the three layers of the respiratory membrane?

25.7: A: Squamous type I alveolar cells, basal lamina, and squamous endothelial cells in the pulmonary capillaries

25.7: Q: What are the three names for the cells that line the alveoli?

25.7: A: Type I alveolar cells (Type I pneumocytes or Squamous Type I alveolar cells)

26.1: Q: What do you think would happen if air entered the pleural cavity and weakened the bond formed by the serous fluid?

26.1: A: Air entering the pleural cavity would expand that space, separating the layers of the pleura

26.1: Q: How does air flow?

26.1: A: Air flows from an area of high pressure to low pressure?

26.1: Q: At the end of an exhalation, and just before the next inhalation, the intrapulmonary pressure equals the atmospheric pressure. Explain why air will not move into or out of the lungs at this time.

26.1: A: Air pressure in lungs and outside the body will be at equilibrium, and air moves only where there is a pressure gradient

26.1: Q: What does the pleural cavity contain?

26.1: A: Contains a thin layer of serous fluid that keeps the lungs firmly attached to the thoracic wall

26.1: Q: What does the visceral pleura cover?

26.1: A: Covers the surface of the lungs

26.1: Q: What does the parietal pleura cover?

26.1: A: Covers the wall of the thoracic cavity

26.2: Q: What muscles are involved in inspiration?

26.1: A: Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles

26.1: Q: How does exhalation occur?

26.1: A: If intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, air flows out of the lungs

26.1: Q: How does inhalation occur?

26.1: A: If intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, air flows into lungs

26.1: Q: If the volume of the box decreases, how will the pressure change?

26.1: A: If the volume decreases, the pressure increases

26.1: Q: What is pulmonary ventilation?

26.1: A: Movement of air into and out of lungs

26.1: Q: What is atmospheric pressure?

26.1: A: Pressure gradients in air in atmosphere

26.1: Q: What is intrapulmonary pressure?

26.1: A: Pressure gradients in the air in the airways

26.1: Q: What is Boyle's law?

26.1: A: Pressure of a gas in a closed container at constant temperature, is inversely proportional to its volume

26.1: Q: During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves inferiorly. How does this movement change thoracic volume and pressure? Thoracic volume? Thoracic pressure?

26.1: A: Thoracic volume decreases, thoracic pressure increases

26.1: Q: During exhalation, the thoracic volume decreases. Explain why air flows out of the lungs at this time.

26.1: A: When the thoracic volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases, reversing the pressure gradient and causing air to leave the lungs

26.1: Q: During inhalation, the thoracic volume increases. Explain why air flows into the lungs at this time.

26.1: A: When thoracic volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure decreases to less than the atmospheric pressure and the resultant gradient causes air to move into the lungs

26.1: Q: If the volume of a closed container increases, how will the pressure change?

26.1: A: When volume increases, pressure decreases

26.1: Q: Inhale and feel your ribs elevating and your sternum moving out. How do these movements change thoracic volume and pressure? Thoracic volume? Thoracic pressure?

26.1: Q: Thoracic volume increases, thoracic pressure decreases

26.2: Q: What is normal exhalation?

26.2: A: A passive process that results from elastic recoil of the lungs

26.2: Q: Describe the transverses thoracic muscles.

26.2: A: Anterior group of innermost intercostal muscles

26.2: Q: Describe the serrates anterior

26.2: A: Attached to first eight/nine ribs, then passes posteriorly along ribs cage and connects to the medial border of scapula

26.2: Q: During forced exhalation, contraction of the abdominal muscles increases intraabdominal pressure. Explain how this action helps to force air out of the lungs.

26.2: A: Contracting the muscles of the abdominal wall pushes the liver and other abdominal organs upward, which in turn pushes the diaphragm upward, increasing the pressure within the lungs and forcing air out

26.2: Q: Describe how the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity

26.2: A: Contraction of the diaphragm increases the superior to inferior dimension of the thorax

26.2: Q: Describe how the external intercostal muscles increase the volume of the thoracic cavity

26.2: A: Contraction of the external intercostals causes the ribs to swing out to the side and the sternum to swing out anteriorly

26.2: Q: Describe the pectoralis minor.

26.2: A: Deep to the pectoralis major, passes superiorly and laterally to coracoid process of scapula

26.2: Q: What is elastic recoil?

26.2: A: Elastic fibers recoil when the inspiratory muscles relax. Diaphragm, ribs, sternum return to original positions

26.2: Q: Describe the scalenes

26.2: A: Located in neck, extend from cervical vertebrae to first and second ribs

26.2: Q: Describe the external intercostal muscles

26.2: A: Outermost muscular layers in the intercostal spaces

26.2: Q: Describe the diaphragm

26.2: A: Primary inspiratory muscle, forms partition between thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

26.2: Q: What are the four abdominal muscles that protect the abdominal viscera?

26.2: A: Rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis

26.2: Q: Describe the internal intercostal muscles.

26.2: A: Second layer of muscles in the intercostal spaces, deep to the external intercostal muscles

26.2: Q: What are the muscles involved in forced inhalation?

26.2: A: Sternocleidomastoid, scales, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor

26.2: Q: Describe the sternocleidomastoid

26.2: A: Superficial neck muscle, from mastoid process, travels inferiorly and medially through neck, attaches to clavicle and manubrium

26.2: Q: What common function do the internal intercostal and transverses thoracis muscles perform during forced exhalation?

26.2: A: They pull the ribs back down and inward

26.3: Q: What is tidal volume?

26.3: A: Amount of air that moves into/out of lungs during normal inhalation/exhalation

26.3: Q: A woman has arthritis that affects the articulations of the ribs with the thoracic vertebrae and sternum. How will this condition affect the woman's tidal volume?

26.3: A: Her tidal volume would be reduced because her thoracic volume would not easily expand

26.3: Q: If you know your expiratory reserve volume and expiratory capacity, how can you calculate your tidal volume?

26.3: A: If you subtract your expiratory reserve volume from your expiratory capacity, the volume that remains is your tidal volume

26.3: Q: What is a spirometer?

26.3: A: Instrument used to measure pulmonary volumes

26.3: Q: What is expiratory capacity (EC)?

26.3: A: Maximum volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal inhalation

26.3: Q: What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?

26.3: A: Maximum volume of air that is forcefully exhaled after a normal exhalation

26.3: Q: What is a spirogram?

26.3: A: Series of waves that are recorded as a representation of the individual's respiratory volumes

26.3: Q: What is spirometry?

26.3: A: Technique that measures pulmonary volumes by using a spirometer

26.4: Q: Explain why a person suffering from emphysema or pneumonia will most likely have a reduced vital capacity.

26.4: A: In either disease, the alveoli and bronchioles lose their elasticity, making it more difficult for them to recoil and force air out, so less air is expelled. This decreases with expiratory reserve volume, which in turn reduces the vital capacity

26.4: Q: What is vital capacity? What can it be measured with?

26.4: A: Maximum amount of air person can exhale after a forced inhalation Handheld spirometer

26.4: Q: What is inspiratory reserve volume? What is the equation?

26.4: A: Volume of air forcefully inhaled after a normal inhalation IRV (Inspiratory Reserve Volume) = VC (Vital Capacity) - EC (Expiratory Capacity)

26.5: Q: What is residual volume?

26.5: A: Amount of air that remains in lungs after most forceful expiration

26.5: Q: What is pulmonary fibrosis?

26.5: A: Buildup of fibrous connective tissue along airways

26.5: Q: What is the equation for total lung capacity?

26.5: A: FRC (Functional Residual Capacity) + IC (Inspiratory Capacity)

26.5: Q: What is the equation for inspiratory capacity?

26.5: A: IRV (Inspiratory Reserve Volume) + TV (Tital Volume)

26.5: Q: What is total lung capacity?

26.5: A: Maximum amount of air lungs can hold after a maximum forced inspiration

26.5: Q: What is inspiratory capacity?

26.5: A: Maximum volume of air inhaled after normal exhalation

26.5: Q: What is the equation for functional residual capacity?

26.5: A: RV (Reserve Volume) + ERV (Expiratory Reserve Volume)

26.5: Q: A person with chronic bronchitis will have inflamed and swollen airways that produce too much mucus. One symptom of this disease is having skin with a bluish color.

26.5: A: Swollen airways reduce air flow, and excess mucus will reduce gas exchange. Both of these will lead to hypoxia, which causes the bluish color

26.5: Q: What is functional residential capacity?

26.5: A: Volume of air remaining in lungs after normal expiration

26.6: Q: What is the equation for alveolar ventilation?

26.6: A: (Tidal Volume - Anatomic Dead Space) x Rate

26.6: Q: If your respiratory rate remains constant but your tidal volume declines, how will this change alveolar ventilation? Will the change improve or worsen pulmonary function? Explain.

26.6: A: Although you would be taking the same number of breaths, you would be taking in less air with each breath. Alveolar ventilation would decrease, which would worsen pulmonary function

26.6: Q: What is hypoventilation?

26.6: A: Breathing too shallowly/too slowly, body produces carbon dioxide faster than it can be eliminated

26.6: Q: What is eupnea?

26.6: A: Normal respiratory rhythm during quiet breathing

26.6: Q: What is respiratory rate or breaths per minute?

26.6: A: Number of normal respiratory cycles in 1 minute

26.6: Q: What is hyperventilation?

26.6: A: Overentilating, eliminating carbon dioxide faster than it is being produced

26.6: Q: What is apnea?

26.6: A: Temporary cessation of breathing

26.6: Q: What is respiratory minute volume?

26.6: A: Volume of air moving in and out of the lungs per minute

26.6: Q: What is alveolar ventilation?

26.6: A: Volume of air that enters alveolar airways each minute

26.6: Q: What is the anatomic dead space?

26.6: A: Volume of air that remains in the conducting airways when we inhale and never enters the alveoli

26: Q: What is pulmonary ventilation?

26: A: Breathing, movement of air into and out of lungs

26: Q: What is external respiration?

26: A: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli and blood in pulmonary capillaries

26: Q: What is internal respiration?

26: A: Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood in systemic capillaries and body cells

26: Q: What is gas transport?

26: A: Oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried by blood between lungs and tissues

26: Q: What is Dalton's law?

26: A: Total pressure of gas mixture is equal to partial pressures of individual gases in mixture

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In alveoli a) Is cartilage present of absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Absent b) Squamous c) Absent d) Absent e) Groups of airways that form alveolar sacs

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In alveolar ducts: a) Is the cartilage present or absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Absent b) Squamous c) Absent d) Absent e) Gives rise to alveolar sacs

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In tertiary bronchi: a) Is cartilage present or absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Present b) Columnar c) Present d) Present e) Carries air to the bronchopulmonary segments

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In secondary bronchi a) Is cartilage present or absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Present b) Columnar c) Present d) Present e) Deliver air to lung lobes

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In terminal bronchioles: a) Is cartilage present or absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Absent b) Cuboidal c) Absent d) Absent e) Last generation of conducting airways

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: In primary bronchi: a) Is cartilage present or absent? b) What type of epithelium is it (columnar, cuboidal, squamous)? c) Are ciliated cells present or absent? d) Are mucous cells present or absent? e) What is the function?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: a) Present b) Columnar c) Present d) Present e) Carries air to each lung

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: Ideally, the nasal septum will divide the nasal cavity equally, but it is common for this partition to be slightly off centre. A deviated septum, however, is a condition in which the nasal septum is shifted significantly away from the midline. Explain how this abnormality may cause difficulty in breathing.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: A deviated septum would act like a deflector. The air entering the side into which the septum was diverted would be partially blocked, so less air would enter from that side.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: Explain how autonomic nerves that innervate the smooth muscle layer around bronchioles can influence the volume of air reaching a particular region of the lung.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: Autonomic nerves will control the smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchioles when the muscle contracts, the bronchioles will constrict, reducing airflow.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: Which region(s) of the pharynx is not lined by a respiratory mucosa? Explain why.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: Neither the oropharynx nor the laryngopharynx is lined with a respiratory mucosa because they instead have stratified squamous epithelium, which provides greater protection in the areas where food that might be abrasive will enter.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: The configuration of the conchae and meatuses forms irregular twists and turns along the wall of the nasal cavity. What do you think is the functional advantage of this arrangement?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: The arrangement of the conchae and meatuses cause the inhaled air to swirl against the mucosa, allowing particulate matter to be trapped by the mucosa and the air to be warmed and moistened.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: Regarding the structure of the larynx, what functional advantage is there to having several pieces of cartilage connected by soft tissue, rather than just a large single ring of cartilage?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: The membranous parts allow movement of the different parts of the larynx, such as to close off the glottis and avoid choking, and moving the vocal cords to vary vocalization.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: Identify the similarities and differences in the gross anatomical structure of the left and right lungs.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: The right lung is shorter and wider because it is pushed superiorly by the liver. The right liver has 2 fissures (oblique and horizontal) - giving rise to three lobes (superior, middle, inferior). The left lung has a single oblique fissure giving rise to a superior and inferior lobe. It also has the cardiac impression to accommodate the heart.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: A person who is severely allergic to nuts eats a candy bar without knowing that it contains finely chopped peanuts. Soon after, massive inflammation in her larynx blocks the passage of air to her trachea and lungs. An emergency tracheostomy must be performed. Explain why knowledge of the surface anatomy of the neck will help you to successfully perform this procedure.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: To successfully perform this procedure, you would need to be able to localize the trachea, where you need to cut, while also avoiding the thyroid gland.

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): Q: When a baby is born, why is it important that type II alveolar cells are functioning normally?

Exercise 25 (Review Sheet): A: Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant that reduces the surface tension along the alveolar walls. This helps maintain open airways in the infant's lungs.

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is tidal volume?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Amount of air that is normally inspired or expired

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: During a football game, a running back took a hard hit to the chest and had to leave the game. X-ray and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed two fractured ribs and adjacent soft tissue trauma. The football player told the examining physician that during normal breathing, he experienced pain while inhaling but not while exhaling. Provide an explanation for this difference.

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Inhalation is an active process during which the external intercostal muscles contract and actively move the ribs. However, normal exhalation is a passive process during which the muscles relax and the ribs passively return to their original position. The pain arises when the muscles are actively pulling the ribs.

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What are the muscles of expiration?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Internal intercostal, internal oblique, rectus abdominis

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is inspiratory capacity?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal exhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is vital capacity?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Maximum volume of air that a person can exhale or inhale

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is expiratory reserve volume?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Maximum volume of air that can be expired after a normal exhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is expiratory capacity?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Maximum volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal inhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is total lung capacity?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold after a maximum forced inhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: Which patient has better alveolar ventilation, patient A with 6750 mL/min, or Patient B with 6300 mL/min?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Patient A has better alveolar ventilation. Although they both have the same respiratory minute volume, Patient A's higher tidal volume means that more air is entering per breath and thus more air reaches this patient's alveoli each minute

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: Pleurisy is a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection that causes swelling and inflammation of the pleural membranes. One symptom of pleurisy is sharp chest pain while breathing. What do you think causes this pain.

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Pleurisy can impair the movement of the pleural membranes, resulting in them sticking together or not sliding smoothly when the person breathes, and this result in sharp pain

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What are the muscles of inspiration?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis minor, serratus anterior, external intercostals

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: Explain how the actions of the inspiratory muscles create a pressure gradient that allows air to enter the lungs

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: The muscles of inspiration expand the thorax, in turn increasing the volume of the lungs. This causes the pressure inside the lungs to decrease, creating the pressure gradient that draws air into the lungs

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is functional residual capacity?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal exhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is inspiratory reserve volume?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Volume of air that can be forcefully inspired after a normal inhalation

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): Q: What is residual volume?

Exercise 26 (Review Sheet): A: Volume of air that remains in the lungs after the most forceful exhalation